review of air quality near major roadsonto teflon-impregnated glass fibre filters using high volume...

R E V I E W O F A I R Q U A L I T Y N E A R M A J O R R O A D S

Publication 1025

February 2006

S U M M A R Y

This report reviews EPA Victoria studies over the last

four years in which air quality alongside major roads

in Melbourne and Geelong has been measured.

These studies support international findings which

show that, within a short distance from roads, air

quality objectives are generally met. Fine particle

levels beside a busy road carrying mainly diesel

trucks sometimes did not meet objectives.

Levels of most pollutants were slightly above or

similar to background levels.

Motor vehicles are still a major source of air

pollution in urban areas. However, despite

increased vehicle use, pollution from motor vehicles

is reducing, due to improved fuels and vehicle

designs. This trend is expected to continue. EPA will

continue to track air quality in Victoria and the

influence of motor vehicles.

A I M

The aim of this study was to review EPA’s recent

roadside air monitoring work by:

• assessing pollution levels against State and

national objectives

• comparing pollution levels with those

measured at EPA air monitoring stations

• comparing findings with national and

international studies.

B A C K G R O U N D

EPA has measured air quality in Melbourne and

Geelong over many years. Results indicate that air

quality is generally good (EPA publication 1000).

Fine particles are an issue that have been identified

as needing further attention.

In urban areas motor vehicles are a major source of

fine particles due to exhaust emissions and road

dust. Vehicles are also the major sources of carbon

monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and benzene (EPA

publication 1000).

To understand the impact of motor vehicles on air

quality near major roads, EPA has conducted a

number of studies: Hoddle Street, Collingwood;

Francis Street, Yarraville; Princes Highway, Corio;

corner of Springvale and Whitehorse Roads,

Nunawading; and Westgate Freeway, Brooklyn (see

Appendix). This report draws on the results of these

studies.

EPA’s mobile air laboratory (MoLab)


EPA Victoria 2

M E T H O D O L O G Y

Measurements

EPA’s mobile air monitoring laboratory was used as

a platform to monitor air quality in each roadside

study except for the Hoddle Street trend site in

Collingwood, which used a permanent air

monitoring station.

PM10 and PM2.5 particles were measured using a

TEOM1,2 and/or a manual technique, where samples

were collected onto a pre-weighed filter over 24-hour

periods followed by analysis in the laboratory.

Nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulfur

dioxide were measured using continuous

instrumental gas analysers.

For the roadside sites, benzene samples were

collected in stainless steel fused silica-coated

canisters and analysed according to USEPA method

TO-15. Samples – each of a 24-hour duration – were

taken once every three days.

Benzene levels for the background sites were

measured by collecting 24-hour average samples

using sorbent tubes. Analysis was performed using

USEPA method TO-17 (Four Cities Study).

Benzo(a)pyrene samples were collected once every

six days in accordance with the National Measure.3

For the roadside sites, samples were collected for 24

hours onto a polyurethane foam plug. For the

1 Tapered element oscillating microbalance

2 TEOM PM10 data quoted in this report have been adjusted according to the default procedure [NEPM T10], using the temperature-dependent formula with a constant value of K equal to 0.04. The resulting adjustments vary from no change at daily average temperatures at or above 15 °C to an increase of 40 per cent at a temperature of 5 °C. 3 NEP(Air Toxics)M requires 1-in-6-day samples for a year or 1 in three days for six months.

comparison sites, samples were collected as PM10

onto Teflon-impregnated glass fibre filters using

high volume samplers (Four Cities Study). Analysis

was performed by gas chromatography mass

spectrometry detection (GC/MS).

Data analysis and presentation

Levels of common pollutants were compared to

intervention levels specified in the State

Environment Protection Policy (Air Quality

Management). Intervention levels are used to assess

whether air quality needs to be further investigated.

Levels of benzene and benzo(a)pyrene were

compared to investigation levels specified in the

National Environment Protection (Air Toxics)

Measure.

The pollutants measured at roadsides were

compared to monitoring data from selected EPA air

monitoring stations over the same time periods

(except as noted in the text). The EPA air monitoring

stations selected for comparison were Alphington

and Footscray, which were chosen to indicate

background air quality away from major roads, on

the eastern and western sides of Melbourne

respectively. For benzo(a)pyrene there was no data

for Footscray so data from the nearby Paisley station

was used.

For the Corio roadside site, the Geelong South

station was also used for comparison. For the

Nunawading roadside site, the Mooroolbark station

was also used.

In an urban environment it is impossible avoid all

roads. The roads near to comparison sites were

minor roads and are not expected to significantly

influence air quality.


Environment Report 3

To enable the effects of motor vehicles to be

assessed against typical background air quality,

specific impacts – such as bushfires, dust storms

and local industry – have been removed where they

could be clearly identified (as noted in the text).

The data for each pollutant in this report is

presented graphically. The bar represents the

average levels during the study. The vertical black

line extending out of the bar represents the highest

level measured. The horizontal red line represents

the intervention/investigation level.

0

1020

30

40

5060

70

80

Hoddle Street Collingwood (Aug to Oct 2001)

PM

10

(μg

/m

3)

Average Concentration

Maximum Concentration

Intervention Level

0

1020

30

40

5060

70

80

Roadside Monitoring Site (Duration of Study)

PM

10

(μg

/m

3)



Intervention Level

0

1020

30

40

5060

70

80


PM

10

(μg

/m

3)

0

1020

30

40

5060

70

80


PM

10

(μg

/m

3)



Intervention Level

0

1020

30

40

5060

70

80

Roadside Monitoring Site (Duration of Study)

PM

10

(μg

/m

3)



Intervention Level

R E S U L T S A N D D I S C U S S I O N

Particles (PM10 and PM2.5)

The major sources of particles in Melbourne’s air are

motor vehicles, road dust, industry, woodsmoke and

windblown dust.

High levels of particles in air can affect people with

lung or heart disease.

The peak and average 24-hour PM10 and PM2.5

particle levels for each roadside site are shown in

Figure 1 and Figure 24, along with measurements

from comparison sites.

PM10 and PM2.5 particle levels remained below the

intervention level at all but one site. Peak particle

levels went above the intervention level at Francis

Street in Yarraville5 (EPA publications 821 and 896).

Average particle levels were also higher at this site,

due to a large proportion of heavy trucks using

Francis Street and the monitoring site being only five

metres from the road.

Peak and average particle levels next to major roads

were similar to or slightly above background levels

at other sites.

Annual average PM10 particle levels measured at the

Hoddle Street trend site in Collingwood are shown

below. Particle levels have been consistently higher

than those measured at Alphington.

It is expected that particle levels as a result of diesel

vehicle emissions will decrease due to the introduction

of new diesel fuel quality standards in 2006.

4 Note that PM2.5 data from Alphington and Footscray was measured by TEOM, whereas PM2.5 data from the mobile air monitoring laboratory was obtained from manual sampling techniques. The two different measurement techniques may give slightly different levels.

5 PM10 and PM2.5 particle levels went above the intervention level on five and seven out of 163 days respectively.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

19

93

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

Year

PM

10 (

μg

/m

3)

Intervention Level

Hoddle Street Trend Site,CollingwoodAlphington


EPA Victoria 4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Hoddle StreetCollingwood (Aug to Oct

2001)

Francis StreetYarraville (Jun to Jul

2001 and Marto Aug 2002)

PrincesHighway Corio

(Oct 2002 toMay 2003)

SpringvaleRoad

Nunawading (Sep 2003 to

Feb 2004)

WestgateFreewayBrooklyn

(Mar to Nov2004)

PM

10 (

μg/m

3)

Roadside site

AlphingtonFootscray

Other as specifiedIntervention Level

Geelo

ng S

outh

Mooro

olb

ark

Figure 1: Maximum and average 24-hour PM10 levels6

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Francis StreetYarraville

(Jun to Jul 2001and Mar to Aug

2002)

Princes HighwayCorio

(Oct 2002 to May2003)

Springvale RoadNunawading

(Sep 2003 to Feb2004)

Westgate FreewayBrooklyn

(Mar to Nov 2004)

PM

2.5

(μg/m

3)

Roadside siteAlphingtonFootscrayIntervention Level

Figure 2: Maximum and average 24-hour PM2.5 levels6

6 Note that the Princes Highway and Westgate Freeway data sets have been filtered to remove particle contribution from sources other than the road. See Methodology section for further detail.



Figure 3: Maximum and average one-hour carbon monoxide levels

Carbon monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a widespread pollutant that

comes from the combustion of carbon containing

fuels such as petrol, gas, oil, coal and wood.

Carbon monoxide is readily absorbed into the

bloodstream and affects transport of oxygen through

the body. People suffering from heart disease are

particularly sensitive.

Motor vehicles are still the major source of carbon

monoxide in Melbourne, although emissions from

well-maintained newer vehicles are much lower than

those from older vehicles.

As shown in the chart below, levels of carbon

monoxide in Melbourne meet air quality objectives and

have decreased over the last twenty years despite

increasing vehicle usage (as measured by VKT –

vehicle kilometres travelled) (EPA publication 1000)7.

The peak and average one-hour carbon monoxide

levels at roadside and comparison sites are shown

in Figure 3.

7 Results shown are an average of all Melbourne monitoring stations. The State Environment Protection Policy (Ambient Air Quality) objective is being compared to.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35


2001)




(Oct 2002 toMay 2003)

SpringvaleRoad


Feb 2004)


(Mar to Nov2004)

CO

(ppm

)

Roadside site

Alphington

Footscray

Other as specified

Intervention Level

Geelo

ng S

outh

Mooro

olb

ark


EPA Victoria 6

During the studies the levels of carbon monoxide were

well below the intervention level (29 ppm) at all sites.

Peak and average carbon monoxide levels measured

next to major roads were generally similar to those

at comparison sites.

Nitrogen dioxide

As with carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides in urban

air come mainly from motor vehicles and other

combustion sources. Nitrogen dioxide affects

breathing and the body’s defence mechanisms.

Some nitrogen dioxide is emitted directly from

vehicles, the rest forms in air as relatively harmless

nitrogen monoxide emissions react with oxygen.

Levels of nitrogen dioxide in Melbourne are

decreasing in a similar way to carbon monoxide

levels, due to emission controls on newer motor

vehicles as shown below.

The peak and average one-hour nitrogen dioxide

levels for each roadside monitoring site are shown

in Figure 4.

During the studies the levels of nitrogen dioxide were

below the intervention level (140 ppb) at all sites.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140


2001)




(Oct 2002 toMay 2003)

SpringvaleRoad


Feb 2004)


(Mar to Nov2004)

NO

2 (

pp

b)

Roadside siteAlphingtonFootscrayOther as specifiedIntervention Level

Mooro

olb

ark

Geelo

ng S

outh

Figure 4: Maximum and average one-hour nitrogen dioxide levels



Peak and average nitrogen dioxide levels measured

next to major roads were slightly above those at

comparison sites.8

Sulfur dioxide

The main source of sulfur dioxide in Melbourne is

industry. Petrol and diesel contain some sulfur so

vehicles also emit sulfur dioxide. The levels of sulfur

in fuels are being reduced over time.

Sulfur dioxide is an irritant gas that affects

breathing.

8 The highest levels of nitrogen dioxide were measured at Princes Highway in Corio where there was some industrial contribution (EPA publication 911).

The peak and average one-hour sulfur dioxide levels

for each roadside monitoring site are shown in

Figure 5.

During the studies the levels of sulfur dioxide were

well below the intervention level (210 ppb) at all

sites.

Peak and average sulfur dioxide levels measured

next to major roads were generally similar to those

at comparison sites.9

9 Note that the sulfur dioxide maximum level for Princes Highway in Corio is estimated (industrial contribution removed) and the average level includes motor vehicles and industry.

0

50

100

150

200

250

Hoddle StreetCollingwood

(Aug to Oct 2001)

Francis Street Yarraville (Jun to Jul 2001 and Mar

to Aug 2002)

Princes Highway Corio (Oct 2002 to May 2003)

SO

2 (

pp

b)

Roadside site

Alphington

Footscray

Other as specified

Intervention Level

Geelo

ng S

outh

Figure 5: Maximum and average one-hour sulfur dioxide levels


EPA Victoria 8

Benzene

In Victoria, motor vehicles are the main source of

benzene emissions to air (Benzene Health Review).

Benzene is an aromatic hydrocarbon found in petrol.

Benzene is classified as a human carcinogen. Long-

term exposure to benzene can cause bone marrow

depression and acute myeloid leukaemia.

National cleaner fuel standards require that

refineries reduce benzene levels in petrol from

around four per cent to less than one per cent from

2006 (Fuel Standard (Petrol) Determination 2001).

This will reduce benzene emissions.

The average 24-hour benzene level for each

roadside site is shown in Figure 6, along with data

from comparison sites (note different time periods).

For all sites benzene levels were below the annual

average investigation level of 3 ppb.

Benzene levels measured near roads were higher

than those measured at comparison sites.

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

SpringvaleRoad


Feb 2004)


(Mar to Nov2004)

Alphington (Jan to Dec

2003)

Footscray (Jan to Dec

2003)

Be

nze

ne

(p

pb

)

Investigation Level

Figure 6: Average 24-hour benzene levels

Benzo(a)pyrene

Benzo(a)pyrene is one of the more toxic of a group

of compounds called polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs) and is used as an indicator of

the group.

In urban air major sources of benzo(a)pyrene are

motor vehicles and woodsmoke (Four Cities Study).

Benzo(a)pyrene is found on fine combustion particles.

Benzo(a)pyrene has been determined to be

carcinogenic to humans and animals (PAHs Health

Review).

The average 24-hour benzo(a)pyrene level for each

roadside monitoring site is shown in Figure 7, along

with data from comparison sites (note different time

periods).

For the sites shown, benzo(a)pyrene levels were below

the annual average investigation level of 0.3 ng/m3.

Benzo(a)pyrene levels at these sites were similar to

those at EPA air monitoring stations at Alphington and

Paisley.

0.0

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.4

SpringvaleRoad


Feb 2004)


(Mar to Nov2004)

Alphington (Jan to Dec

2003)

Paisley (Jan to Dec

2003)

Ben

zo

(a)p

yre

ne (

ng

/m

3) Investigation Level

Figure 7: Average benzo(a)pyrene levels

The limited data available on levels of

benzo(a)pyrene at Francis Street suggests that levels

are higher than at other sites (the average result from

seven samples in mid-2002 was 1.2 ng/m3). This is

consistent with the elevated levels of fine particles

due to heavy trucks as discussed earlier.



As particle levels from diesel vehicles are reduced in

2006 (see particles) benzo(a)pyrene levels may also

decrease. EPA is going to conduct further monitoring to

gain a better understanding of benzo(a)pyrene in air.

C O M P A R I S O N W I T H I N T E R N A T I O N A L

A N D N A T I O N A L F I N D I N G S

A number of national and international air

monitoring studies have been conducted near

various roads and a general conclusion has been

reached that there is a reduction in pollutant level

as distance from the road increases.

Models used to assess roadside air quality predict a

rapid decrease in pollutant level as distance from

the road increases. For example, the level of PM10

particles as a function of distance from a major road,

as predicted by the AusRoads model, is shown in

Figure 8. The model predicts a rapid decrease in

level within 20 m of the edge of the road.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

0 20 40 60 80 100

Distance from road (m)

Rela

tive 2

4 h

ou

r P

M1

0

co

ncen

trati

on

(p

erc

en

t)

Figure 8: AusRoads prediction of reduction in PM10 level with distance from a road10

10 The model has been run for a typical 100,000-vehicle-per-day road with four lanes (two each way, no median strip) and symmetric diurnal traffic profile, background 20 ug/m3. The graph is a worst-case scenario to be expected in a year for the conditions modelled.

The model prediction is supported by international

and national monitoring studies that have shown

there is a rapid decrease in pollution level with

increased distance from the road. For example:

• a study on road proximity and PM10 particle

levels in Sacramento, California found that

levels approached background levels within

100 m (Ashbaugh et al.).

• a study conducted near a freeway in

Southern California found that PM10 particle

and carbon monoxide levels declined by

60 per cent within 100 m of the roadside

(Zhu et al.).

• a study conducted near various types of

roads throughout the United Kingdom found

that there was a sharp decline in nitrogen

dioxide and nitrogen monoxide levels over

the first 5–10 m, with levels close to

background beyond 20 m. A similar result

was found for PM10 (Laxen et al.).

• a study of 13 roadways in south-east

Queensland between 1994 and 1997

showed that open roadside sites did not

exceed policy levels even at distances of 10

to 20 meters from the edge of the road

(Neale et al.).


EPA Victoria 10

C O N C L U S I O N

Particles

• Particles measured as PM10 and PM2.5,

generally remained below intervention

levels.

• In general particle levels were similar to or

slightly above background levels.

Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur

dioxide

• Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and

sulfur dioxide levels were below

intervention levels next to all roads

monitored.

• Carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and

sulfur dioxide levels were similar to

background levels at all sites monitored.

• Levels are expected to continue to remain

below air monitoring objectives in the

future.

Benzene

• Average benzene levels were below

investigation levels

• Benzene levels were above background

levels.

• Reduction of benzene in petrol in 2006 is

expected to result in a reduction of benzene

levels in Melbourne.

Benzo(a)pyrene

• Benzo(a)pyrene levels were found to be

below investigation levels and similar to

background levels.

• Further study is required to determine

benzo(a)pyrene sources and levels near

roads.

General conclusion

• This study supports findings of other

studies which show that, within a short

distance from the road, air quality

objectives are generally met.

• Motor vehicles are still a major influence on

air quality in urban areas.

Future directions

• Improved fuel standards and vehicle design

is expected to improve air quality near

roads despite increased vehicle usage.

• EPA will continue to operate its smoky

vehicle reporting program11 and to

encourage the community to take steps to

reduce vehicle emissions (such as vehicle

maintenance, smooth driving techniques

and alternative transport).

• Further air quality monitoring will also be

undertaken, particularly to improve

knowledge on particles, benzene and

benzo(a)pyrene levels.

• EPA will continue to assess national and

international research on the effects of

motor vehicles on air quality.

11 If you see a smoky vehicle call Smoky Vehicle Reporting Line on (03) 9695 2755 in the metropolitan area, or 1800 444 051 outside the metropolitan area. You can also report smoky vehicles online at www.epa.vic.gov.au/reporting/smokyvehicle.asp.



R E F E R E N C E S

NEP(Air Toxics)M, National Environment Protection (Air Toxics) Measure, April 2004.

SEPP(AQM), State Environment Protection Policy (Air Quality Management) 2001, State Government of Victoria.

Ashbaugh L, Flocchini RG, Chang D, Garza V, Carvacho OF, James TA and Matsumura RT. Final report: Traffic generated PM10 hot spots. Prepared for the California Department of Transportation under Caltrans Contract No. 53V606 A2. Prepared by Air Quality Group, Crocker Nuclear Laboratory, University of California, Davis, 1996.

EPA publication 821: Air monitoring at Francis Street, Yarraville.

EPA publication 874: Air monitoring at Collingwood College during August – October 2001.

EPA publication 896: Air monitoring at Francis Street, Yarraville during 2002.

EPA publication 911: Air monitoring at Corio – October 2002 to May 2003.

EPA publication 948: Air monitoring at Nunawading – September 2003 to February 2004.

EPA publication 974: Air monitoring alongside the Westgate Freeway in Brooklyn – March to November 2004.

EPA publication 1000: Victoria’s Air Quality 2004.

Four Cities Study, fine particle composition in four major australian cities, National Heritage Trust, 2005.

Laxen D, Wilson P, Longhurst J, Woodfield N and Beattie C. Compilation of new roadside monitoring data obtained by local authorities as part of the review and assessment process. Report on behalf of DEFRA 2002.

Neale D and Wainwright D, Roadside air quality in south-east Queensland. Queenland Environmental Protection Agency, Environment Technical Report No. 38.

NEPM T10, National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality) Measure Technical Paper No. 10, Collection and reporting of TEOM PM10 data. available from www.ephc.gov.au.

State Environment Protection Policy (Ambient Air Quality) 1999, State Government of Victoria.

Zhu Y, Hinds WC, Kim S and Sioutas C. ‘Level and size distribution of ultrafine particles near a major highway’; J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 52, pp. 1032–1042.

Benzene Health Review available at www.ephc.gov.au/nepms/air/air_toxics.html.

PAHs Health Review available at www.ephc.gov.au/nepms/air/air_toxics.html.

Fuel Standard (Petrol) Determination 2001 available at scaleplus.law.gov.au/html/instruments/

0/33/0/2004081702.htm.

Health effects of transport-related air pollution. Edited by Michal Krzyzanowski, Birgit Kuna-Dibbert and Jürgen Schneider, 2005. ISBN 92-890-1373-7. Available at www.euro.who.int/InformationSources/Publications/Catalogue/20050601_1

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EPA Victoria 14

Roadside sites and comparison site locations in Melbourne



Roadside sites and comparison site locations in Geelong

review of air quality near major roadsonto teflon-impregnated glass fibre filters using high volume...

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