Review of Related literature

This chapter presents the review of related literature and arguments as to what language should

be used in teaching to enhance learning.

Native Language

Language plays a key role in ones learning. It is very important in teaching-learning process. It is

through language that learners read, comprehend, and effectively interact during teaching-

learning process (Vuzo, 2002). Some students failed to answer questions not because they do not

know the answer, but because they failed to understand the question. It is why some argue that

mother language must be used to maximize students’ performance. It is an obvious yet not

generally recognized truth that learning in a language which is not one’s own provides a double

set of challenges. Not only is there the challenge of learning a new language but also that of

learning new knowledge contained in that language (UNESCO, 2003). It is axiomatic that the

best medium for teaching a child is his mother tongue. Psychologically, it is the system of

meaningful signs that in his mind works automatically for expression and understanding.

Sociologically, it is a means of identification among the members of the community to which he

belongs. Educationally, he learns more quickly through it than through an unfamiliar linguistic

medium (UNESCO,1953).

Brock-Utne discusses the problems in applying English as a language of instruction in a

constructive rather than a destructive way in the classroom. She gives examples of

codeswitching, translation of what is not comprehensible in one language, rote learning,

memorisation and cheating at exams. She claims that the pace of learning a subject matter is

slowed down by the fact that both students and teachers have to go roundabouts to produce

comprehensible input (Ibid). Learners are not always able to understand instructions and as a

result they are not able to perform as they would have done in their mother tongue. (Wolfaardt,

2001). The English language can be an obstacle for many pupils that do not come into contact

with it in a natural way in their environment. If the pupils have problems with understanding the

instruction because of the language, then one cannot say that the education is for all. An extract

from the Language Policy questions the conflict of the child’s educational development in a

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language that is not its own: If primary education is to serve a large number of Namibians who

will need to become better armers, shopkeepers, housewives, and others then the question may

be asked: Can such essential skills be imparted to children in a language with which they are

unfamiliar? Would it not be placing too heavy a burden on children to require them to learn a

language and a set of new concepts simultaneously? Would not cognitive and conceptual

development be better facilitated through the child’s own language or one which is familiar to

him? (Vannestal, 2007)

In a study conducted in public school in Namibia it shows that students struggled in

understanding English. Amanda a teacher in one of the schools that had been observed

expressed: In mother tongue the learners catch up easily and understand easily. The teachers’

explanations are sometimes not so good in English. The observations in her classroom revealed

that an English-only instruction was used except for the Oshiwambo lessons. It was interesting to

see the pupils’ behaviour during the lessons. During the regular content subjects that were held in

English the pupils were very passive. It was mostly the teacher who held the floor; she lectured

about the subject and then posed a question to the learners. The only time when there was actual

interaction between both parts was when they answered her questions (Vannestal, 2007).

English as a medium of instruction

“We are very proud of our city and culture, but we acknowledge that the Italian language is an

entry barrier for overseas students. It’s extremely important, at present you have two choices.

You can either stay isolated in your own country – which is not realistic in a global world. The

other is to open up and be able to work in an international context. Either our university will

understand that or else our country will be isolated.” – Professor Azzone of Politecnico di

Milano.

Language is a direct connection to culture, making English the medium of education would

deteriorate this culture. But the importance of English language acquisition as a stepping stone

for proficiency in other school subjects cannot be over emphasized (Oluwole, 2008). English

being the official language of administration and commerce and the major language of science

(Salama, 2002) makes it very important that many countries are switching from their native

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tongue to English language. Many emphasized that kids should be taught in English at their

young age to developed proficiency.

Despite the unceasing global debates on English as the international lingua frança or as “killer

language” (Coleman, 2006, ), the adoption of English as the medium of instruction has been

sweeping across the higher education landscape worldwide. Years ago, Graddol had already

pointed out that “one of the most significant educational trends world-wide is the teaching of a

growing number of courses in universities through the medium of English” (Chang, 2010) One

may wonder why higher education decision makers still opt for such a policy. Certainly, this

trend of Englishization of higher education is inseparable from Apart from this background

influence, Coleman further listed reasons for the implementation of this policy in Europe:(1)

academic internationalization, (2)student exchanges, (3)teaching and research

materialsavailable3, (4) staff mobility, (5) graduate employability, (6) the market in international

students, (Chang, 2010).

It has also been found that foreign language study “enhances children’s understanding of how

language itself works and their ability to manipulate language in the service of thinking and

problem solving” (Cummins 1981). Several studies indicate that individuals who learn a second

language are more creative and better at solving complex problems than those who do not.

(Bamford & Mizokawa, 1991) Students of foreign languages tend to score higher on

standardized tests. Results from the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) show that students who had

studied a foreign language for 4 or more years outscored other students on the verbal and math

portions of the test (College Board 2003). People who are competent in more than one language

consistently outscore monolinguals on tests of verbal and nonverbal intelligence. (Bruck,

Lambert, Tucker 1974, Hakuta 1986, Weatherford 1986)

Bilingual Education

Children brought up in a bilingual and multicultural environment experience two different types

of language-learning experience: first-language acquisition and second-language acquisition.

First-language acquisition takes place from birth with parents and close family, which Piyade

(1990,) calls the process of mother-tongue learning. The second-language acquisition process is

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different from learning the mother tongue, occurring in situations that the child experiences

outside the home. Using two languages for communication is known as bilingualism (Tu¨rker

2000, 13).Self-esteem is particularly important for children in bilingual and multicultural

societies as it contributes to respect and consideration for both the home and the host society.

Self-esteem and valuing the home culture helps children develop self confidence and feelings of

inclusion in the host society. In a bicultural situation the social values of home and school may

conflict in areas such as gender roles, the need for self-discipline and self-confidence (Bott,

Merkens, and Schmind 1990). Children who do not feel wholly part of either culture may

become marginalised and experience personality or identity problems forming barriers to

communication and integration.

Research indicates many advantages to bilingualism. Access to two languages may accelerate the

development of metalinguistic skills (Vygotsky 1962).Bilingualism can enhance the performance

of spatial tasks (McLeay 2003),cognitive flexibility, analytical strategies and creative thinking,

and promote skills of communication and thinking that fit the broader aims of education

(Olmedo2003). These are benefits not only for minority language speakers, but also for majority

language speakers, as they too can develop bilingualism. Children learn a second language better

when they have a good grasp of their mother tongue (Cummins 2001, 3). Schools with bilingual

programmes help to develop the mother tongue whilst advancing abilities in the language of

schooling. Bilingual education supports personal development and assists a positive exchange

between the two languages and cultures. The mother tongue plays an important role in

developing children’s problem-solving, comprehension and analytical skills (Aytemiz 2000, ).

The development of knowledge in both languages has a positive effect on student’s opportunities

to express their feelings, thoughts, interests and needs (Clark 2002).Whilst bilingualism is

encouraged, the importance of developing literacy in the mother tongue is also recognised in

many contexts. Bilingual programmes aim to promote bilingualism and biliteracy, for example,

in the Philippines (Benson 2002) and North America (Wiese 2004). Other studies correlate

bilingual proficiency with higher scores on standardized tests and tests of both verbal and

nonverbal intelligence (Caldas & Boudreaux, 1999; Hakuta, 1986; Thomas, Collier, & Abbott,

1993).

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