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Nuclear Physics B Proceedings Supplement 00 (2012) 1–7

Nuclear Physics BProceedingsSupplement

Review of future neutrino telescopes

A. Karle

Department of Physics and Wisconsin IceCube Particle Astrophysics Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

Abstract

Current generation neutrino telescopes cover an energy range from about 10 GeV to beyond 109 GeV. IceCubesets the scale for future experiments to make improvements. Strategies for future upgrades will be discussed in threeenergy ranges. At the low-energy end, an infill detector to IceCube’s DeepCore would add sensitivity in the energyrange from a few to a few tens of GeV with the primary goal of measuring the neutrino mass hierarchy. In the centralenergy range of classical optical neutrino telescopes, next generation detectors are being pursued in the Mediterraneanand at Lake Baikal. The KM3NeT detector in its full scale would establish a substantial increase in sensitivity overIceCube. At the highest energies, radio detectors in ice are among the most promising and pursued technologies toincrease exposure at 109 GeV by more than an order of magnitude compared to IceCube.

Keywords: Neutrino telescopes, neutrino astronomy

1. Introduction

Highest energy cosmic rays provide evidence of theexistence of powerful accelerators in the Universe. Cos-mic particles have been observed up to energies be-yond 1020 eV. One hundred years after the first discov-ery of cosmic rays, their origin remains largely unre-solved. Point sources of high-energy gamma rays havebeen observed up to energies of about 100 TeV. Theyprovide evidence of accelerators of energetic radiation.Yet, the connection to the cosmic rays of higher ener-gies is unclear and the high-energy photon view to theUniverse is blocked due to interactions with low-energyphotons, the microwave background and extragalacticphoton backgrounds. Neutrinos may traverse the Uni-verse even at their highest energies. Cosmic ray inter-actions, either in the accelerator regions or at higher en-ergies on the same photon background, will inevitablyproduce neutrinos at some level. Thus, neutrino astron-omy may provide the missing clues to uncovering theorigin of cosmic rays.

The IceCube neutrino observatory, the largest detec-tor with 1 Gton ice instrumented with 5160 optical sen-sors, has been in full operation since May 2011 and has

already accumulated an unprecedented exposure to cos-mic neutrino sources and atmospheric neutrinos from 10GeV to 109 GeV.

The IceCube neutrino observatory, the largest detec-tor with 1 Gton of instrumented ice, has been in full op-eration since May 2011 and has already accumulated anunprecedented exposure to cosmic neutrino sources andatmospheric neutrinos from 10 GeV to 109 GeV. Neu-trino telescopes, while initially not designed to probelower energy atmospheric neutrino oscillations, havestarted to explore the energy range from 10 to 100 GeV.IceCube [7, 5] and the ANTARES [3] experiment arereporting first observations of atmospheric neutrino os-cillations with their detectors.

IceCube is now setting the benchmark for future de-tectors. It has already accumulated more exposure tohigh-energy neutrinos, from 10 GeV to beyond 1 EeV,than any other experiment. A very detailed review ofthe current state of neutrino astronomy can be found in[1]. We will discuss three energy scales with respect toexpansion beyond the current detector capabilities.

A. Karle / Nuclear Physics B Proceedings Supplement 00 (2012) 1–7 2

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1.1. Low-energy extensions: 1 to 100 GeV

At low energies, IceCube has already improved itssensitivity compared to the baseline envisioned at itsoutset [2] by adding a central dense infill named Deep-Core [4]. The primary strategy was to arrange additionalstrings optimized for lower energies around 10 GeV inthe bottom center of IceCube. The DeepCore infill de-tector relies on the main IceCube array to function as aveto against cosmic-ray muons which trigger IceCubeat a rate of about 3 kHz at a depth of 2 km. Preliminaryresults on neutrino oscillation measurements have beenpresented and the increased sensitivity to dark matterhas been presented as well. Building on this, studies arenow underway to add an additional infill array to lowerthe threshold to a few GeV. The primary science goalthat such a dense detector is envisioned to address is themass hierarchy problem of neutrinos.

1.2. Neutrino astronomy from TeV to beyond 10 PeV en-ergies

The energy scale from 1 TeV to 10 PeV may be con-sidered the classical energy scale for neutrino astron-omy. The lower end of this energy range allows search-ing for steeper energy spectra such as from galacticsources. Harder energy spectra, such as a neutrino fluxemerging from cosmic-ray acceleration sites (e.g., theWaxman-Bahcall flux [16] with a harder spectral indexof E−2), require detectors to be effective at energies well

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beyond 100 TeV where the atmospheric neutrino back-ground fades. The KM3NeT consortium [8] is planningto build such a telescope in the Mediterranean Sea. Itwould exceed IceCube both in deployed photon detec-tion area as well as in neutrino effective area by a factorgreater than 5. It would vastly increase the sensitivity toneutrino sources in the galactic center region, especiallyat TeV energies.

1.3. Cosmogenic highest energy neutrinos: 100 PeV to100 EeV

Cosmic rays have been measured to energies beyond1020 eV. At these extreme energies cosmic-ray pro-tons interact with the cosmic microwave backgroundphotons to produce pions and a predictable neutrinoflux in the primary energy range from 1017 to 1019

eV. The energies are high enough that the radio tech-nique of measuring the coherent radio emission fromthe showers produced in these interactions promises amore cost effective way to detect neutrinos than the op-tical Cherenkov-light detection method.

Figure 2 shows muon neutrino effective areas of se-lected neutrino telescopes. Neutrino effective areas cor-respond to the area at which the detector would be 100%sensitive to an incoming neutrino flux of a given en-ergy. The effective area rises strongly with energy dueto the growing neutrino-nucleon cross section as wellas the increase in the range of muons. This allows a


wide energy range for such telescopes even with uni-form geometry. At low energies, one can see the ef-fect of the denser instrumentation of IceCube’s Deep-Core. An analysis associated with this effective area waspresented at this conference [7, 5]. At energies above1 PeV, where Earth absorption dominates, a differentevent selection allows the use of downgoing events.An effective area for KM3NeT based on current designstudies [8] is also shown. Effective areas of existing de-tectors are all shown for analysis-level event selections.The effective area for KM3NeT is given for an eventselection that is considered suitable for analysis.

Future extensions are envisioned for the three energyscales, as discussed in more detail in the following sec-tions:

• 1 - 100 GeV: Upgrade of IceCube/DeepCore withmore dense strings in the center.

• 100 GeV to 100 PeV: planned water/ice-based neu-trino telescopes, KM3NeT and others.

• 100 PeV to 100 EeV: Radio-based neutrino detec-tors using Antarctic ice.

2. Future water/ice Cherenkov-based neutrino tele-scopes

The largest neutrino telescope, IceCube, came intofull operation in 2011, with 5160 PMTs instrumented inthe deep glacial ice at the South Pole. IceCube has al-ready accumulated more than 3 km2·years of exposure.In the next few years it will push the search for cos-mic neutrinos, the search for dark matter, as well asthe measurements made with atmospheric neutrinos andcosmic rays to unprecedented exposure and precision.In the Northern Hemisphere the ANTARES experimenthas been taking data and has demonstrated the ability toreach excellent angular resolution and a high sensitivitywith a water-based instrument of 900 PMTs. The LakeBaikal detector in particular has demonstrated the abil-ity to detect noncontained cascade events with a largevolume and as a result was able to obtain diffuse limitson astrophysical neutrinos [9].

The most developed and ambitious plan for a futureexperiment is being pursued by the KM3NeT consor-tium. KM3NeT [8] is a proposed neutrino detector thatbuilds on the heritage of ANTARES (see results pre-sented at this conference [11] and other experimentalefforts aimed at constructing a very large neutrino de-tector in the Mediterranean Sea. In its current designconcept the detector would consist of 12,800 optical

Figure 3: The optical sensor for KM3NeT contains 31 small PMTs(Photo courtesy KM3NeT[8])

modules on 610 strings covering an instrumented vol-ume of approximately 5 km3. The optical modules arebased on a novel approach of integrating a sizable num-ber of 31 small PMTs of about 75 mm cathode diameterinto one optical sensor. Eventually these PMTs are as-sumed to employ high quantum efficiency of about 35percent. A picture of a prototype multi-PMT module isshown in figure 3. Advantages of pixelization includedirectional sensitivity in all directions, signal-to-noiseimprovements in a relatively high light background ofocean water, which is of order 103 times higher than formodules in ice, and more opportunity for single photoncounting. In order to get a full sense of the scale of in-strumentation of this experiment it is necessary to takeinto account that the total photon detection area of sucha module is significantly larger than that of an IceCubeDigital Optical Module (DOM). When considering thePMT coverage of water-Cherenkov detectors it is use-ful to define an effective photon detection area, AEPD,which takes into account quantum efficiency (QE) andcollection efficiency (CE) of PMTs:

AEPD = Acathode × QE ×CE

By this measure the total AEPD of a KM3NeT mod-ule is more than 3 times larger than that of an IceCubeDOM and the total detector effective photo coverage isabout 8 times IceCube’s. It is worth mentioning that theKM3NeT plans to transmit all PMT signals to the shoreat a data rate of approximately 1 TB/s before being re-


duced by a triggering and filtering CPU farm to about10 Mb/s.

The primary scientific goal of KM3NeT is the detec-tion and measurement of neutrino fluxes from galac-tic sources. It would allow independent observationsof possible IceCube discoveries with improved signifi-cance within a reasonable amount of time, and also of-fers a broad program of science topics associated withoceanography, geophysics, and marine biology.

The Northern Hemisphere location provides an op-timal view of the Galactic Center region, where manyTeV gamma-ray sources have been detected by groundbased air Cherenkov telescopes. The optical propertiesof the deep seawater at the locations considered havebeen studied in detail and have been incorporated intothe detector design studies. Design studies predict avery good angular resolution a little above 0.1◦ for anassumed energy spectrum of E−2. String spacing andgeometry are not final yet. The instruments are be-ing considered for deployment at more than one sitelocation. Plans are in place for a phase 1 installation.The first multi-PMT optical module is planned for in-stallation this summer at the ANTARES site and thefirst phase of construction is scheduled to start later thisyear in Italy and France, with completion envisioned by2020.

The Baikal Collaboration has been operating the neu-trino detector configuration NT200 in Lake Baikal since1998. Baikal has been using the frozen lake in the win-ter as an installation and maintenance platform. TheNT200 configuration spans 72 m in height and 43 m indiameter and has been successful in reconstructing non-contained events to obtain a sizeable volume for the de-tection of cascade events. Baikal is pursuing an upgradeto a ”Gigaton Volume Detector” (GVD) [12, 13]. It willconsist of strings that are grouped in clusters of eightwith 24 PMTs on each string. The PMTs are foreseento be of 25 cm diameter with about 35% quantum effi-ciency. The GVD configuration expects a total of 2304optical modules on 96 strings. The collaboration envi-sions an eventual configuration (GVD-4) with 10,368PMTs on four GVD clusters. Based on design studies,the effective volume for cascade events is 0.4 (0.6) km3

above 10 TeV (1PeV) for GVD and 4 times as muchfor GVD-4. The muon effective areas range from 0.3to 1.8 km2 for the considered configurations and energyranges.

3. Low-energy extensions

As implied by the name neutrino telescope, the pri-mary energy range of very large water/ice Cherenkov

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detectors has been motivated by astrophysical goals as-sociated with TeV energies. The search for dark mat-ter as well as the ability to explore atmospheric neu-trino oscillation physics with large effective volumeshas increased the interest to push the energy threshold of”TeV” neutrino telescopes lower. The ANTARES col-laboration presented an analysis showing successful ob-servation of neutrino oscillations [3] IceCube deployeda configuration of denser strings, DeepCore, in the cen-tral lower part of the detector for increased sensitivityat low energies. Figure 4 shows the increased neutrinoeffective area at the low energies in an initial oscillationanalysis of this data stream [7].

It is interesting to note a significant gap in energy cov-erage of existing neutrino experiments. Undergroundneutrino detectors are typically designed for an energythreshold of around 5 to 10 MeV. While this is character-istic of many neutrino detectors, here we will focus onthe water/ice Cherenkov detectors only. Neutrino tele-scopes are designed to be fully efficient for TeV muonsand higher energy cascades, a jump of 5 orders of mag-nitude.

Figure 4 illustrates the PMT coverage of existing andplanned water Cherenkov detectors. The effective pho-


ton detection coverage (AEPD) as defined earlier is di-vided by the instrumented or fiducial volume of thedetectors and plotted versus the approximate energythreshold of the detector. The PMT coverage scalesquite well to the inverse of the threshold for a widerange of detectors. SuperK like detectors have an ef-fective coverage of about 104m2/Mton where high en-ergy neutrino telescopes employ ≈0.1m2/Mton. Ice-Cube’s threshold is about 105 times higher than Super-K’s while its effective photodetection coverage is about10−5 times smaller. In the absence of absorption ef-fects, such as the wall of a tank or the absorption inthe medium, the inverse proportionality simply reflectsthat approximately the same number of photoelectronsis needed per event to perform physics analyses. Ice-Cube’s DeepCore has lowered the detector thresholdto about 10 GeV. Based on the progress with measure-ments of atmospheric neutrino oscillations, IceCube andseveral interested groups not currently in the collabora-tion have begun investigating the design and capabil-ity of yet a more densely instrumented detector con-figuration. This ”Phased IceCube Next Generation Un-derground” detector (PINGU) [26] would consist of aninstrumented volume of about 5 Mtons with an effec-tive photodetection coverage per Mton of ≈50 times Ice-Cube’s and 10−3 times that of Super-K. It would repre-sent a serious move in closing the gap in Figure 4. Thisinstrumentation density would be achieved by deploy-ing an additional 20 strings of optical sensors instru-mented with the same high quantum efficiency PMTs asIceCube’s DeepCore detector. A possible geometry ofthe additional strings is shown in figure 5. Deploymentof more complex R&D modules such as the KM3NeTmodule are being investigated by new groups.

One of the primary science goals of PINGU is thedetermination of the neutrino mass hierarchy. Detailedestimates about oscillation probabilities in the energyand zenith angle ranges of interest (3 - 20 GeV, 120 -180 ◦) have been presented by Akhmendov, Razzaqueand Smirnov [27], who also provide further references.They conclude that after 5 years of PINGU (20 string)operation in IceCube the significance of the determina-tion of the hierarchy may range from 4σ to 11σ (withouttaking into account parameter degeneracies), dependingon the accuracy of reconstruction of the neutrino energyand zenith angle.

For PINGU, the cost for instrumenting such a 5-Mtondetector can be estimated based on IceCube’s experi-ence. It is worth noting that the ANTARES collabo-ration has published an analysis on atmospheric neu-trino oscillations [3] and that the outlined strategy forneutrino oscillations including mass hierarchy measure-

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Figure 5: Possible geometry of a low energy infill detector PINGUwith 20 additional strings instrumenting 5 Mtons of ice in the centerof IceCube. An instrumented detector of that scale has the potentialto determine the mass hierarchy of neutrinos using upward going at-mospheric neutrinos.

ments may equally be pursued in water. While thesignal situation is quite comparable between water andice, it would be necessary to investigate whether noiseconditions and atmospheric muon rejection equally al-low for measurements in the range of a few GeV us-ing denser instrumentation. Given adequate instrumen-tation there is no obvious reason why that would not bepossible. Neutrino telescopes may contribute substan-tially to determining parameters like the mass hierarchy.

4. High-energy extensions: 100 PeV to 100 EeV

At extremely high energies, in the range from100 PeV to 100 EeV, a cosmogenic neutrino flux is ex-pected from the interaction of highest energy cosmic-ray protons in the cosmic microwave background.Predicted fluxes are in a range of approximately 1event/year/km3 or lower.

Cosmic rays have been measured to energies beyond1020 eV. Ultrahigh-energy cosmic ray protons will in-teract with photon fields in the Universe; most promi-nently, every time a charged pion is produced, threeneutrinos (muon neutrino, antineutrino, and an electronneutrino) are produced. This mechanism results in acosmogenic neutrino predicted already in the 1960’iesby several authors. Numerous, more detailed calcula-tions have been presented since then. We show a ref-erence model in Figure 6, labeled as ESS [18]. Un-certainties in the predictions include the cosmologicalevolution or distance distribution of the sources and thefraction of cosmic ray protons in the highest energy


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Figure 6: The measured atmospheric neutrino flux by IceCube isshown together with several predictions of neutrino fluxes and upperlimits by experiments: 1) Atmospheric neutrino flux by Honda [14]+ prompt by Sarcevic [15], 2) Diffuse neutrino flux [16], 3) AGNBlazars [17], 4) Cosmogenic neutrino flux [18], 5) IceCube atmo-spheric neutrino flux unfolded measurement [20], 6) IceCube 40, 1-year upper limit to diffuse neutrino flux [19], 7) IceCube 40, 1-yearupper limit to extremely high-energy neutrinos [21], 8) IceCube 86,rough estimate of 3-year sensitivity (before this conference), 9) RICEupper limit [22], 10) Auger 2-year limit x 3 [23], 11) ANITA upperlimit [24], and 12) the Askaryan Radio Array (ARA) estimated 3-yearsensitivity [25]. Differential limits are corrected for energy binningand flavor differences.

cosmic ray flux. The predicted fluxes are low. Ice-Cube, which is optimized for lower energies, may havethe best chance to see this flux with predictions around1 event/year. An optical Cherenkov detector could bedesigned with greatly reduced photodetection coverageextending the scale in Figure 4. However, in practice itwould be not work very well due to requirements of in-stallation and optical transmission. One could increasethe spacing of strings to about 300 m, yet a very large-scale detector on the order of 1000 km3sr acceptancewould be too costly. In order to reliably detect thisflux, other experimental strategies are needed that canbe more feasibly optimized for this energy range.

An alternate detection mechanism was suggestedas early as 1962 when G. Askaryan [31] proposedthat high-energy showers might produce coherent radioemission in dense media. These emissions would ariseas an excess of negative charge builds up as electrons areswept out along a relativistically advancing shower front(20% more electrons than positrons when the shower isfully developed). The wavelength components of thebroadband radiation from the motion of this net nega-tive charge will add coherently for wavelengths that arelarge compared to the dimension of the charge distribu-

Figure 7: Example of the proposed ARA radio neutrino detector ge-ometry: 37 stations would cover an area of about 200 km2 of ice.Hundreds of km3 of target volume are necessary to reach the desiredsensitivities. See text for description of large radio detector configu-rations such as ARA and ARIANNA.

tion. The coherent emission is most pronounced in thefrequency range from 1 GHz (on the Cherenkov cone)to 100 MHz (10◦ off the Cherenkov cone). The largeattenuation length of the cold glacial ice has been mea-sured to be of order 1 km in the relevant frequency rangeof 200 to 1000 MHz. This allows measuring UHE neu-trino interactions in the deep ice with a few antennaslocated close to the surface of the 2.8 km thick ice sheet.

Several pioneering efforts have already been madeto develop this approach, including RICE [22], ANITA[24], and early radio detection instrumentation in Ice-Cube. Based on their experiences as well as the drillingand neutrino detector construction experience of Ice-Cube at the South Pole, the Askaryan Radio Array(ARA) Collaboration has started to design, build anddeploy prototypes of a detector array with the sensitiv-ity to determine the cosmogenic neutrino flux. In its fullconfiguration, illustrated in Figure 7 and described inref. [25], the ARA-37 detector would consist of 37 de-tector stations covering an area of 200 km2. Each stationconsists of a cluster of 16 embedded antennas, deployedup to 200 m deep in four vertical boreholes placed withtens-of-meter horizontal spacing. Each such station isa fully functioning neutrino detector. For example, aneutrino interaction of 1018 eV can be detected up todistances of several km and in more than 2 km of depth,depending on the angle of the neutrino path relative tothe detector. As few as 16 antennas close to the surfacewould allow monitoring more then 10 km3 of ice forEeV neutrino interactions. ARA began its first deploy-ments in the austral summer of 2011/12 and has con-tinued deployment scheduled for the 2012/13 season.Based on first measurements, the [25, 32] the collabo-


ration could confirm the km-scale attenuation length forelectromagnetic waves of the relevant frequency rangein the massive cold ice sheet. It could also confirm thatthe electromagnetic environment is indeed very quietand suitable for ARA detectors.

ARIANNA [33] is a project in an R&D phase thatplans to utilize the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica. The600 m thick shelf ice is relatively transparent to electro-magnetic radiation at radio frequencies, and the water-ice boundary below the shelf creates a mirror to reflectradio signals from neutrino interactions in any down-ward direction. The baseline concept for ARIANNAconsists of antenna stations arranged on a 100 x 100square grid, separated by about 300 m. Each stationconsists of a small group of cross-polarized antennasresiding just beneath the snow surface and facing down-wards. The station density is larger by more than a fac-tor of 10 compared to ARA and the total surface areais envisioned to be 1000 km2. The shelf ice is warmer,and therefore less transparent, than the much colder iceat the South Pole; however, events are viewed fromsmaller distances on a denser grid such that the absorp-tion should be adequate to be make full use of the icesheet. A similar sensitivity is expected as for ARA-37.

As we can see from Figure 6, which shows selectedcosmogenic neutrino flux predictions and current exper-imental upper limits, the upper limits of experimentslike ANITA, RICE, Auger and IceCube are approach-ing the predicted cosmogenic neutrino flux but are notclose enough to test the model shown. The recent Augerresult is based on Earth-skimming tau neutrinos with 2years of lifetime. The IceCube result is based on oneyear of lifetime with only 50% of the completed detec-tor. In several years of lifetime, IceCube will have goodchances of seeing events of the given reference flux. Themost recent result from IceCube has been shown at thisconference [6]. However, with sensitivity more thanan order of magnitude greater than all existing experi-ments, ARA-37 or an experiment of similar sensitivitywould be able to provide a definitive measurement of thecosmogenic neutrino flux. Such an experiment shouldobserve between 10 and 100 events depending on thechoice of model, most importantly the mass composi-tion of cosmic rays at highest energies.

Acknowledgments

I like to acknowledge the support from the U.S. Na-tional Science Foundation-Office of Polar Programs, theU.S. National Science Foundation-Physics Division andthe University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Founda-tion. I like to thank D. Chirkin, Ch. Weaver, C. Kop-

per and J. Koskinen and other IceCube collaboratorsfor useful comments. I thank U. Katz, M. de Jong, P.Sapienza for helpful comments on KM3Net; Ch. Spier-ing and Z. Dzhilkibaev for useful comments on Baikaland S. Barwick for helpful comments on ARIANNA.

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