review article review of energy harvesters utilizing bridge...

Review ArticleReview of Energy Harvesters Utilizing Bridge Vibrations

Farid Ullah Khan and Iftikhar Ahmad

Institute of Mechatronics Engineering University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar 25000 Pakistan

Correspondence should be addressed to Farid Ullah Khan dr farid khanuetpeshawaredupk

Received 20 April 2015 Revised 3 September 2015 Accepted 13 September 2015

Academic Editor Jeong-Hoi Koo

Copyright copy 2016 F U Khan and I Ahmad This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

For health monitoring of bridges wireless acceleration sensor nodes (WASNs) are normally used In bridge environment severalforms of energy are available for operating WASNs that include wind solar acoustic and vibration energy However only bridgevibration has the tendency to be utilized for embedded WASNs application in bridge structures This paper reports on the recentadvancements in the area of vibration energy harvesters (VEHs) utilizing bridge oscillations The bridge vibration is narrowband(1 to 40Hz) with low acceleration levels (001 to 38 g) For utilization of bridge vibration electromagnetic based vibration energyharvesters (EM-VEHs) and piezoelectric based vibration energy harvesters (PE-VEHs) have been developedThe power generationof the reported EM-VEHs is in the range from07 to 1450000120583WHowever the power production by the developed PE-VEHs rangesfrom 06 to 7700 120583WThe overall size of most of the bridge VEHs is quite comparable and is in mesoscaleThe resonant frequenciesof EM-VEHs are on the lower side (013 to 27Hz) in comparison to PE-VEHs (1 to 120Hz) The power densities reported for thesebridge VEHs range from 001 to 95395 120583Wcm3 and are quite enough to operate most of the commercial WASNs

1 Introduction

Wireless sensor nodes (WSNs) are used for sensing andmonitoring of several environmental characteristics suchas pressure humidity temperature sound pressure levelsvehicles tracking vibration levels lighting information theabsence or presence of material goods and strain levelsin mechanical components [1 2] The architecture of WSNis shown in Figure 1 A WSN consists of various compo-nents [3] like microsensors signal processing unit powermanagement unit microcontroller unit built-in memoryanalog to digital converter (ADC) transmitter receiverand a super capacitor Sensor converts the physical signalsuch as pressure temperature humidity or vibration intoa respective electrical signal The transmitter and receiverare used for transmitting and receiving the informationdata between WSN and the operator Memory unit enableson-board data storage Microcontroller controls the overallperformance and operation of different components presenton board Power management circuit distributes and man-ages the power to the WSN components A battery or asuper capacitor is used as the power source in the WSN[4] Most of the commercial WSNs operate on batteries

however the restricted life of batteries limits the performanceand application of WSNs For a device with 100 120583W powerconsumption a lithium battery of 1 cm3 volume can be usedonly for one-year operation [5] Replacement or recharging ofbatteries is feasible for small scale WSN networks howeverfor a gigantic WSN network which is spread over enormousarea the replacement or recharging of batteries is completelyimpossibleMoreover forWSNs placed in remote hazardousand inaccessible locations the replacement of batteries canbe inconvenient and costly [6] WSNs have enormous appli-cations in almost every field of life such as in industrialmachines civil infrastructures military equipment trafficcontrol healthcare accessories agricultural equipment anddomestic and office appliances

Moreover for the health monitoring of the bridge struc-tures [7 8] wireless acceleration sensor nodes (WASNs) areutilized to monitor the vibrations induced in the bridgesdue to moving vehicles and high velocity winds Becauseof the rapid advancements in ultra-low power microac-celerometers microprocessors microcontrollers and signalprocessing circuits the power requirements of the WASNshave enormously reduced to few mW Various types ofWASNs are developed and commercially available Some of

Hindawi Publishing CorporationShock and VibrationVolume 2016 Article ID 1340402 21 pageshttpdxdoiorg10115520161340402

2 Shock and Vibration

Table 1 Summary of commercially available wireless sensors nodes

Sensor type Manufacturer Model Sensing range Operatingvoltage (V)

Operatingcurrent (mA)

Power(mW)

Acceleration

Freescale semiconductor MMA7260QT plusmn15246 g 33 05 165a

STMicroelectronics LSI302ALB plusmn2 g 36 nrb 2Analog devices ADXL210JQC plusmn10 g 45 06 27a

Freescale semiconductor MMA1270KEG plusmn25 g 5 21 105a

MEMSIC MXD2020EF plusmn1 g 33 4 132a

BOSCH SMB455 plusmn70 g 33 8 264a

Analog devices ADIS16000 plusmn18 g 33 39 128aaCalculated using equation 119875 = 119881119868bnr not reported in the data sheet provided by the manufacturer

Table 2 Summary of bridge vibration data

Bridge Location Frequency(Hz)

Acceleration(g) Reference

New Carquinez California 1ndash40 001ndash0102 [10]Komtur Berlin 2ndash26 0ndash00061 [11]Ypsilanti Michigan 2ndash30 001ndash0035 [12]Golden Gate San Francisco 0ndash15 0ndash0061 [13]RT11 bridge in Potsdam New York 31 038 [14]Box girder bridge Austin 1ndash15 012 [15]3rd Nongro Bridge South Korea 41 0025 [16]Huanghe Cable-Stayed Bridge China 1-2 0015 [17]Seohae Grand Bridge South Korea 1 00125 [18]IH-35N over Medina River Texas 31 015 [19]

signalPhysical

signalPhysical

Sensor B

Sensor A

unitprocessing

Signal

receiverand

Transmitterunit

Memory

Microcontrollerunit

Power management

unit

Super capacitor

Figure 1 Architecture of a wireless sensor node

the commercial WASNs along with their operating param-eters are listed in Table 1 The values in Table 1 have beenextracted from the WASN data sheet available on the man-ufacturerrsquos websites and guide manuals

In Table 1 commercial WASNs require a voltage from 33to 5V for their operation however the overall range for thecurrent drawn by WASNs during the transmission operationis from 05 to 39mA Moreover the power requirements ofthese WASNs that range from 165 to 128mW are normallyaccomplished with batteries

During condition monitoring of bridges the vibrationlevels are continuously measured Bridge health monitoring(BHM) needs continuous operation of WASNs throughoutthe life of the bridge In WASNs batteries as a power sourcerestrict these to be embeddedwithin the bridge structureThesole solution for powering the embedded WASNs is energyharvesting For conversion of WASNs into autonomousacceleration sensor nodes (AASNs) the power need ofthese WASNs (overall power range from 165 to 128mW)is required to be obtained from alternative sources such asenergy harvester At the bridge solar acoustic wind andvibration energies are abundantly available however only thevibration energy has the tendency to be utilized for embeddedWASNs application Solar and wind energy harvesters arenot the best option for WASNs [9] which quite often needto be located outside the bridge structure such as in placeswith extremely high light intensities and fast blowing airas a result WASNs may also face the same environmentalfactors problem Bridge vibration is produced by the vehic-ular motion and high wind speeds Normally the bridgesoscillation is narrowband random in nature with frequencyand acceleration levels on the lower side [10] Table 2 liststhe vibration information of several bridges In Table 2 thefrequency of the bridge vibration varies from 1Hz to 40HzThe Golden Gate Bridge located at San Francisco USA hasthe lowest frequency (15Hz) however the New Carquinez

Shock and Vibration 3

Table 3 Piezoelectric materials and their properties

Materials Density(gcm3)

Youngrsquosmodulus (GPa)

Curietemperature (∘C)

Dielectricconstant 1 kHz

Dissipation constant 1 kHz ()

Lead titanate 67 1128 240 270 09Lead magnesium niobate (PMN) 785 61 170 5500 20Lead Zirconate Titanate (soft) 75 63 350 1725 20Lead Zirconate Titanate (hard) 75 63 320 1250 04Quartz 26 765 550 375lowast

Barium titanate 602 67 120 1550 003Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) 178 83 205 12Lead Lanthanum Zirconate Titanate 8 315 11262Aluminium titanate 34 20Aluminium oxide 395 413 311 115lowast 00086lowast

Zinc oxide (ZnO) 561 1473 430lowastThe values are at 1MHz

Bridge at California USA has the highest frequency of 40HzThe lowest acceleration level of 01 g is recorded for theNew Carquinez Bridge California USA However 015 g thehighest acceleration level is produced at IH-35NoverMedinaRiver Texas USA The overall frequency and accelerationcontent in the bridge vibration is in the range of 1 to 40Hzand 001 to 379 g respectively These bridge vibration levelscan be utilized to generate powerwith vibration-based energyharvesters For converting WASN into autonomous and self-powered system it can be integrated with a vibration-basedenergy harvester The vibration-based energy harvester willtransform the ambient bridge vibrations that are availablein the vicinity of the WASN into electrical energy whichcan then be utilized for the operation of the entire onboardcomponents in WASN

2 Vibration-Based Energy Harvester

Vibration-based energy harvester (VEH) converts the ambi-ent mechanical vibration into electrical energy Most ofthe developed VEHs are resonators and hence producedmaximum power when these are operated at the resonantfrequency [20] Nonresonant VEHs [21] are also gaininggrounds in recent years The output response of VEHs com-pletely depends on the nature of vibrations Under sinusoidalexcitation the behavior of VEH is completely different thanthe response of the same VEHwhen it is subjected to randomvibrations Various types of VEHs have been developedand reported in the literature Based on the transductionmechanism the VEHs are classified as piezoelectric [22]electrostatic [23] and electromagnetic [24] energy harvesters

21 Piezoelectric Vibration Energy Harvesters In piezoelec-tric vibration energy harvester (PE-VEH) a piezoelectricmaterial is deposited on a suspended structure such as abeam or membrane Due to the vibration as the suspendedstructure oscillates the piezoelectric material is subjected todeformation or strain As a result of this strain or deformation

polarization occurs across the piezoelectric material andvoltage is induced [22] Normally in PE-VEHs electrodesare used to carry away the induced charge to the load ForPE-VEH a number of piezoelectric materials are availablethe detail of which is listed in Table 3 In PE-VEH theselection of particular piezoelectric material depends ona number of criterions such as dielectric constant Curietemperature or modulus of elasticity of the material Forexample for high acceleration vibrations the piezoelectricmaterials (Lead titanate and Aluminum oxide) with highvalue of Youngrsquos modulus can be the desirable choice How-ever for high temperature applications Aluminum oxide isthe material of choice Lead Lanthanum Zirconate Titanatehas a very high value of dielectric constant and therefore it isexpected to perform very well in low acceleration vibrationenvironments Due to the easiness of in situ fabricationof Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) with sol-gel techniqueand the easy integration of PZT fabrication with the othermicrofabrication processes PZT is largely utilized as thetransduction material in most of the developed PE-VEHsBased on the device architecture the reported PE-VEHscan be classified into cantilever unimorph type PE-VEH[25] cantilever bimorph type PE-VEH [26] and membranetype PE-VEH [27] Figure 2 shows the schematic diagramof different typical types of PE-VEHs developed in theliterature The unimorph cantilever type PE-VEH consistsof a suspension beam (cantilever beam) Figure 2(a) andnormally on top surface of the beam a piezoelectric materialis deposited However in bimorph cantilever type PE-VEHfor better performance dual layers of piezoelectric materialsare deposited on upper and lower surfaces of the base beamFigure 2(b) A membrane type PE-VEH shown in Figure 2(c)comprises amembrane Amembrane is fabricated on a cavityand a piezoelectric material layer is pasted either on top orboth top and bottom surfaces of the membrane Electrodesmostly of either gold or copper are coated on the piezoelectriclayer to collect the charges during the operation of PE-VEHMoreover in the harvester a proof mass is used to adjust theresonant frequency of PE-VEH [28] When the PE-VEH is


x(t)Substrate

Piezoelectric materialProof mass

v

Beam

Bottom electrode

Top electrode

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)Substrate


v

Beam

Bottom electrode

Top electrode

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

x(t)

Piezoelectric material

v

Bottom electrode

Top electrodeMembrane

Silicon wafery(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(c)

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of various PE-VEHs (a) unimorphcantilever type PE-VEH (b) bimorph cantilever type PE-VEH and(c) membrane type piezoelectric PE-VEH

subjected to base excitation the beam or membrane vibratesat amuch amplified displacementThe strain developed in thepiezoelectric material due to the deflection (vibration) causesthe charge to form across the piezoelectric layer

22 Electrostatic Vibration Energy Harvesters Electrostaticvibration energy harvesters (ES-VEHs) are based on changingcapacitance between a fixed and a movable metallic plate InES-VEHs the oppositely charged plates are partly separatedby vibration and hence mechanical energy is transformedinto electrical energy [20] The plates are initially keptcharged with a voltage source and as the gap or overlaparea between the plates changes the changing capacitancecauses increase in the voltage across the plates thus providingthe means for mechanical to electrical energy transduction[20] Schematic diagrams of different architectures normally

adopted for ES-VEHs are shown in Figure 3 The ES-VEHsshown in Figures 3(a) and 3(b) are plate type ES-VEHsThe out-of-plane gap varying type ES-VEH Figure 3(a) iscomprised of a fixed plate deposited on a substrate anda movable plate suspended on top of the fixed plate withthe help of fixed-guided beams and anchors During theoperation when the energy harvester is subjected to baseexcitation 119910(119905) the movable plate moves perpendicular tothe fixed plate and the gap (capacitance) between the platesvaries For in-plane plate type ES-VEH the moveable plateis allowed to move in the plane of the harvester and duringoperation the overlap area between the plates changes TheES-VEHs shown in Figures 3(c) and 3(d) are normally knownas comb type ES-VEHs In these types of ES-VEHs thereare a number of interdigitated plates (electrodes) The staticplates are produced on the substrate however the movableplates are the integral part of the shuttle mass suspendedby fixed-guided beams Both energy harvesters are in-planeharvesters however comb type ES-VEH in Figure 3(c) is agap varying kind of energy harvester and the one shown inFigure 3(d) is an overlap varying type of ES-VEH

There are two ways in which ES-VEHs are able to readilycreate a Coulomb force a gap closing arrangement operatedin a constant charge mode and a sliding arrangementoperated in a constant voltage mode [29] To permit thetime dependent operations (charging and discharging) inthe ES-VEH switching is performed between the energyharvester and the energy extraction circuit (EEC) Theoperation cycle of a charge constraint ES-VEH is shown inFigures 4 and 6 At its maximum capacitance the ES-VEHis charged by a battery (line 119860119861 in Figure 6(a)) When thisinitially charged capacitor is detached from the power source(battery) and the EEC the movement of the harvesterrsquos platesreduces the capacitance and increases the voltage across thecapacitive plates (line 119861119862) In the step 119861119862 the mechanicalmotion is actually converted into electrical energy Whenpoint 119862 is reached the switching connects the harvester tothe EEC and the harvesterrsquos plates are discharged back toinitial position point 119860 through line 119862119860 In Figure 6(a)the area enclosed by the operational cycle of the ES-VEH isactually the amount of energy generation

If the conductive plates of the ES-VEH that are initiallycharged and still attached to the voltage source (battery) arerelatively moved in a sliding mode of operation the electro-static force (voltage) between the plates remains constantTheoperation of ES-VEH in a constant voltage mode is shown inFigures 5 and 6(b) The ES-VEH is charged to its maximumcapacity along line 119860119861 in Figure 6(b) Afterward the platesare allowed to move horizontally however as the battery isstill connected to the plates during themotion the capacitanceof the harvester decreases (line119861119862) Line119861119862 shows the powergeneration of the harvester where the mechanical motion isconverted to electrical energy The ES-VEH is disconnectedfrom the battery and connected to the load part of the circuitdue to which the charge flows out of the harvesterrsquos plate andthe voltage drops from 119881in to 119881res (line 119862119860) The net area119860119861119862119860 in the 119876119881 plot Figure 6(b) represents the amount ofenergy generation during one complete cycle of operation


x(t)Substrate

Proof massBeam Electrode

Electrode

Anchor

v

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

Proof massBeam

AnchorElectrical pad

(b)

Substrate

Proof mass

BeamAnchor

Fixed electrodes

Movable electrodes

v

(c)Substrate

Proof massBeam

Anchor

Fixed electrodes

Movable electrodes

v

(d)

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of ES-VEHs (a) out-of-plane gap varying type ES-VEH (b) in-plane overlap area varying ES-VEH (c) combtype overlap area varying ES-VEH and (d) comb type gap varying ES-VEH

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EEC

Qst

Vin

Cmin

Vmax

(c)

EEC

Qst

Cmin

I

Vin

(d)

Figure 4 Operation of ES-VEH in constant charge mode

23 Electromagnetic Vibration Energy Harvesters Electro-magnetic vibration energy harvesters (EM-VEHs) operate onthe principle of Faradayrsquos law of electromagnetic inductionAn emf is induced in a closed loop (coil) when the magneticflux density through the loop area is changed [30] GenerallyEM-VEH is composed of a permanent magnet coil and asuspension system Due to vibration there is relative motionbetween magnate and the coil in EM-VEH and an emf is

induced in the coil [31] Different architectures for EM-VEHsreported in literature are shown in Figure 7The architecturesused for the developed EM-VEHs include moving magnetand fixed coil EM-VEHs [32] moving coil and fixed magnetEM-VEHs [33] wound coil type EM-VEHs [34] planar coiltype EM-VEHs [31] cantilever beam type EM-VEHs [35]fixed-fixed beam type EM-VEHs [36] and membrane typeEM-VEHs [32]


EEC

Cmax

QresVin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EECQst

Cmin

Vin

(c)

EEC

Cmin

Qres

I

Vin

(d)

Figure 5 Operation of ES-VEH in constant voltage mode

Qst

Q

A

V

BC

VmaxVoltage across the plateVin

Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

(a)

Qst

A

V

B

C

Voltage across the plate

Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

Vres Vin

Q

(b)

Figure 6 (a) Charge versus voltage at constant charge mode (b) Charge versus voltage at constant voltage mode

In EM-VEH the coil is normally made from diamagneticmaterial that offers very weak force of repletion to permanentmagnet and attribute to very low damping The wound coilin EM-VEH is normally produced from copper wire [37]However various diamagnetic materials that are availablefor producing the microfabricated planar coils in EM-VEHsare shown in Table 4 Among these materials silver has theleast electrical resistivity and can be suitable for makingplanar coil for EM-VEHs However due to the compatibilitywith other microfabrication materials and micromachiningprocesses copper Aluminum and gold aremostly utilized forproducing planar coils

In EM-VEHs high magnetic flux density permanentmagnets take an essential part in conversion of vibrationalenergy to electrical energy The various types of permanentmagnets that are generally used in the developed EM-VEHsare listed in Table 5 Due to high residual magnetic flux den-sity neodymium (NdFeB) permanent magnets are normallyused in almost all of the reported EM-VEHs However thehigh Curie temperature of cast Alnico (AlNico) SamariumCobalt (SmCo) and Sintered Alnico (AlNiCo) make thesepermanent magnets more suitable for high temperatureapplications

The comparison of the three basic types of VEHs is shownin Table 6 PE-VEHs and ES-VEHs are capable of generatinghigh voltage levels than that of EM-VEHs [32] The voltagegeneration in EM-VEHs is on the low side (in mV range)therefore the voltage rectification is a little difficult andnormally ultra-low voltage diodes are used in the rectifier toperform the low voltage rectification [38] In contrast to EM-VEHs the internal impedance of PE-VEHs and ES-VEHs isvery high due to which low output current levels are availablefrom these harvesters [32] Moreover ES-VEHs require abattery source for the continuous charging of the plates of theharvesters and also an energy extraction circuit (switchingcircuit) [29] to collect the harvested energy from ES-VEHs

3 Bridge Vibration Energy Harvesting

Bridge produces vibration due to the vehicular motion andwind [39] These vibration levels are used as base excitationfor different type of bridge vibration energy harvesters Abridge vibration energy harvester converts bridge vibrationsinto electrical energy Various types of bridge vibrationenergy harvester have been developed and reportedHowever PE-VEHs and EM-VEHs are commonly used toextract the energy from the available bridgersquos excitations


x(t)vWound

coil

Permanent magnets Membrane

NSNS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)vWound

coil

Permanent magnets

NS

NS

Beam

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

Spacer Beam

Permanent magnet

A A998400

(c)

Spacer

Planar coil

Beam

Permanent magnets

x(t)v

NS

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(d)

Wound coilBeam

Substrate Permanent magnet

x(t)

v

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(e)

Figure 7 Schematic diagram of reported EM-VEHs (a) membrane type EM-VEH (b) cantilever beam type EM-VEH (c) top view of beamtype EM-VEH (d) cross-sectional view of beam type EM-VEH and (e) moving coil type EM-VEH

Table 4 Planar coil materials and their properties

Coil materials Relative permeability Density Electrical resistivity at 20∘C Thermal conductivity(gcm3) (nΩsdotm) (WmK)

Copper 099 896 1678 401Silver 099 104 1587 429Aluminium 100 27 282 237Gold 1 193 244 318


Table 5 Properties of permanent magnets used in EM-VEHs

Magnet materials Recoilpermeability

Density(gcm3)


Ultimate tensile strength(kpsi)

Residual flux density(Tesla)

Neodymium (NdFeB) 105 74 310 12 14Smarium Cobalt (SmCo) 105 84 825 5 11Sintered Alnico (AlNiCo) 17 68 810 65 062Cast Alnico (AlNiCo) 17 73 860 54 12

Table 6 Comparison of basic types of vibration-based energyharvesters

Parameters PE-VEHs ES-VEHs EM-VEHsOutput voltage High High LowOutput current Low Low HighOutput impedance High High LowResonant frequency Low High LowVoltage rectification Easy Easy HardSwitching circuit No Must No

31 Electromagnetic Bridge Vibration Energy Harvesters Anaircore linear EM-VEH has been reported in [14] to harvestfrom the bridge vibrations The developed EM-VEH is singlephase harvester that is capable of generating high voltage lowcurrent and has high coil resistance due to large number ofturnsThe energy harvester consisted of permanent magnetsa coil and spring The spring used has a stiffness of 34Nmand in the coil vicinity the flux density of the magnets isrecorded to be 200ndash274mT The wound coil is made up of10000 turns with resistance of 67 kΩ and inductance of 34HThe air gap (aircore) is provided to decrease the mechanicaldamping during the vibration The developed EM-VEH ismounted on the girder of a bridge and the bridgersquos vibrationis used to excite the device At the resonant frequency of31 Hz and 10mm base displacement the EM-VEH generateda power of 12500 120583W However at the amplitude of 3mmbase displacement the harvester is able to produce 10V peakvoltage and 1000 120583W power The device architecture andfabrication were not mentioned

For bridge monitoring purposes an EM-VEH [15] isproduced by a rapid prototyping 3Dprinting technologyTheCAD model and the photograph of the fabricated EM-VEHare shown in Figure 8 In the harvester the teeth springsand mounting clamps were 3D printed as one single part byusing selective laser sintered Nylon plastic The harvesterrsquosparts which are not possible to be produced by 3D printingwere conventionally machined or purchased The reportedEM-VEH included permanent magnets assembly which isallowed to vibrate vertically with the help of an Aluminumshaft and two linear ball bearings An Aluminum shaft ispassed through the central holes in magnetrsquos assembly and issupported by the bearings located in the end caps Moreovermagnets located at each end are used as the springs to repelthe vibrating magnet The repulsive magnets are actuallyplaced at the end caps which are screwed onto the casing ofthe harvester A nonlinear spring stiffness produced due to

the repulsive magnets is intended to broaden the bandwidthand also to provide a simple frequency tuning mechanismThe vibrating magnets assembly is produced by sandwichingiron alloy (that has high magnetic saturation and permeabil-ity) disks between the opposing NdFeB magnets A threadedrod (nonmagnetic) with nuts at each end is utilized to keepthe disks-magnets assembly Due to the iron disks a highmagnetic flux density is produced over a series of fixedwound coils that surrounded the vibrating magnets Theharvester is designed in such a way to be easily mountedonto the web-stiffener plate or cross-frame of the bridgestructureThedeveloped EM-VEHwhen tested on a vibratingshaker produced an optimumpower of 26mWat accelerationamplitude of 008 g and frequency of 22Hz The prototypeenergy harvester is only characterized inside the lab undersinusoidal excitations and is not tested for the real bridgevibrationwhich due to passing traffic is pulsating and randomin nature

An EM-VEH [18] developed for extracting the energyfrom the vibration of urban infrastructure (eg bridges railtracks and highways) is shown in Figure 9The reported EM-VEH is comprised of acrylic pipe four NdFeBmagnets and awound coil produced at the surface of the pipe Two magnetsare mounted at each end of the pipe however the remainingtwo are attached together and are allowed to suspend insidethe pipe due to the repulsive force offered by the endmagnetsWhen the developed EM-VEH is installed on the Seongdongbridge at 8mg acceleration amplitude and 14Hz dominantfrequency (bridge vibrationrsquos frequency band = 9 to 50Hz)produced amaximum voltage of 10mV and an average powerof 2120583W In the reported energy harvester the conductingwireis wrapped around a small portion of the cylindrical portionwhich actually resulted in small power generation Moreoverfor the device only length is mentioned the diameter orvolume of the harvester is not provided which might behelpful in computing the power density generated by theprototype

An EM-VEH for harvesting energy from low fre-quency and nonperiodic vibration is developed in [40] Thedeveloped harvester is reported as paramagnetic frequencyincreased generator (PFIG) The energy harvester (PFIG)consisted of a wound coil (2mmwidth and 3175mm length)magnets (diameter = 3175mm and thickness = 475mm)copper suspension tungsten mass and Aluminum casing asshown in Figure 10

The PIFG has been developed with a hybrid fabricationtechnique in which standard microfabrication lithographic


(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 8 EM-VEH developed by [15] (a) exploded view of EM-VEH prototype (b) cross-section view of EM-VEH (c) 3D printed EM-VEHand (d) assembled EM-VEH with vibrating magnet structure

processes are combined with conventional machining asshown in Figure 11 For inertial mass and each frequencyincreased generator (FIG) the planar springs are microfab-ricated (photolithography) by the selective etching of 127 120583mthick copper (alloy 110) sheet The main magnet (NdFeB)and latching-actuation magnet are bonded to the springto produce the FIG assembly The wound coils are madeover the bobbins (Aluminum) from the copper (44AWGenameled) wire With a single screw at the centre the bobbinand the coil are fixed inside the FIG The inertial mass(tungsten carbide) produced by electric discharge machiningis bonded to each side of another planar spring The FIGand the inertial mass subassemblies are then joined togetherusing screws When attached to the load resistance of 220Ωand excited at 1 g base acceleration and 10Hz frequency

the reported PFIG produced a max power of 163 120583W Thedevice experimentation has been performed in the lab usingvibration shaker and no real time characterization for theharvester has been investigated in the work

As shown in Figure 12 an EM-VEHwithmultirepulsivelystacked magnets andmovable wound coils has been reportedfor low vibration environments [16] The EM-VEH consistedof two wound coils There are 980 turns in Coil-1 howeverCoil-2 is made up of 1960 turnsThe overall thickness of Coil-1 and Coil-2 is 2mm and 4mm respectively and resistanceof 145 and 290Ω respectively Eight NdFeB magnets andseven steel cores with each having thickness of 5mm areattached on a steel shaft The developed energy harvesteris simulated for the vibration levels available at the thirdNongro Bridge (South Korea) and the simulation results


17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026

Figure 9 EM-VEH reported in [18] for bridge vibration energy harvesting

suspensionCopper spring

Coil

NdFeB magnet

Copper springsuspension

Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)

Inertial massassembly

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)

Figure 10 Exploded view of EM-VEH [40]

showed an average power generation of 012mW from aninput acceleration level of 0025 g at 41 Hz frequency Singlecoil of the device produced a voltage amplitude of 071 V andan rms voltage of 014 VThe reported energy harvester is notcharacterized for the real bridge environment and moreoverin the simulation performed in the lab the effect of wind andair surges produced due to passing traffic is not considered

The EM-VEH reported in [37] consisted of Planar PCBcoils wound coils membrane magnets and Teflon spacersAssembled view of the reported EM-VEH is shown inFigure 13 The different parts of the EM-VEH are producedusing PCB fabrication techniques and traditional machiningprocesses From a FR4 PCB board a double sided planar coilof overall size of 1 times 1 cm is developed with PCB fabricationtechnique The planar coil has a wire width of 200120583m and is

composed of 12 turns Wound coils are made from 018mmcopper wire Copper wire is manually wound on the Teflonspacers to produce 7 turns wound coil for the harvester Theplanar coil and wound coil have a resistance of 36 and 18Ωrespectively A flexible membrane is clamped in betweentwoNdFeBmagnets and thismembrane-magnets suspensionsystem is bonded in between the two Teflon spacers FR4substrate with dual planar coils is then attached to the spacerwith epoxy The prototype energy harvester has four planarand sixteenwound coilsTheEM-VEH is characterized undersinusoidal vibration at different acceleration levels At aresonant frequency of 27Hz and acceleration amplitude of3 g a single planar and wound coil of the EM-VEH produceda voltage of 155mV and 1105mV and a load power of18 120583W and 21 120583W at their matching impedance of 36 ohm


(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Figure 11 Fabrication of EM-VEH reported by [40]

and 18 ohm respectively The resonant frequency (27Hz)of the developed energy harvester is a little bit on higherside Moreover the harvester is only tested in the lab undersinusoidal excitation and the behaviour of the device is notinvestigated in the actual vibration of bridge The membranetype energy harvesters normally exhibit nonlinear behaviourat high acceleration levels however this seeking of operationof the device is not discussed here

Modeling and simulation for an EM-VEH are performedin [41]The proposed devices are used to harvest energy fromthe wind induced vibrations of the suspension bridge A sus-pension bridge of 766m length is modeled in SAP2000 andwith utilizing the wind speed data the vibration response ofthe bridge is obtained The wind induced vibration responseof the bridge is then utilized to forecast the power generationwith EM-VEH models A simulated EM-VEH-1 consisted ofa wound coil suspended magnet and a fixed magnet In thecentral recess of the wound coil the suspended magnet isallowed to vibrate on top of fixed magnet In the harvestermagnets are oriented in such a way to repel each other duringoscillationsThe simulations performed on a linear EM-VEH-1model predicted amaximumpower generation of 0056mWat the mid span of the bridge Moreover it is mentionedthat in the middle portion (305m) of the bridge the energyharvesting per harvester is larger than 0001W Modelingand simulation are also performed for a nonlinear EM-VEH-2 The architecture of EM-VEH-2 is similar except there

is also a fixed permanent magnet on top of the suspendedmagnet For an equivalent damping ratio of 002 a peakpower of 145W is reported at the mid span of the bridgeIn the reported energy harvesting work only simulations areconducted for the bridge vibration (due to wind) and theenergy harvester The harvester fabrication is not reportedfurthermore during modeling and simulations the passingtraffic induced excitations are ignored

For a bridge stay cable vibration control a double-function EM-VEH is investigated in [42] The reportedelectromagnetic damper is to provide vibration damping inthe bridge stay cable as well as extract the energy fromthe bridge vibrations The double-function electromagneticdamper is comprised of EM-damper and an energy harvest-ing circuit A discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) buck-boost converter is used to obtain the optimum operationalpoints of the reported EM-damper For the performance ofthe EM-damper numerical simulations are performed ona full scale wind excited stay cable It is reported that forthe specific wind speed that range from 9ms to 15ms theEM-damper successfully performed the dual functions andwith the harvester an average energy generation efficiency of423 is obtained Moreover at the optimum wind velocityrange (9ms to 15ms) the simulation results also predicted amaximumpower production ranging from 825mW to 24WIn this research only the simulation of energy harvesting froma bridge stay cable due to the excitations by the wind speedis performed No harvesterrsquos fabrication and experimentationhave been conducted moreover the traffic induced vibrationis not considered in the simulations which can affect theoverall accuracy of the simulation results for the energyharvesting system

32 Piezoelectric Vibration Energy Harvesters A PE-VEH[15] developed for bridge monitoring system is shown inFigure 14 The harvester consisted of two Aluminum can-tilever beams and a large mass (steel) at the beamrsquos tip Twosmall piezoelectric bimorph type (MIDE Volture) vibrationenergy harvesters are also placed at the free end of the mainbeam Due to the excitation as the main beam vibratesthe beamrsquos tip hits a stopper plate oriented just beneath thetip The impulsive striking caused the small piezoelectricbimorph beams to resonate at relatively higher resonantfrequencies The resonant frequency of the main beam is207Hz When the PE-VEH is subjected to a vibrationat 2Hz frequency 01 g acceleration amplitude and 6 cmdisplacement an optimum power of 64 120583W is generated bya single bimorph beam at the optimum load of 70 kΩ Thetesting of the developed energy harvester is not reported forthe real bridge vibration moreover the initial beam bending(due to proof mass) might cause nonlinear device behavioureven at lower acceleration levels

For harvesting vibrations in civil structures the devel-oped tunable PE-VEH [26] is shown in Figure 15 Thereported PE-VEH is a cantilever type energy harvester andconsisted of a commercially available bimorph PZT sensor(type SMBA4510T05M STEMIC) and a tip proof mass(375 grams) Two metallic coil type springs are used to


Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer

Stainlesssteel shaft

22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1

Figure 12 Device and experimental setup [16]

Planar coil Teflon spacer

Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)

Figure 13 EM-VEH developed in [37] (a) exploded view and (b) assembled prototype

connect the beamrsquos tip to the clamped beamrsquos end Theobjective of utilizing the coil spring is to provide the preload(prestress) to the bimorph beamWith the screws the lengthsof the springs are adjusted in order to alter the preloadon the beam When connected to a 10MΩ load resistanceand subjected to 1 g acceleration the PE-VEH produceda voltage of 27V and 28V under compressive preloadsof 2N and 4N respectively The corresponding resonantfrequencies reported at these preloads (2N and 4N) are445Hz and 40Hz Real experimentation on bridge has notbeen performed and only lab characterization is discussedMoreover in the harvester any slight difference in the springforces for the beam preload will greatly affect the deviceperformance

The design modeling and characterization of the PE-VEH have been investigated in [43] The developed energyharvester shown in Figure 16 is a cantilever type energyharvester To extract the energy from the frequency band(15Hz) of bridge vibrations the resonant frequency in thedeveloped energy harvester is kept 145Hz Two bimorphpiezoelectric (MideQP20W) patches were bonded on the topand bottom surface of a steel plate which has a dimensionof 40 times 220 times 08mm The piezoelectric patches were gluednear the clamped end of the cantilever beam For the resonantfrequency tuning of the harvester a 12 g mass is placed onthe steel beam as a proof mass The developed PE-VEH istested on the bridge and at a frequency of lower than 15Hzit successfully produced a maximum power of 30 120583W and


(a)

(b)

Figure 14 PE-VEH developed by [15] (a) CAD model of PE-VEH prototype and (b) developed PE-VEH on the vibration shaker

Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)

Figure 15 PE-VEH produced for vibration in civil structures [26]

a voltage that ranges from 18 to 36 V Since the reportedharvester is mounted at the fixture of water pipe passingunder the bridge therefore it might be possible that highwind speed hampers the operation of the harvester

The bridge vibration interaction with the piezoelectricenergy harvester is reported in [44] Analytical modelingfor bridge vibration and PE-VEH is performed in timedomain and frequency domain The bridge dynamics ismodeled as a simply supported beamwith a constant movingload however the PE-VEH is modeled as one degree offreedom system The developed models are simulated fordifferent parameters such as bridge length (25 50 75 and100m) vehicle velocity (20 40 60 80 and 100mih) bridgedamping ratio (001 003 and 005) and the location ofthe piezoelectric (PVDF) harvester on the bridge (14 12and 34 of bridgersquos length) The simulation results showed amaximum power generation either at 20mih or at 40mihBridge lengths of 75m and 100m produced sufficient powerto operatemicrosensors However the prospective harvesterrsquoslocations 14th and 34th of the bridge lengths are reported

to have enough potential for the considered bandwidth of thevehicle velocities Moreover for a vehicle (1000N) velocityof 20mih over a 100m long bridge a maximum simulatedpower of 06 120583W is reported at 34th bridgersquos length Onlymodeling and simulation have been performed and the PE-VEH fabrication and its implementation are not mentioned

In [45] a multi-impact cantilever type PE-VEH is devel-oped for low frequency (less than 10Hz) vibrations of struc-tures such as bridges The reported energy harvester (shownin Figure 17) consisted of a frame two vertically orientedpiezoelectric cantilever beams and a mass-spring system(hung mass) aligned in between the two vertical beams Apiezoelectric patch (PI P-876) is bondednear the clamped endof each vertical Aluminum cantilever beam however thereare a number of bulges on the remaining portion of the beamThe mass containing the rollers on the sides is suspendedby the coil spring During vibrations when the rollers movealong the mass the bulges at the tips of the cantilevers arerepeatedly struck by the rollers Due to these impacts highfrequency vibrations (120Hz) are triggered in the horizontal


(a)

(b)

Figure 16 (a) Piezoelectric energy harvester (b) experimental setup[43]

direction on the cantilever beams In this manner the lowfrequency external vibration is converted into the verticaloscillation of the hungmass and then into the high frequencyexcitation (horizontal) of cantilevers When the reportedPE-VEH is subjected to a sinusoidal excitation at 029 gacceleration amplitude and 271Hz (resonant frequency ofhung mass) an average power of 77mW is produced underoptimum load condition of 97 kΩ Moreover at resonanceand under the same load matching condition a maximumaverage power of almost 94mW is reported at a base accel-eration of 44 g for the energy harvester However when thePE-VEH is characterized for the simulated bridge vibrationsthe harvester delivered a maximum average power of 28mWto the optimum load resistance of 97 kΩ It is reported thatunder the simulated bridge excitations the working of thePE-VEH is not as smooth as in case of sinusoidal vibrationsWhen compared with the fabricated traditional cantilevertype PE-VEH (same resonant frequency of 271Hz) theperformance of the multi-impact type PE-VEH is foundfar better For the reported device the performance is onlyanalyzed in the lab using vibration shaker Moreover due tosudden impacts between beams and hung mass the beamswear and fatigue can be an issue

For the bridge vibration analysis modeling of a bridgersquosmodel with a moving point load and an analytical modelingof a vibration-based piezoelectric energy harvester have beendiscussed in [46] A PE-VEH with and without inductorhas been modeled as a single degree of freedom systemand simulated using the devised bridgersquos model A movingpoint load at various vehicle speeds (10 15 20 and 25ms)is assumed at different locations (14 13 and 12 of the

Piezoelectricpatch Spring

Cantileverbeam

Vibrationdirection ofcantilever

Hung massVibration directionof hung mass

Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring


Vibration directionof hung mass

Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)

Figure 17Multi-impact PE-VEHdeveloped by [45] (a)CADmodeland (b) assembled energy harvester

bridgersquos length) of the bridge and energy is estimated atdifferent bridgersquos length Both time and frequency responsesare obtained at various bridgersquos locations and it is reportedthat the optimum power is harvested at the location whereboth the PE-VEH resonant frequencies matched with thebridgersquos natural frequency A simulated maximum energygeneration of about 18120583J is reported at 13 of the bridgersquoslength for a vehicle speed of 25ms In this work onlythe bridge model and energy harvester have been analyzedand simulated and no device fabrication and real timeexperimentation are performed

A piezoelectric energy harvester is developed [47] forextracting the energy from vibration available at the bridgebearing The prototype PE-VEH consisted of a 05 in thicksteel plate (6 in times 26 in) containing 6 PZT (Type 5A) piezo-electric wafers The thickness of each PZT wafer is 2mmand is bonded to the steel plate using conductive epoxy(Chemtronics CircuitWorks CW2400) Moreover a rubber


Figure 18 Fully-assembled bearing prototype [47]

(1) Accelerometer(2) Piezoelectric generator(3) Load resistance(4) Shaker

(5) Computer(6) Function generator data acquisition system(7) Signal conditioner(8) Power amplifier

Figure 19 Experiment setup for model validation [48]

(60-durometer neoprene) layer is inserted between the steelplates The assembled bearing PE-VEH contained 5 PZTbonded steel plates and rubber (60-durometer neoprene)layers (38 in times 6 in times 26 in) which are inserted in betweenthe overlap steel plates A load resistance of 480Ω is attachedto each PZT wafer and the prototype PE-VEH is subjected toa cyclic force (square wave) at different frequencies and forceamplitudes At optimal load condition and when subjected toa force amplitude of 4 kip and a frequency of 15Hz the totalenergy (Wattsdotseconds) dissipated in the load resistance in 2seconds is reported to be 167 times 10minus4Wsdots which correspondsto the harvesterrsquos instantaneous total power generation of 835times 10minus5W Moreover at a frequency of 2Hz a peak voltageof 650mV is reported The developed prototype is shown inFigure 18 The reported device is only characterized in laband the implementation of the developed energy harvesterin the actual bridge bearing can be an issue regarding thecompromise on the structural strength and stability

For the structural healthmonitoring of bridges modelingand fabrication of a PE-VEH are reported in [48] and theexperimental setup is shown in Figure 19 The developedPE-VEH consisted of a bimorph piezoelectric (Piezo SystemInc T226-A4-503X) cantilever beam Two prototypes arereported prototype-1 which is only the bimorph cantileverbeam (without tip mass) and has a resonant frequencyof 1171 Hz However in prototype-2 tip mass is added at

the free end of the beam and its resonant frequency is652Hz The prototypes are subjected to sinusoidal exci-tation at 021 g acceleration level and respective devicersquosresonant frequencies At the optimum loads of 118 kΩ and149 kΩ maximum power of 197 and 657120583W is reported forprototype-1 and prototype-2 respectively The simulation ofthe devised model is reported to be in good agreement withthe measurement Moreover for the broadband applicationsan array type PE-VEH is also fabricated in this work Thebroadband PE-VEH composed of an array of six piezoelectriccantilever beams with different resonant frequencies (63257663 715 6625 6313 5888 and 5538Hz) Under optimumload condition (73 66 68 71 73 75 and 78 kΩ) whensubjected to a base acceleration of 02 g a power of 031024 026 028 031 and 033mW is produced by eachbeam in the array For the developed array type PE-VEH anaverage power of 022mW is reported in the frequency rangefrom 57 to 78Hz In this publication the energy harvesteris characterized under the vibration of a bridge model andno experimentation on the real bridge is reported Moreoverthe developed prototypes exhibit relatively higher resonantfrequencies (57 to 78Hz) and can be applicable only inthose structures where this narrow frequency band bridgevibrations are available

To power a structural health monitoring system frombridge vibrations a computational model is developed for


a PE-VEH [49] The simulated PE-VEH is composed ofa PVDF layer attached to the whole top surface of thebridge and the vibration produced due to a single vehiclepassing over a simply supported bridge is considered forpower generation The vehicle is modeled as a moving pointload crossing the bridge at a constant velocity Howeverthe bridge model is a 25m long concrete (density of 2446and Youngrsquos modulus of 36GPa) beam with a rectangularcross-section (width of 85m) and a span to depth ratio of20 The PVDF material with the density Youngrsquos modulusand dielectric constant of 1760 kgm3 3 Gpa and 7434 times10minus11 Fm respectively is utilized for simulation For analysisa finite element softwareABAQUS is used and the structure isanalyzed using 2-dimensional 8-nodded quadratic elementsFor a 25m and 30m concrete (base beam) and PVDF bridgesthe simulations reported a power production of 42 kW and51 kW respectively Moreover the concrete (beam) bridgepower generation results are also compared with steel (basebeam) and PVDF bridges and a much less power generation(only 0058 kW and 0096 kW resp) is reported for the steelbridges In this work the size of the simulated energy harvest-ing mechanism is gigantic In reality how the piezoelectricmaterial will be attached to the road surface is notmentioned

4 Comparison of Bridge VibrationEnergy Harvesters

Developed bridge vibration energy harvesters are summa-rized in Table 7 The comparative analysis of the reportedbridge vibration energy harvesters can be performed onseveral criterions such as harvesterrsquos size transductionmech-anism resonant frequency operation frequency frequencybandwidth internal impedance optimum load accelerationlevels to which these are subjected voltage generation powerproduction and power density

Based on the transduction mechanism the bridge vibra-tion energy harvesters are classified into EM-VEHs [15 1637 40 41] and PE-VEHs [18 44 45 47 48] In most of thedeveloped PE-VEHs the commercially available piezoelectricmaterial is utilized to fabricate the energy harvester Howeverin EM-VEHs mostly wound coils and permanent magnetsare used to produce the devices PE-VEHs produced highvoltage levels however due to high internal impedance lowpower levels are generated Although relatively low voltagelevels are produced by EM-VEHs because of low internalimpedance in EM-VEHs relatively high output current andpower levels are obtained

By virtue of the harvesterrsquos resonant frequency most ofthe developed bridge vibration energy harvesters reside inthe range of low resonant frequency (lt100Hz) devices Onlythe harvesters reported in [45 48] have resonant frequenciesgreater than 100Hz Relatively the EM-VEHs have lowerresonant frequencies than that of PE-VEHs This fact isattributed to the larger proof mass (permanent magnet) inEM-VEHs than that of the PE-VEHs

The classification of bridge vibration energy harvesterscan also be performed with respect to the power productionby these devices Very low power levels (06ndash57120583W) are

[45]

Piezoelectric VEHsElectromagnetic VEHs

Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]

Galchev et al 2011 [40]Kwon et al 2013 [16]

Zhang et al 2014 [45]Jo et al 2012 [18]

Li 2014 [48]

Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]

Figure 20 Power developed by the bridge energy harvesters as afunction of acceleration

generated by the harvesters reported in [18 37 40 41 44]The energy harvesters reported by [16 47 48] have generatedrelativelymediumpower levels which is in the range of 120 to657 120583W However comparatively high power levels (7700 to1450000 120583W) are produced with energy harvesters developedin [15 41 45]

Figure 20 shows the power generated by the developedbridge vibration energy harvester as function of base accel-eration The bridge vibration energy harvesters are subjectedto an overall base acceleration that range from 0025 to8 g The EM-VEHs are relatively characterized under loweracceleration levels (0025 to 3 g) in comparison to PE-VEHswhich are subjected to 021 to 8 g acceleration levels Based onthe acceleration levels of the applied vibration the reportedbridge vibration energy harvester can be classified intolow medium and high acceleration energy harvesters Lowacceleration level (0025 to 029 g) harvesters are reportedby [16 40 45 48] The developed harvesters [15 40] arecharacterized under medium acceleration levels (03 to 1 g)However the harvesters operated under high accelerationlevels (3 to 8 g) are reported in [18 37] The EM-VEHdeveloped in [16] is operated under the lowest accelerationlevel of 0025 g however among the energy harvesters a PE-VEH [18] is subjected to the high acceleration level of 8 gComparatively the harvesters [45] and [48] produce highpower levels at medium acceleration levels of 029 and 021 grespectively

The power developed by the devised bridge vibrationenergy harvesters with respect to the harvesterrsquos size isshown in Figure 21 Most of the reported bridge vibrationenergy harvesters are mesoscale devices Among the devel-oped bridge vibration energy harvesters the EM-VEH [40]has the smallest size (48 cm3) and produced a power of163 120583WHowever PE-VEH developed by [47] is of the biggestsize (1220891 cm3) and it reported to generated 167 120583W Incomparison the EM-VEH-2 [41] with a volume of 152 cm3


Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice


Kwon et al 2013 [16]Galchev et al 2011 [40]

Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]

Figure 21 Power developed by the bridge vibration energy har-vesters as function of harvesterrsquos size

is mentioned to produce a simulated power of 1450000 120583Wwhich is the largest among all the bridge vibration energyharvesters However the actual fabrication of the EM-VEH-2 [41] is not reported Moreover the least power (06 120583Wsimulated) is generated by a PE-VEH [44] which has a sizeof 65 cm3 By comparing the overall size the EM-VEHs arerelatively smaller in size having the range from48 to 152 cm3however the PE-VEHs are comparatively bigger in size (from17 to 1220891 cm3)

For the reported bridge vibration energy harvestersthe power density plotted against the harvesterrsquos internalresistance is shown in Figure 22The internal resistance of theEM-VEHs is on the lower side (0021 to 290Ω) however forthe PE-VEHs the internal resistance is relatively high and itranges from 480 to 200 kΩ The energy harvesters for whichthe lowest (0021Ω) and the highest resistance (200 kΩ) arementioned are actually not fabricated but only simulationsare performed for these devicesThe power delivery from theharvester is optimum at impedance matching and thereforeit is important to design the energy harvesters in such a waythat the harvesterrsquos internal impedance is equivalent to thecombined impedance of the rectifying circuit and thewirelesssensor node

All of the developed bridge vibration energy harvestersare resonators that is these would generate optimum powerat resonance condition However at off-resonance operationthe power production by the resonant energy harvesters isnormally on the lower sideMoreover these energy harvestershave a narrow bandwidth which is also an issue Power asa function of resonant frequency is shown in Figure 23 Theresonant frequency of all of the bridge energy harvestersis within the frequency band (1 to 40Hz) of the bridgevibrations except PE-VEH-2 [45] and PE-VEHs [48] whoseresonant frequencies are well higher than 40Hz For mostof the bridge vibration energy harvesters the resonant fre-quency is in the range from 1 to 10Hz

Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)

Baldwin et al 2011 [47]


1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]


Li 2014 [48]Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]

Figure 22 Power density versus resistance of different bridgevibration energy harvesters

Resonant frequency (Hz)

Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]


McEvoy et al 2011 [15]Jo et al 2012 [18]



Zhang et al 2014 [45]

Figure 23 Power developed by the bridge vibration energy har-vesters as function of harvesterrsquos resonant frequency

For thorough comparison of the bridge energy harvestersthe power density (PD) and power density per acceleration(PDPA) as function of the harvesterrsquos resonant frequency areshown in Figures 24 and 25 respectively The overall PDof the developed bridge vibration energy harvesters rangesfrom 001 to 95395 120583Wcm3 Among the bridge vibrationenergy harvesters [16 40 48] have their PDs on the higherside The medium range PDs are provided by harvesters[37 41 44] and least most PDs are reported for EM-VEH-3 [40] and PE-VEH [47] Although PE-VEHs [48] seems toproduce relatively high PDs the resonant frequencies (652and 1171 Hz) of these harvesters are way over the frequencyband of the bridge vibrations and therefore most of the timethese would operate at off-resonant frequencies and generateeither moderate or low powers



10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



Baldwin et al 2011 [47]Li 2014 [48]Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]

Figure 24 Power density of bridge vibration energy harvestersverses harvesterrsquos resonant frequency


1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]

Figure 25 Power density per acceleration of bridge vibration energyharvesters verses harvesterrsquos resonant frequency

In Figure 25 when the bridge vibration energy harvestersare compared by PDPA still harvesters [48] seem promisinghowever due to the over the range (gt40Hz) resonant fre-quencies the performance of harvesters reported in [48] willbe always under the par The energy harvesters [16 40 47]all have resonant frequencies below 10Hz and moreoverfor these devices the PDPA values are on the higher sidetherefore it is expected that these energy harvesters willoperate far better than the other reported bridge vibrationenergy harvesters

5 Conclusions

For autonomous bridge health monitoring system the wire-less acceleration sensor nodes (WASNs) need to be self-powered nodes In order to operate autonomously WASNs

require an alternative power source to replace the existinglimited shelf life batteries The energy harvester that extractsthe energy from ambient sources (solar energy thermalenergy acoustic energy wind energy and mechanical vibra-tions) can be integrated with the WASN to autonomouslymonitor the condition of bridges and civil structures Inbridge surroundings wind solar acoustic and vibrationenergies are abundantly available for energy harvestinghowever only bridge vibration has the tendency to be utilizedfor embedded WASNs applications This work presents therecent developments and advancements in the field of bridgevibration energy harvesting for autonomous WASNs So fartwo types of bridge vibration energy harvesters are developedand reported in the literature these are piezoelectric vibrationenergy harvesters (PE-VEHs) and electromagnetic vibrationenergy harvesters (EM-VEHs) Due to the ease of inclusionof commercially available piezoelectric material in PE-VEHit is easy to develop PE-VEHs as compared to EM-VEHsHowever because of high current andpower levels generationby EM-VEHs majority of the reported bridge vibrationenergy harvesters are based on electromagnetic transductionmechanism Moreover the existence of lumped permanentmagnet in EM-VEHs attributes to relatively low resonantfrequencies of the harvesters which is highly significant innarrow-band low frequency bridgersquos vibration Till date forbridge vibrations the development of electrostatic vibrationenergy harvesters is not reported in the literature and thepossible reason for this is attributed to the usage of initialcharging source (battery) and the requirement of the elec-tronic switch circuit during the operation of these energyharvesters

The overall power generation range for the reportedbridge energy harvesters is from 07 to 1450000120583W howeverthe resonant frequencies of these energy harvesters fall inthe range from 1 to 120Hz The power level generated bythe developed PE-VEHs is from 06 to 7700 120583W and theirresonant frequencies are in the range of 1Hz to 120HzThe produced EM-VEHs have relatively low resonant fre-quencies (from 013Hz to 27Hz) and showed the capabil-ity of producing power from 07120583W to 1450000120583W Thepower generation level of the reported bridge vibrationenergy harvesters is quite sufficient to operate most ofthe commercially available wireless sensor nodes discussedin the introduction Moreover the resonant frequenciesof most of the devised bridge energy harvesters lay inthe narrowband (1 to 40Hz) vibrations available at bridgestructures

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] A Hassan and C Bach ldquoImproving security connection inwireless sensor networksrdquo International Journal of Innovationand Scientific Research vol 2 no 2 pp 301ndash307 2014


[2] Q I Ali ldquoSimulation framework of wireless sensor network(WSN) using matlabsimulink softwarerdquo 2012 httpcdnintechopencompdfs-wm39337pdf

[3] K Sohrabi J Gao V Ailawadhi and G J Pottie ldquoProtocols forself-organization of a wireless sensor networkrdquo IEEE PersonalCommunications vol 7 no 5 pp 16ndash27 2000

[4] A R Khan ldquoEnergy efficient protocol design issues in wirelesssensor networksrdquo Journal of Information amp CommunicationTechnology vol 4 no 1 pp 12ndash18 2010

[5] N Kaur V Walia and R Malhotra ldquoActivation matrix orientedbase station implementation for energy optimization in wire-less sensor networksrdquo International Journal of Computing andCorporate Research vol 4 no 4 2014

[6] M Enckell Lessons learned in structural health monitoring ofbridges using advanced sensor technology [PhD thesis] Divisionof Structural Engineering and Bridges Department of Civiland Architectural Engineering Royal Institute of Technology(KTH) Stockholm Sweden 2011

[7] H Sohn C R Farrar F M Hemez et al ldquoA review of structuralhealth monitoring literature 1996ndash2001rdquo Report LA-13976-MSLos Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos NM USA 2004httpsinstitutelanlgoveishmpubsLA 13976 MSapdf

[8] J A Rice K Mechitov S-H Sim et al ldquoFlexible smart sen-sor framework for autonomous structural health monitoringrdquoSmart Structures and Systems vol 6 no 5-6 pp 423ndash438 2010

[9] Y Fujino DM Siringoringo T Nagayama andD Su ldquoControlsimulation and monitoring of bridge vibrationmdashJapanrsquos recentdevelopment and practicerdquo in Proceedings of the IABSE-JSCEJoint Conference on Advances in Bridge Engineering-II pp 61ndash74 Dhaka Bangladesh August 2010

[10] J Kala V Salajka and P Hradil ldquoFootbridge response onsingle pedestrian induced vibration analysisrdquoWorld Academy ofScience Engineering and Technology vol 3 no 2 pp 548ndash5592009

[11] F Neitzel B Resnik S Weisbrich and A Friedrich ldquoVibrationmonitoring of bridgesrdquo Reports on Geodesy vol 1 no 90 pp331ndash340 2011

[12] T Galchev J McCullagh R L Peterson and K Najafi ldquoAvibration harvesting system for bridge health monitoring appli-cationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 10th International Workshop onMicro and Nanotechnology for Power Generation and EnergyConversion Applications (PowerMEMS rsquo10) pp 179ndash182 Bel-gium Leuven Belgium November-December 2010

[13] A M Abdel-Ghaffar and R H Scanlan ldquoAmbient vibrationstudies of golden gate bridge I Suspended structurerdquo Journalof Engineering Mechanics vol 111 no 4 pp 463ndash482 1985

[14] E Sazonov H Li D Curry and P Pillay ldquoSelf-powered sensorsfor monitoring of highway bridgesrdquo IEEE Sensors Journal vol9 no 11 pp 1422ndash1429 2009

[15] T McEvoy E Dierks J Weaver et al ldquoDeveloping innovativeenergy harvesting approaches for infrastructure health moni-toring systemsrdquo in Proceedings of the 37th Design AutomationConference Parts A and B pp 325ndash339 Washington DC USAAugust 2011

[16] S-D Kwon J Park and K Law ldquoElectromagnetic energyharvester with repulsively stacked multilayer magnets for lowfrequency vibrationsrdquo Smart Materials and Structures vol 22no 5 Article ID 055007 2013

[17] L Zhang X Yan and X Yang ldquoVehicle-bridge coupled vibra-tion response study of Huanghe cable-stayed bridge due tomultiple vehicles parallel with high speedrdquo in Proceedings of the

International Conference on Mechanic Automation and ControlEngineering (MACE rsquo10) pp 1134ndash1137 Wuhan China June2010

[18] B Jo Y Lee G Yun C Park and J Kim ldquoVibration-inducedenergy harvesting for green technologyrdquo in Proceedings of theInternational Conference on Chemical Environment and CivilEngineering (ICCECE rsquo12) pp 167ndash170 Manila PhilippinesNovember 2012

[19] C E Dierks Design of an electromagnetic vibration energyharvester for structural health monitoring of bridges employingwireless sensor networks [MS thesis] Department of Mechan-ical Engineering University of Texas at Austin Austin TexUSA 2011

[20] S Boisseau G Despesse T Ricart E Defay and A SylvestreldquoCantilever-based electret energy harvestersrdquo Smart Materialsand Structures vol 20 no 10 Article ID 105013 2011

[21] D Spreemann B Folkmer D Mintenbeck and Y ManolildquoNovel non-resonant vibration transducer for energy harvest-ingrdquo in Proceedings of the International Workshop on Micro andNanotechnology for Power Generation and Energy ConversionApplications (PowerMEMS rsquo05) pp 144ndash146 Tokyo JapanNovember 2005

[22] Y B Jeon R Sood J-H Jeong and S-G Kim ldquoMEMS powergenerator with transverse mode thin film PZTrdquo Sensors andActuators A vol 122 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2005

[23] P D Mitcheson P Miao B H Stark E M Yeatman A SHolmes and T C Green ldquoMEMS electrostatic micropowergenerator for low frequency operationrdquo Sensors and ActuatorsA Physical vol 115 no 2-3 pp 523ndash529 2004

[24] M-C Chiu Y-C Chang L-J Yeh and C-H Chung ldquoOptimaldesign of a vibration-based electromagnetic energy harvesterusing a simulated annealing algorithmrdquo Journal of Mechanicsvol 28 no 4 pp 691ndash700 2012

[25] M Bhanusri ldquoDesign and simulation of unimorph piezoelectricenergy harvesting systemrdquo in Proceedings of the COMSOLConference pp 1ndash6 Bangalore India November 2013

[26] M Rhimi and N Lajnef ldquoTunable energy harvesting fromambient vibrations in civil structuresrdquo Journal of Energy Engi-neering vol 138 no 4 pp 185ndash193 2012

[27] M Ericka D Vasic F Costa G Poulin and S Tliba ldquoEnergyharvesting from vibration using a piezoelectric membranerdquoJournal de Physique IV vol 128 pp 187ndash193 2005

[28] C Eichhorn R Tchagsim N Wilhelm F Goldschmidtboeingand P Woias ldquoA compact piezoelectric energy harvester with alarge resonance frequency tuning rangerdquo in Proceedings of the10th International Workshop on Micro and Nanotechnology forPower Generation and Energy Conversion Applications (Power-MEMS rsquo10) pp 207ndash210 Leuven Belgium December 2010

[29] P D Mitcheson and T C Green ldquoMaximum effectivenessof electrostatic energy harvesters when coupled to interfacecircuitsrdquo IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems I RegularPapers vol 59 no 12 pp 3098ndash3111 2012

[30] F Khan B Stoeber and F Sassani ldquoModeling of linear microelectromagnetic energy harvesters with nonuniform magneticfield for sinusoidal vibrationsrdquoMicrosystemTechnologies vol 21no 3 pp 683ndash692 2014

[31] F Khan F Sassani and B Stoeber ldquoCopper foil-type vibration-based electromagnetic energy harvesterrdquo Journal of Microme-chanics and Microengineering vol 20 no 12 Article ID 1250062010


[32] F Khan F Sassani and B Stoeber ldquoNonlinear behaviour ofmembrane type electromagnetic energy harvester under har-monic and random vibrationsrdquo Microsystem Technologies vol20 no 7 pp 1323ndash1335 2014

[33] A R M Foisal and G-S Chung ldquoFabrication and character-ization of a low frequency electromagnetic energy harvesterrdquoJournal of Semiconductors vol 33 no 7 Article ID 074001 2012

[34] L A Vandewater and S D Moss ldquoModelling of a bi-axialvibration energy harvesterrdquo Report DSTO TN-1174 DefenceScience and Technology Organisation Canberra Australia2013 httpwwwdstodefencegovausitesdefaultfilespubli-cationsdocumentsDSTO-TN-1174pdf

[35] S P Beeby R N Torah M J Tudor et al ldquoA micro electro-magnetic generator for vibration energy harvestingrdquo Journal ofMicromechanics and Microengineering vol 17 no 7 pp 1257ndash1265 2007

[36] B Marinkovic and H Koser ldquoSmart sandmdasha wide bandwidthvibration energy harvesting platformrdquo Applied Physics Lettersvol 94 no 10 Article ID 103505 2009

[37] F U Khan and I Ahmad ldquoVibration-based electromagnetictype energy harvester for bridgemonitoring sensor applicationrdquoin Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Emerg-ing Technologies (ICET rsquo14) pp 125ndash129 Islamabad PakistanDecember 2014

[38] C Peters J Handwerker D Maurath and Y Manoli ldquoAn ultra-low-voltage active rectifier for energy harvesting applicationsrdquoin Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Circuitsand Systems (ISCAS rsquo10) pp 889ndash892 Paris France June 2010

[39] M-F Liu T-P Chang and D-Y Zeng ldquoThe interactive vibra-tion behavior in a suspension bridge systemundermoving vehi-cle loads and vertical seismic excitationsrdquoAppliedMathematicalModelling vol 35 no 1 pp 398ndash411 2011

[40] T Galchev H Kim and K Najafi ldquoMicro power generator forharvesting low-frequency and nonperiodic vibrationsrdquo Journalof Microelectromechanical Systems vol 20 no 4 pp 852ndash8662011

[41] S Miao Energy harvesting from wind-induced vibration ofsuspension bridges [MS thesis] Department of Civil and Envi-ronmental Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2013

[42] W A Shen and S Zhu ldquoA dual-function electromagneticdamper for bridge stay cable vibration mitigation and energyharvestingrdquo in Proceedings of the 13th East Asia-Pacific Confer-ence on Structural Engineering and Construction (EASEC rsquo13)Sapporo Japan September 2013

[43] M Peigney and D Siegert ldquoPiezoelectric energy harvestingfrom traffic-induced bridge vibrationsrdquo Smart Materials andStructures vol 22 no 9 Article ID 095019 2013

[44] MHAminAnalysis of piezoelectric energy harvesting for bridgehealth monitoring systems [MS thesis] Computational Engi-neering Centre School of Engineering University of SwanseaWales UK 2010

[45] Y Zhang C S Cai and W Zhang ldquoExperimental study ofa multi-impact energy harvester under low frequency excita-tionsrdquo Smart Materials and Structures vol 23 no 5 Article ID055002 2014

[46] S F Ali M I Friswell and S Adhikari ldquoAnalysis of energyharvesters for highway bridgesrdquo Journal of Intelligent MaterialSystems and Structures vol 22 no 16 pp 1929ndash1938 2011

[47] J D Baldwin S Roswurm J Nolan and L HollidayldquoEnergy harvesting on highway bridgesrdquo Final ReportFHWA-OK-11-01 2011 httpwwwokladotstateokushqdivp-r-divspr-riplibraryreportsrad spr2-i2224-fy2010-rpt-final-baldwinpdf

[48] J Li Structural healthmonitoring of an in-service highway bridgewith uncertainties [PhD thesis] University of ConnecticutMansfield Conn USA 2014

[49] S H Valluru Energy harvesting from vibration of a bridge[Master of Science Thesis] University of Tennessee KnoxvilleTenn USA 2007

International Journal of

AerospaceEngineeringHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

RoboticsJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Active and Passive Electronic Components

Control Scienceand Engineering

Journal of



RotatingMachinery


Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom

Journal ofEngineeringVolume 2014

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration


Civil EngineeringAdvances in

Acoustics and VibrationAdvances in



Electrical and Computer Engineering

Journal of

Advances inOptoElectronics


Volume 2014

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

SensorsJournal of


Modelling amp Simulation in EngineeringHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Chemical EngineeringInternational Journal of Antennas and

Propagation




Navigation and Observation



DistributedSensor Networks



Table 1 Summary of commercially available wireless sensors nodes

Sensor type Manufacturer Model Sensing range Operatingvoltage (V)

Operatingcurrent (mA)

Power(mW)

Acceleration

Freescale semiconductor MMA7260QT plusmn15246 g 33 05 165a

STMicroelectronics LSI302ALB plusmn2 g 36 nrb 2Analog devices ADXL210JQC plusmn10 g 45 06 27a

Freescale semiconductor MMA1270KEG plusmn25 g 5 21 105a

MEMSIC MXD2020EF plusmn1 g 33 4 132a

BOSCH SMB455 plusmn70 g 33 8 264a

Analog devices ADIS16000 plusmn18 g 33 39 128aaCalculated using equation 119875 = 119881119868bnr not reported in the data sheet provided by the manufacturer

Table 2 Summary of bridge vibration data

Bridge Location Frequency(Hz)

Acceleration(g) Reference

New Carquinez California 1ndash40 001ndash0102 [10]Komtur Berlin 2ndash26 0ndash00061 [11]Ypsilanti Michigan 2ndash30 001ndash0035 [12]Golden Gate San Francisco 0ndash15 0ndash0061 [13]RT11 bridge in Potsdam New York 31 038 [14]Box girder bridge Austin 1ndash15 012 [15]3rd Nongro Bridge South Korea 41 0025 [16]Huanghe Cable-Stayed Bridge China 1-2 0015 [17]Seohae Grand Bridge South Korea 1 00125 [18]IH-35N over Medina River Texas 31 015 [19]

signalPhysical

signalPhysical

Sensor B

Sensor A

unitprocessing

Signal

receiverand

Transmitterunit

Memory

Microcontrollerunit

Power management

unit

Super capacitor

Figure 1 Architecture of a wireless sensor node

the commercial WASNs along with their operating param-eters are listed in Table 1 The values in Table 1 have beenextracted from the WASN data sheet available on the man-ufacturerrsquos websites and guide manuals

In Table 1 commercial WASNs require a voltage from 33to 5V for their operation however the overall range for thecurrent drawn by WASNs during the transmission operationis from 05 to 39mA Moreover the power requirements ofthese WASNs that range from 165 to 128mW are normallyaccomplished with batteries

During condition monitoring of bridges the vibrationlevels are continuously measured Bridge health monitoring(BHM) needs continuous operation of WASNs throughoutthe life of the bridge In WASNs batteries as a power sourcerestrict these to be embeddedwithin the bridge structureThesole solution for powering the embedded WASNs is energyharvesting For conversion of WASNs into autonomousacceleration sensor nodes (AASNs) the power need ofthese WASNs (overall power range from 165 to 128mW)is required to be obtained from alternative sources such asenergy harvester At the bridge solar acoustic wind andvibration energies are abundantly available however only thevibration energy has the tendency to be utilized for embeddedWASNs application Solar and wind energy harvesters arenot the best option for WASNs [9] which quite often needto be located outside the bridge structure such as in placeswith extremely high light intensities and fast blowing airas a result WASNs may also face the same environmentalfactors problem Bridge vibration is produced by the vehic-ular motion and high wind speeds Normally the bridgesoscillation is narrowband random in nature with frequencyand acceleration levels on the lower side [10] Table 2 liststhe vibration information of several bridges In Table 2 thefrequency of the bridge vibration varies from 1Hz to 40HzThe Golden Gate Bridge located at San Francisco USA hasthe lowest frequency (15Hz) however the New Carquinez

















x(t)Substrate


v

Beam

Bottom electrode

Top electrode

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)Substrate


v

Beam

Bottom electrode

Top electrode

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

x(t)


v

Bottom electrode



(c)








x(t)Substrate


Electrode

Anchor

v

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

Proof massBeam


(b)

Substrate

Proof mass

BeamAnchor

Fixed electrodes

Movable electrodes

v

(c)Substrate

Proof massBeam

Anchor

Fixed electrodes

Movable electrodes

v

(d)


EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EEC

Qst

Vin

Cmin

Vmax

(c)

EEC

Qst

Cmin

I

Vin

(d)





EEC

Cmax

QresVin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EECQst

Cmin

Vin

(c)

EEC

Cmin

Qres

I

Vin

(d)


Qst

Q

A

V

BC


Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

(a)

Qst

A

V

B

C


Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

Vres Vin

Q

(b)








x(t)vWound

coil


NSNS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)vWound

coil

Permanent magnets

NS

NS

Beam

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

Spacer Beam

Permanent magnet

A A998400

(c)

Spacer

Planar coil

Beam

Permanent magnets

x(t)v

NS

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(d)

Wound coilBeam


x(t)

v

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(e)








Density(gcm3)














(a) (b)

(c) (d)






17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026



Coil

NdFeB magnet


Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)


Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)






(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation

























x(t)Substrate


v

Beam

Bottom electrode

Top electrode

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)Substrate


v

Beam

Bottom electrode

Top electrode

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

x(t)


v

Bottom electrode



(c)








x(t)Substrate


Electrode

Anchor

v

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

Proof massBeam


(b)

Substrate

Proof mass

BeamAnchor

Fixed electrodes

Movable electrodes

v

(c)Substrate

Proof massBeam

Anchor

Fixed electrodes

Movable electrodes

v

(d)


EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EEC

Qst

Vin

Cmin

Vmax

(c)

EEC

Qst

Cmin

I

Vin

(d)





EEC

Cmax

QresVin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EECQst

Cmin

Vin

(c)

EEC

Cmin

Qres

I

Vin

(d)


Qst

Q

A

V

BC


Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

(a)

Qst

A

V

B

C


Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

Vres Vin

Q

(b)








x(t)vWound

coil


NSNS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)vWound

coil

Permanent magnets

NS

NS

Beam

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

Spacer Beam

Permanent magnet

A A998400

(c)

Spacer

Planar coil

Beam

Permanent magnets

x(t)v

NS

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(d)

Wound coilBeam


x(t)

v

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(e)








Density(gcm3)














(a) (b)

(c) (d)






17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026



Coil

NdFeB magnet


Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)


Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)






(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










x(t)Substrate


Electrode

Anchor

v

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

Proof massBeam


(b)

Substrate

Proof mass

BeamAnchor

Fixed electrodes

Movable electrodes

v

(c)Substrate

Proof massBeam

Anchor

Fixed electrodes

Movable electrodes

v

(d)


EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EEC

Qst

Vin

Cmin

Vmax

(c)

EEC

Qst

Cmin

I

Vin

(d)





EEC

Cmax

QresVin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EECQst

Cmin

Vin

(c)

EEC

Cmin

Qres

I

Vin

(d)


Qst

Q

A

V

BC


Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

(a)

Qst

A

V

B

C


Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

Vres Vin

Q

(b)








x(t)vWound

coil


NSNS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)vWound

coil

Permanent magnets

NS

NS

Beam

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

Spacer Beam

Permanent magnet

A A998400

(c)

Spacer

Planar coil

Beam

Permanent magnets

x(t)v

NS

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(d)

Wound coilBeam


x(t)

v

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(e)








Density(gcm3)














(a) (b)

(c) (d)






17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026



Coil

NdFeB magnet


Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)


Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)






(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










EEC

Cmax

QresVin

(a)

EECQst

Cmax

Vin

(b)

EECQst

Cmin

Vin

(c)

EEC

Cmin

Qres

I

Vin

(d)


Qst

Q

A

V

BC


Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

(a)

Qst

A

V

B

C


Char

ge st

ored

at th

e pla

te

Vres Vin

Q

(b)








x(t)vWound

coil


NSNS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)vWound

coil

Permanent magnets

NS

NS

Beam

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

Spacer Beam

Permanent magnet

A A998400

(c)

Spacer

Planar coil

Beam

Permanent magnets

x(t)v

NS

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(d)

Wound coilBeam


x(t)

v

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(e)








Density(gcm3)














(a) (b)

(c) (d)






17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026



Coil

NdFeB magnet


Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)


Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)






(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










x(t)vWound

coil


NSNS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(a)

x(t)vWound

coil

Permanent magnets

NS

NS

Beam

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(b)

Spacer Beam

Permanent magnet

A A998400

(c)

Spacer

Planar coil

Beam

Permanent magnets

x(t)v

NS

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(d)

Wound coilBeam


x(t)

v

NS

y(t) = Ysin(120596t)

(e)








Density(gcm3)














(a) (b)

(c) (d)






17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026



Coil

NdFeB magnet


Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)


Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)






(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation












Density(gcm3)














(a) (b)

(c) (d)






17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026



Coil

NdFeB magnet


Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)


Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)






(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










(a) (b)

(c) (d)






17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026



Coil

NdFeB magnet


Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)


Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)






(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










17 cm 5 cm

Coil

Neodymium

Oslash026



Coil

NdFeB magnet


Tungstenmass

Aluminumcasing

Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)


Frequencyincreased

generator (FIG)






(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

(f)

(g)









Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










Magnet

Steel core

Proofmass

Spring

Shaker

Accelerometer


22mm95mm

PTFE

477

mm8

mm

8m

m

Coil-2

Coil-1



Wound coil

Membrane

Magnet

(a) (b)





(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










(a)

(b)


Springs

Base

Tip mass

Piezobimorph

Screw

(a) (b)







(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










(a)

(b)





Cantileverbeam



Roller

Tipbulge


(a)

Piezoelectricpatch

Spring



Roller

Hung mass

Adjustableframe

Aluminumcantilever

beam

(b)




















[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation

























[45]


Acceleration (g)

Pow

er(120583

W)

10101001

10000

1000

100

10

1

[18]

[48]

[48]

[37]

[16] [40][40]



Li 2014 [48]







Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation










Table7Summaryof

bridge

vibrationenergy

harvesters

Type

Overallsiz

e(119878)

(cm3)

Test

Resonant

frequ

ency

(119865)

(Hz)

Acceleratio

n(119860

)(g)

Resistance

(Ω)

Voltage

(mV)

Power

(119875)

(120583W)

Power

density

(PD=119875119878)

(120583Wcm3)

119875119860

(120583Wg)

PDA

(120583Wgsdotcm3)

Reference

EM-VEH

s

Field

31

038

67k

1000

012500

4166

666

[14]

583

Shaker

273

36

155

21

036

07

012

[37]

48

Shaker

101

240

163

3395

163

3395

68Shaker

2005

240

5708

1140

16[40]

68Field

lt1

07

001

181

Field

41

0025

290

710

120

662

4800

2648

[16]

72lowast

Simulation

013

0021

56077

4308

[41]

152lowast

Simulation

0021

145000

095395

[41]

PE-VEH

s

17and

Field

18

2025

[18]

65lowast

Simulation

2200k

06

0092

[44]

Shaker

271Hzamp

120H

z029

97k

7700

284133

[45]

1220891lowast

Lab

15480

650

835

000

685

5567

[47]

274lowast

Shaker

1171

021

118k

2000

197

7204

9381

34304

[48]

5007lowast

Shaker

652

021

149k

5000

657

1312

31286

6247

[48]

lowastCa

lculated

andLeng

thof

thed

evice



Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation











Size (cm3)

Pow

er (120583

W)

100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[37]

[48][48]

[44]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[41]

[40]


Miao 2013 [41]Amin 2010 [44]

Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]





Resistance (Ω)

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)



1000000100001001001

125000

2500

50

1

002

00004

[47][44]

[41]

[41]

[48]

[37]

[48][16]

[40]

[40]





Pow

er (120583

W)


100010010101

10000

1000

100

10

1

01

[48]

[48][47]

[45]

[44]

[18]

[41]

[16] [40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

[15]










10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation











10000100010010101

100

10

1

01

001

[48]

[48]

[47]

[44]

[41]

[16]

[40]

[40]

[40]

[37]

Pow

er d

ensit

y(120583

Wc

m3)






1000100101

1000

100

10

1

01

[47]

[48]

[48]

[16]

[40][40]

[37]Pow

er d

ensit

yac

cele

ratio

n (120583

Wgmiddotcm

3)



Li 2014 [48]Khan and Ahmad 2014 [37]



5 Conclusions






References























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation






























































RoboticsJournal of





Journal of



RotatingMachinery





VLSI Design



Shock and Vibration







Journal of



Volume 2014


SensorsJournal of





Propagation









review article review of energy harvesters utilizing bridge...

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