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Review ArticleMotivating Workers in Construction
Jason E. Barg, Rajeev Ruparathna, Daylath Mendis, and Kasun N. Hewage
Faculty of Applied Science, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, 1137 Alumni Avenue,Kelowna, BC, Canada V1V 1V7
Correspondence should be addressed to Kasun N. Hewage; [email protected]
Received 22 October 2013; Accepted 8 June 2014; Published 9 July 2014
Academic Editor: Manoj Jha
Copyright © 2014 Jason E. Barg et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The study of the motivation of construction workers is limited to a relatively small body of knowledge. Although there isconsiderable research available regarding motivation and productivity, few researchers have provided a comprehensive analysison the motivation of construction workers. The research stated that productivity in construction has not improved comparedto other industry sectors such as manufacturing. This trend has been echoed in publications throughout the past five decades,and suggested that motivation is one of the key factors impacting productivity. This paper offers a comprehensive review of thepublished work that directly links the key words—construction and motivation. The findings have been presented in five themes,that is, motivationmodels, environment and culture, incentives and empowerment, and workermanagement.This paper concludeswith twomethods suggested by previous researchers to improve motivation of construction workers: (1) relevant worker incentives(intrinsic or extrinsic) and (2) improved management practices, specifically regarding communication with workers.
1. Introduction
During the past five decades, construction productivity hasremained low and has lagged behind other industries [1–5].Hazeltine [6] offered research from a 1963 study, which notedthat an average Canadian construction worker occupied only55% of his/her work day. Hewage and Ruwanpura [1] echoedthis figure based upon a three-year research study with 101Canadian construction workers. This research reported theactual working time (tool time) of a Canadian constructionworker as 51%. These numbers suggested that constructionoperations may be fundamentally flawed and require signif-icant action for improvement of productivity. Motivation ofworkers has been suggested as one of the major factors thatcan stimulate the productivity in the construction industry[1, 7–10]. Thus, the objective of this paper is to review andsummarize all the possible literatures related to constructionworker motivation in the past four decades.
This paper discusses and reviews in depth analysis onworker motivation in the construction industry. It summa-rizes information under four main areas, that is, (1) defini-tions of motivation, (2) theories of motivation, and (3) moti-vational themes in construction. The motivational themesin construction were further discussed under motivational
models, work environment/culture, incentives and empow-erment, and worker management.
2. Methodology
A literature review was initiated to collect peer-reviewedEnglish articles from the last four decades regarding workermotivation in construction.The literature selected originatedfrom peer-reviewed articles from the following journals andconference proceedings: (1) Building and Environment; (2)Cost Engineering; (3) 5th Post Graduate Conference onConstruction Industry Development; (4) Canadian Journalof Civil Engineering; (5) Engineering Management Journal;(6) International Journal of Project Management; (7) Journalof Construction Engineering and Management; (8) Journalof Engineering, Design, and Technology; (9) Journal ofGeospatial Engineering; (10) Journal of Labor Economics; (11)Journal of Management in Engineering; (12) Leadership andManagement in Engineering; (13) Applied Mechanics andMaterials (14) Project Management Journal; and (15) Journalof the ConstructionDivision. Additionally, two of the articlesare the result of theses.
Literature was chosen based upon its relevance to chosenkey words: motivation and construction. The titles and
Hindawi Publishing CorporationJournal of Construction EngineeringVolume 2014, Article ID 703084, 11 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/703084
2 Journal of Construction Engineering
Table 1: Summary of the literature review according to relevance/classification.
Theme TotalMotivation model 9Environment and culture 7Incentive and empowerment 9Worker management 9Total 34
abstracts of the articles were scanned for the keywords.Altogether, 56 articles were found; 22 articles were separatedsince those did not directly linkmotivation and construction.The remaining 34 articles were on worker motivation withinthe context of construction. These articles were then furtheranalyzed under motivational themes and were separated intofour major categories: (1) motivation models; (2) environ-ment and culture; (3) incentives and empowerment; and (4)worker management. Each of these categories was definedand discussed in this paper. Table 1 highlights the findingsaccording to defined categories.
3. Motivation Defined
Motivation has been defined as “providing a drive to actto satisfy needs or desires” [11]. Within the context ofwork, Pinder [12] stated that work motivation is a set ofenergetic forces that originate both within as well as beyondan individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior andto determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration.According to Jenkins et al. [13], motivation is intangible,a hypothetical construct that is used to explain humanbehaviour. Motivation is commonly sourced from intrinsicor extrinsicmotives [14]. Intrinsicmotivation involves peopledoing an activity because they find it interesting and derivespontaneous satisfaction from the activity itself. Extrinsicmotivation, in contrast, requires an instrumentality betweenthe activity and some separable consequences such as tangibleor verbal rewards; hence, satisfaction comes not from theactivity itself but rather from the extrinsic consequences towhich the activity leads [15].
4. Theories of Motivation
Theories of motivation are not discussed in detail, in thispaper, as such information is already available in the liter-ature. Hewage [16] provided one such review, which clearlyoutlined the origins of motivation theories as applied toconstruction workers. They are listed and briefly explainedas follows.
(1) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory [17] suggeststhat humans have needs that can be prioritized in ahierarchy. The lowest-order needs must be fulfilledbefore people become concerned with higher-orderneeds.
(2) Herzberg motivational theory [18] shows that anindividual’s satisfaction with the work is attributed to
the job itself, while dissatisfaction is attributed to thework environment.
(3) Adams’ equity theory [19] explains that people aremotivated based upon whether or not they believethey are being treated equitably. This belief is derivedfrom a comparison of friends and/or colleagues.
(4) Vroom’s expectancy theory [20] explains that behav-ior is a result from conscious choices among alterna-tives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure andminimize pain.
(5) Reinforcement theory [21] discusses that reinforcedbehavior will lead to repeated performance. Rein-forcements are factors that motivate.
(6) Alderfer’s ERG theory [22] categorizes Maslow’s hier-archy into existence needs, relatedness needs, andgrowth needs. It also suggests that the hierarchicalorder of needs will differ per individual, and multiplelevels of need can be fulfilled simultaneously.
5. Motivational Themes
As mentioned, literature review found thirty five articlesdirectly related to worker motivation within constructioncontext. Table 2 shows these journal articles categorizedaccording to their relevance/classification, as defined by theauthors.
5.1. Motivational Models. Motivational models provide anarrangement and structure for developing, communicating,and managing worker motivation. The following paragraphsdiscuss some of the motivational models available in theliterature.
In 1968, Porter and Lawler developed a motivationalmodel based on Vroom’s expectancy model. Porter andLawler developed a motivational model considering inter-related variables. The variables considered in Porter andLawler’s model included a motivational force predictor com-prised on effort reward expectancies and reward prediction,job effort and performance, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards,and job satisfaction [23].
Maloney [24] conducted a literature review in construc-tion worker motivation. At that time, he found no publishedwork on construction worker motivation and encouragedthat rigorous program be undertaken to enhance knowledgein this area. Maloney [25] stated that specific theories forconstruction worker motivation had not been developed.Subsequently, the same researcher suggested 5 areas forfurther research: (1) expectancy issues—data needed to becollected based upon a “worker’s perceived probability thathis expenditure of effort will result in his attaining thedesired level of performance;” (2) instrumentality issues—these are issues defined by a worker’s understanding of therelationship between performance and reward or punish-ment; (3) valence issues—the anticipated satisfaction that anindividual associates with the receipt of specific outcomes;(4) organizational constraints—management faults whichnegatively affect worker motivation; and (5) satisfaction—the
Journal of Construction Engineering 3
Table2:Literature
review
results:m
otivationof
workersin
constructio
n.
Num
ber
Journal
name
Writer(s)
Relevance/cla
ssificatio
nField/application
1JCEM
Malon
eyandMcFillen
[8]
Workere
nviro
nment/c
ulture
Jobstructuretomotivatew
orkers
2CM
ESm
ithersa
ndWalker[21]
Workere
nviro
nment/c
ulture
Creatin
gan
attractiv
eworkplace
environm
ent
3JCEM
Abdelham
idandEv
erett[26]
Workere
nviro
nment/c
ulture
Redu
cing
fatig
ue
4CJCE
Hew
agea
ndRu
wanpu
ra[1]
Workere
nviro
nment/c
ulture
Inadequacy
ofcommun
ication,
incentives,and
work
cond
ition
s5
JCEM
Nepaletal.[27]
Workere
nviro
nment/c
ulture
Workere
xpectatio
ns,basicneeds,andgoalsetting
6JCEM
Brockm
an[28]
Workere
nviro
nment/c
ulture
Interpersonalcon
flictsinconstructio
nenvironm
ent
7AMM
Ou[29]
Workere
nviro
nment/c
ulture
Cultivatin
ghygienefactorsin
constructio
nprojects
8JCD
Borcherding[7]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment
Feelingaccomplish
ment/impact
9JCEM
Malon
eyandMcFillen
[8]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment
Disc
iplin
eversusrew
ard
10JG
ELam
andTang
[30]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment
Short-term
andlong
-term
motivationschemes
11LM
EPricee
tal.[31]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment
Incentives
andph
ysical/basicneeds
12JCEM
Cox
etal.[32]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment
Workforce
needs:praise
13EM
JDoloi[33]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment
Motivationalfactorsurvey
14CI
DTh
walaM
onese[34]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment
Motivationald
rivers
15JEDT
Chileshea
ndHaupt
[35]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment
Motivationalfactors
16IJP
MDwivedulaa
ndBredillet[36]
Incentivea
ndem
powerment/m
otivationalm
odel
Influ
encing
motivation
17JCEM
Malon
ey[24]
Motivationmod
elNeedform
odel
18JCEM
Malon
eyandMcFillen
[37]
Motivationmod
elRe
search
needs
19JCEM
Malon
ey[25]
Motivationmod
elPo
sitive/negativ
efactorsthatinflu
ence
motivation
20JCEM
Malon
eyandMcFillen
[38]
Motivationmod
elLink
employee
andem
ployer
goals
21JCEM
Malon
ey[39]
Motivationmod
elCausesa
ndho
wmotivationischanneled
22BE
Olomolaiye
andPrice[40
]Motivationmod
elAp
plicationandmod
eling
23JCEM
Malon
ey[41]
Motivationmod
elMotivationinflu
encesp
erform
ance
24JCEM
Thom
asetal.[42]
Motivationmod
elMotivationtheory
25Th
esis
Hew
age[16]
Motivationalm
odel
Com
mun
icationto
workers
26JCD
Hazeltine[6]
Workerm
anagem
ent
Disc
over,learn,and
applymotivationalbasics
27JCEM
Malon
eyandMcFillen
[8]
Workerm
anagem
ent
Areas
ofinflu
ence
thatmotivate
28PICE
MansfieldandOdeh[43]
Workerm
anagem
ent
Principles
tofollowbasedon
twodecadeso
freview
29Th
esis
Gon
zalez[44
]Workerm
anagem
ent
Motivationprograms
30IJP
MMansfieldandOdeh[43]
Workerm
anagem
ent
Keyareasm
anagersm
ustp
ayattentionto,tomotivate
31JM
ERo
jasa
ndAramvareekul
[45]
Workerm
anagem
ent
Improvingprod
uctiv
ityisam
anagem
entissue
32JCEM
Cox
etal.[11]
Workerm
anagem
ent
KBI-Ke
ybehavioralindicatorsusage
33IJP
MTabassiand
Bakar[46
]Workerm
anagem
ent
Training
,motivation,
andperfo
rmance
34IJP
MTabassietal.[47]
Workerm
anagem
ent
Training
andmotivationon
team
work
BE=Bu
ildingandEn
vironm
ent;CE
=CostE
ngineerin
g;CI
D=5thPo
stGradu
ateCon
ferenceon
Con
structio
nIndu
stryDevelo
pment;CJCE
=Ca
nadian
Journalo
fCivilEn
gineering;
EMJ=
Engineering
Managem
entJou
rnal;IJPM
=InternationalJou
rnal
ofProjectM
anagem
ent;JCEM
=Journalo
fCon
structio
nEn
gineeringandManagem
ent;JCD
=Journalo
fthe
Con
structio
nDivision
;JED
T=Journalo
fEn
gineering,DesignandTechno
logy;JGE=JournalofG
eospatialEng
ineerin
g;JLE=JournalofL
abor
Econ
omics;JM
E=JournalofM
anagem
entinEn
gineering;LM
E=LeadershipandManagem
entinEn
gineering;
AMM
=Ap
pliedMechanics
andMaterials;
PICE
=Proceeding
softhe
Institutio
nof
CivilE
ngineers;P
MJ=
ProjectM
anagem
entJou
rnal.
4 Journal of Construction Engineering
Reward
Will my effort improve my performance?
Will performance lead to rewards?
Will rewards satisfy my individual goals?
PerformanceEffort
Figure 1: Vroom’s expectancy model of motivation.
level to which a worker’s needs are met, by their job. Maloney[25] believed that these areas are the starting points for thedevelopment of motivational theories/frameworks for theconstruction industry. The same researcher linked Vroom’sexpectancy theory (Figure 1) to construction worker moti-vation, suggesting that Vroom’s model could be a possibletool for future evaluation of construction worker motivation.Maloney [25] also suggested that worker’s level of motivationis influenced by either positive or negative factors. Increaseof positive factors and the decrease of negative factors willultimately increase productivity.
Maloney and McFillen [38] presented an article thatstressed contractors to make factors with high valencescontingent upon performance in order to make the workexperience more rewarding and satisfying to workers. In alater article, Maloney [49] expanded by providing a simpleprinciple to be followed by construction managers; that is,link what is desired by the organization (specific behavior)to what is desired by the employees (specific rewards).
Olomolaiye and Price [40] agreed with Maloney [25] andnoted the unavailability of a serious attempt to formulatea theory for construction operative (worker) motivation.Olomolaiye and Price [40] presented a review of constructionworker motivation by addressing previous conceptual andempirical studies. The same author suggested that furtherstudy is required to establish the relationship between workermotivation and productivity in order to build theories forconstruction worker motivation. Maloney [41] presented afive-part framework from which performance can be ana-lyzed. Worker motivation was addressed to be one of themajor factors in this framework.The same researcher definedindividual motivation level to perform a task as a function ofthree variables: (1) likelihood that if an individual exerts theeffort, he will be able to perform the task; (2) likelihood thatif an individual performs the task, he will receive a specificreward or outcome for that performance; and (3) anticipatedsatisfaction that an individual associates with the reward oroutcome. Maloney [41] used this definition to link motiva-tion to performance. The flow chart proposed by Maloney[41] enables to assess the performance of an organizationconsidering multiple criteria. If the worker performance isunsatisfactory, the proposed flowchart enables identifyingorganizational issues based on available data and takingsequential actions. As an example, if the work environmentis not free from organizationally imposed constraints, theflow chart is proposed to improve the job management.
Additionally, this method assesses work environment con-sidering whether the workers possess necessary skills, ability,and knowledge, whether the workers possess the necessarymotivation, and whether current estimates for the perfor-mance levels are realistic to determine which actions arenecessary.
Thomas [42] analyzed Vroom’s expectancy theory modelin the context of construction. Expectancy theory explainsvariations in performance, in terms of the effort, whicha worker is willing to exert to complete a task. There-fore, if a worker is willing to exert a determined attempt,has the capability, receives correct direction, and removesall obstacles, the work will be accomplished well. Fur-thermore, according to Thomas [42], the resulting per-formance could be observed based on effectiveness, effi-ciency, productivity, profitability, innovation, and quality ofwork.
The expectancy theory model for motivation introducedby Hewage and Ruwanpura [1] was developed based uponthe theories of Maslow [17], Adams [19], Vroom [20], andSmithers and Walker [21]. The model was later validatedwith 101 construction workers. This model is representedgraphically in Figure 2.
Hewage’s [16] theoretical model for motivation (Figure 2)considers 23 factors (Table 3) that affect the motivationlevel of a construction worker. Motivation level accord-ing to each factor is assessed based on effort to perfor-mance expectancy, performance to outcome expectancy, andvalence, using a 7-point scale. Consequently, motivation levelfor each factor can range from 1–343. For simplicity, thecubic root of the motivation level value was considered forcomparison purposes. The summation of the motivationlevel of each factor would give the final motivation level.Hewage [16] used the aforementioned model to investigatethe motivation level of construction workers in Calgary.Data collection for this study was done through a series ofquestionnaire surveys and interviews involving more than100 construction workers. The most important factors formotivationwere safety procedures in the site, tools and equip-ment, and the respect received from their coworkers andsupervisors.
According to Hewage and Ruwanpura [1], 45% of theseworkers expressed lack of communication as one of themain issues affecting worker motivation. In view of thisissue, the researchers offered the “Information Booth” as apossible communication aid [50]. The Information Boothallows the user to retrieve almost all the real-time informa-tion and audio-visual information needed for constructionsite operations. The pilot test of the Information Boothproved successful where worker satisfaction and productivityincreased after the use [50].
Dwivedula and Bredillet [36] proposed a model forworker motivation in a project environment. The modelconsiders five major categories, namely, employee develop-ment, work climate, perceived equity, work objectivity, andjob security. The subcriteria under the five main categoriesare listed below. These criteria are vital in improving themotivation in the project environment.
Journal of Construction Engineering 5
Performance
Opportunity
Outcome
Reinforcement theory
Equity theory Level of satisfaction
New needsSelf-
actualizationEsteemSocialSafety
Physiological
Effort
Ability/ skills
NeedsSelf-
actualizationEsteemSocialSafety
Physiological
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Believe effort leads to performance
Believe performance leads to outcome
Value of outcome
Expectancy Instrumentality
M L = ∑(E−→P) × (P −→ O) × V
Figure 2: Hewage’s expectancy theory of motivation [16].
Table 3: Prioritized motivational factors (data obtained from Hewage [16]).
Motivational factors Applicable theory1 Bonus or rewards ET, HT, RT2 Amount of salary ET, EQT, RT3 Friendliness and helpfulness of the coworkers ET, HT, MT, AT4 Amount of freedom in your work ET, MT, AT5 Chance for getting a promotion ET, RT, HT6 Chances to learn new things ET, HT7 Respect receive from the coworkers & supervisors ET, MT, AT8 Opportunity for challenging work ET, EQT, HT9 Tools and equipment ET, EQT10 Chances to accomplish something worth ET, MT, RT, HT, AT11 Chances to do the things which you do best and like most ET, RT, HT12 Type of physical surroundings (washrooms, lunch rooms, etc.) ET, EQT, HT13 Team to work with ET, MT, EQT, AT14 Supervisor’s understanding of the quality and technical details ET, EQT, HT15 Supervisor’s direction and support ET, EQT, HT16 Safety procedures in site ET, MT, EQT, HT, AT17 Chances to take part in decision making ET, MT, HT, AT18 Opportunities to develop skills and abilities ET, HT19 Job security ET, MT, EQT, HT, AT20 Opportunity to work entire period in site before moving to a new one ET, EQT, RT21 Seeing the ultimate results of work ET, MT, HT, AT22 Supervisor’s positive feedback after successfully completing a task ET, MT, RT, HT, AT23 Holidays and free time (lunch and coffee breaks) during work ET, RT, HT, EQTWhere MaslowTheory (MT), Alderfer’s Theory (AT), Ex-pectancyTheory (ET), Reinforcement Theory (RT), Equity Theory (EQT), Herzberg’s Theory (HT).
6 Journal of Construction Engineering
(1) Employee development:
(a) job advancement;(b) variety of knowledge;(c) participative decision making;(d) high level of knowledge;(e) developing competencies;(f) sense of achievement.
(2) Work climate:
(a) variety of tasks;(b) social interaction;(c) feedback from work;(d) significant job;(e) communication flow.
(3) Perceived equity:
(a) adequate pay;(b) adequate recognition;(c) freedom at work;(d) feedback from colleagues.
(4) Work objectivity:
(a) complete piece of work;(b) clarity of goal.
(5) Job security:
(a) job security.
The above discussion highlights that motivational mod-els reviewed were developed considering various attributes.Table 4 summarizes the motivational models found in thepublished literature.
5.2. Work Environment/Culture. This section addressesworker motivation in the context of the constructionenvironment and culture. Maloney [39] discussed theworking environment in the perspective of job content andcontext. Contextual factors include supervision, materialresources, compensation practices, and work environment,while job content refers to variety of activities involved,the skills demanded, and the challenge provided. The sameauthor found that one-third of workers have the growth needsrelated to the profession and therefore would be motivatedby enriched jobs or change of job content. Maloney [39] alsosuggested that contractors should be aware of workers thatare concerned with contextual factors and would thereforebe motivated by factors that improve the work environment.
Smithers and Walker [21] further expanded the effect ofcontextual factors onmotivation.The same author conducteda study in Melbourne, Australia, and found that long hours,chaos, nonrecognition for work completed, and colleagues’aggressive management style contributed to demotivation
in construction worksite. Smithers [21] concluded by sug-gesting construction companies to choose more profitableprojects and improve management style, in order to reduceworker stress and increase motivation. Further study hassuggested that fatiguemay also be a catalyst for demotivation.Abdelhamid and Everett [26] presented their study on thephysiological demands of construction work. They foundthat 20–40% of craft workers routinely exceeded publishedguidelines for acceptable levels of physical performancein industrial settings. The same researchers suggested thatfatigue may lead to lack of motivation but did not providevalidation for this suggestion, as this was beyond the scope oftheir article.
Hewage and Ruwanpura [1] demonstrated a comprehen-sive study of 101 construction workers that led to a greaterunderstanding of various factors that influence worker moti-vation: (1) incentives—bonus, rewards, and salary; (2) work-ing team—relationship and respect with/from coworkersand supervisors; (3) working conditions—freedom, physicalsurroundings, and opportunities to learn new things; (4)management and supervision—positive reinforcement andjob security; (5) intrinsic motives—chances to accomplishworthwhile things, do things you like, make decisions, andbuild skill. These factors were rated by construction workers,which supplied substance for Hewage and Ruwanpura [1]“expectancy model” of Motivation, as displayed in Figure 2.
Nepal et al. [27] demonstrated that schedule pressureleads workers to lose the motivation towards work. Theirstudy indicated that while a moderate degree of schedulepressure may help to increase productivity—possibly byincreasingworker alertness and attention—schedule pressureabove a certain level leads workers to cut corners, increasesthe amount of out-of-sequence work and the number ofdefects, and causes workers to lose their motivation to work.
Ou [29] studied methods to cultivate hygiene factors in aconstruction project setup. Ou [29] identified improvementof the ability of self-protection, improvement of the workingenvironment, establishment of stable working relationshipmethods, and improvement of the salary management as amethod to upgrade hygiene factors in the construction workenvironment.
Brockman [28] studied consequences of interpersonalconflicts in construction project environment. The sameauthor stated that interpersonal conflicts reduce motivationof the construction workers.
5.3. Incentive and Empowerment. This paper defines incen-tives as any factor, action, position, result, or communicationthat influences a worker to perform a set task in a desiredmanner. Borcherding [7] published research that stressed theimportance of workers feeling a sense of accomplishment andpersonal impact on the project. Borcherding [7] argued thatthese are motivational factors which, when felt by workers,increase motivation and thus productivity.
Maloney and McFillen [49] conducted a study thatprovided two conclusions: (1) expectancy theory provides aworkable conceptual base for understanding the motivationof construction workers and (2) application of expectancytheory principles to construction work pinpoints significant
Journal of Construction Engineering 7
Table 4: Summary of motivational models.
Motivational models AttributesPorter and Lawler’s Model [48] Effort, performance, satisfactionMaloney [41] Efforts, performance, rewardsThomas et al. [42] Job content, incentives, efforts, performance, satisfactionHewage and Ruwanpura [1] Expectancy, performance, valence
Cox et al. [32] Confidence, incentives, quality of work, safety performance, praise, a feeling ofbeing a member, job security
Dwivedula and Bredillet [36] Employee development, work climate, perceived equity, work objectivity, and jobsecurity
areas for action if construction workers are to be moti-vated towards higher productivity. This article stated thatexpectancy theory can be divided into three areas:
(1) performance definition;(2) performance facilitation;(3) performance encouragement.
Maloney and McFillen [49] suggested that performancedefinition and encouragement are the major factors thatcontractors need to focus on to improve performance. Boththese areas focus onworker incentive. If workers have definedprecise and manageable goals along with a likely, well-timed,equitable, and worthwhile reward, they will have adequateincentive to motivate them to perform well.
Lam and Tang [30] published on the motivation ofemployees in construction. The authors offered a viewpointwith both short-term and long-term motivation schemes.Short-term motivation schemes address the worker’s physi-ological needs, safety needs, and belongingness needs, whilelong-term motivation schemes consider the worker’s needsof esteem and self-realization. Price et al. [31] presentedempowerment as the key tool to motivate the workforce. Theresearchers suggested that culture, training, and knowledgemanagement lead to worker empowerment through incen-tive, thus motivating the workforce and ultimately improvingconstruction performance.
Incentives for individual workers are manifested in var-ious forms. One of the primary forms is money, as statedby Cox et al. [32]. The researchers’ most noted point refersto workforce needs. Cox et al. [32] found that a workermust first receive praise before he feels as if he is a memberof the team/crew and once he feels like a member of theteam, he then begins to acquire feelings of job security. Byunderstanding this point, contractors can adequately adjustthe worksite culture and introduce monetary incentives tomotivate the workforce. It is also found that job securityand work appreciation and reward ranked as top incentivesamong workers, in the Australian construction industry,according to Doloi [33]. Table 5 presents entire ranking ofattributes that affect worker motivation.
These findings represent an important resource foremployers in increasing employees output.Thwala andMon-ese [34] stressed the importance of incentives in order tomeet employer goals and employee needs. They referredto two types of incentives, that is, extrinsic and intrinsic,
Table 5: Project attributes ranking (data obtained from Doloi [33]).
Project attributes RankJob security 1Work appreciation and reward 2Work environment 3Employer’s recognition 4Prospect of promotion 5Geographical position 6Contract of employment 7Incentivized scheme 8Financial security 9Obligation to family support 10Social status 11Superannuation 12Dependence 13Management pressure 14Marital status 15Opportunity for advancement 16Fringe benefit 17Employer’s profile 18Gender 19Challenging occupation 20Penalty clause 21Level of education 22Car 23Age group 24Split income 25
which are explained in the “Motivation Defined” section ofthis paper. The same authors also emphasized the powerof incentives which is immense and pervasive and theimportance ofmanaging incentive programs closely to ensureeffectiveness. Chileshe [35] conducted a study in the SouthAfrican construction industry and found that two specificincentives, personal health and quality of life, were the keymotivational factors for workers. Dwivedula and Bredillet[36] briefly referred to motivation in construction and statedthat employee empowerment is the key to a greater clientfocus.
5.4. Worker Management. One of the prominent themes inconstruction worker motivation research is the need for
8 Journal of Construction Engineering
construction managers to change their approach on moti-vating their workforce. Many managers do not understandmotivational concepts and therefore lack the appropriateapproach to increasing productivity. Hazeltine [6] statedthat construction work appears to need little enrichmentand it is one of the few satisfying types of work left inthe automated world today. The same researcher suggestedthat the satisfactions are already found within constructionand need further development by management. Specifically,management should be developed towards healthy workerattitudes, administering praise, and building respect and forthe satisfaction of self-fulfilled needs.
Over a decade later, Maloney and McFillen [8] echoedthis theme by stressing the importance of the role ofmanaging work-crew variables. In order to motivate con-struction crews, Maloney and McFillen [8] suggested thatcontractors need to positively manage five issues: (1) stabilityof employment, (2) work-crew staffing, (3) team building,(4) goal setting, and (5) incentives. By doing this, workerperformance and satisfaction can be increased [8]. Mansfieldand Odeh [51] conducted a review that brought togethersome of the motivational studies from the US constructionindustry. From this study, the researchers concluded thatbetter handling of “people” is always a key factor in anyproject success. The same researchers also pointed out thatmanagers should adhere to early human relations ideas,combined with motivational theories, in order to create amotivating work environment.
Hancock [52] stated that the authoritarian approachto management is outdated and ineffective. In conclusion,Hancock [52] clearly provided the groundwork for the roleof managers in motivating the workforce. Hancock [52]proposed that managers must understand (1) some elementof human behavior and motivation theory; (2) factors thatinfluence behavior, (3) motivators and demotivators, (4)uniqueness of the industry/project when designing moti-vation programs, and (5) needs of construction workers.Mansfield and Odeh [43] addressed twenty points that theauthors believed are necessary for managers to achieve bettermotivation among their subordinates. The same authorscategorized these points into industry characteristics, types ofindividuals, and significantmotivators.These points are listedbelow.
Industry characteristics:
(1) short-term employment reduces chances of em-ployee/company identification;
(2) construction environments can make perfor-mance outcomes unpredictable;
(3) unusual problems act as a spur to ingenuity;(4) construction contracts (and their types) have to
be matched to project risk situations;(5) labor availability (in short supply) can limit
initiatives;(6) management effectiveness can diminish on
multicontract and complex projects.
Types of individuals:
(1) rational-economicman:motivated by economicincentives;
(2) social man: motivated by social needs and inter-action with fellows;
(3) self-actualized man: motivated by autonomyand independence;
(4) complex man: motivated by economic, social,and autonomous needs;
(5) psychological man: motivated by a mixture ofcomplicated factors.
Significant motivators:
(1) employee attitudes can be positively influencedthrough staff-orientation programs and an over-all atmosphere of trust;
(2) achievement challenges are easily built intoproject work;
(3) appreciation for effort should be clearly ex-pressed through a variety of means;
(4) responsibility reduces boredom and frustration,if work is properly allocated;
(5) money acts as a strong or weak motivator,according to economic circumstances;
(6) advancement possibilities are reduced for em-ployees where work is short-term or overspe-cialized;
(7) participation in decision making can generate astrong commitment from employees;
(8) competition stimulates innovation and affectsgreater output;
(9) social relationships at work are improved bycompany-sponsored events and courses.
Rojas and Aramvareekul [45] stated that constructionworkers considered that labor productivity is under theircontrol rather than at the mercy of the construction environ-ment or external conditions. The survey respondents relatedto the abovementioned research also suggested that man-agement could influence positively improving productivity.This information suggested that workers at all levels havetaken responsibility for productivity.Thus,managers can takeinfluential steps to motivate the workforce.
Cox et al. [11] provided KBI’s (key behavioral indicators)where managers can determine whether or not their employ-ees are motivated, satisfied, committed, and loyal. Cox et al.[11] found that the employees who perform more work thanexpected, respond promptly to problems, solve problems,complete task at hand on schedule, and plan their own workcan be judged as motivated.
Tabassi and Bakar, [46] identified the lack of motivationas a barrier to the worker training in construction. Tabassi etal. [47] studied the effect of training andmotivation on team-work improvement and task efficiency within constructionfirms. They stated that the motivation influences workers toundertake training programs.
Journal of Construction Engineering 9
6. Discussion
This study provides a comprehensive review of workermotivation in the construction industry. Published journalarticles are the main source of information used in this study.Three categories, definitions for motivation, theories formotivation, andmotivational themes, are used as the basis forthe review. Motivational themes are further discussed undermotivational models, work environment/culture, incentivesand empowerment, and worker management. There is astrong history of researchers who explored motivationaltheories in a wide variety of formats, including case studies.Yet, too few have focused their work specifically on theconstructionworker.There are currently noCanadian studieslooking at construction worker motivation. Similarly, there isno validated and published research work in Canada devotedto examining construction worker efficiencies, productivity,and communication needs. Canadian construction indus-try is referring to outdated and irrelevant publications ofUSA for productivity, working efficiencies, and overtimecalculations.
The first step to measure and evaluate worker motiva-tion on construction projects was to develop a theoreticalframework with the use of Vroom’s expectancy theory [20],Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory [17], equity theory [19],and reinforcement theory [21].
As per Cox et al. [11], motivation has been defined asproviding a drive to act to satisfy needs or desires. It is one ofthe key factors that influence productivity. Many researchersprovided models and theories which can be applied tomotivate workers in the construction industry. Constructionperformance has lagged behind other industries for fewdecades, yet no significant fundamental management orattitude shift has occurred for a change.Motivational theoriesand models have been suggested as a primary factor to bestudied and applied in order to influence better performance.For some reason, this suggestion has not been materializedin the construction industry, and many managers ignoredthe fundamentals ofworkermotivation.Management’s abilityto implement a method of motivation to avoid the actualcause of demotivation should be developed. This statementwas validated by many research studies which showed nosignificant improvement in tool time of construction workersin the previous four decades [1, 5, 6, 50].
Jarkas et al. [53] studied factors affecting the productivityand motivational factors of master craftsmen in Kuwait.Through an industry wide survey, they ranked the criticalmotivational factors that affect the productivity. Out of the 10most critical factors they identified that 2 factors were relatedto incentives (i.e., payment delay and lack of a financialincentive scheme), 5 were factors related to work environ-ment and culture (i.e., rework, the extent of change ordersduring execution, delays in response to RFI, overcrowdingand operatives interface, and quality level of drawings) and 4were factors related to management (i.e., incompetent super-visors, unrealistic scheduling and performance, and shortageof materials on site). However, Shin et al. [54] revealedthat economic motivators are more important than othercriteria.
Furthermore, Alarcon et al. [55] conducted a surveyto identify factors affecting the productivity of the Chileanconstruction industry. They identified 19 demotivators and22 motivators that are affecting the direct and indirectemployees. Therefore, when improving the motivation ofthe construction workers, it is important to reinforce themotivators and reduce the demotivators.
Finally, previous researchers have suggested that chang-ing the management style (primarily regarding communi-cation) and providing relevant incentives have the greatestpotential to initiate a shift towards better performance andproductivity in the industry. The opportunity awaits a cham-pion.
7. Conclusion
Although there are multiple studies on motivational theoriesand human behaviour, very few are focused specifically onconstruction worker motivation. There are no works in thepublished literature, which focus solely on the motivation ofthe Canadian construction workers. There are very limitedvalidated studies examining worker efficiencies, productivity,and the skills of the commercial construction workers inCanada.
This review found fifty two published articles thataddressed worker productivity in close context to construc-tion. Twenty two of these works were not presented in thispaper because they did not directly relate to constructionworker motivation. The thirty articles that did address thistopic were tabulated, categorized, and reviewed. Of thesearticles, nine addressed motivation models, five addressedworker environment/culture, nine addressed worker incen-tive and empowerment, and seven addressed worker man-agement. The findings show that the body of work regard-ing construction worker motivation is limited and that nomotivationalmodel has beenwidely used, in the constructionindustry. After reviewing the literature, this paper con-cludes that the previous work suggests two primary meth-ods for improving the motivation of construction workers:(1) relevant worker incentives (intrinsic or extrinsic) and(2) improved management practices, specifically regardingcommunication with workers. The first of these points isdirectly linked to the second.The majority of key factors thatinfluence motivation can be directed, controlled, or deliveredby management.
Finally, future research should address the ability of man-agement to implement motivational programs in the con-struction industry.Workermotivationmodels have been pre-viously presented but lack widespread adoption and imple-mentation bymanagement. Subsequent research should showthat practical application of motivationmodels will not comefrom the construction worker but from those with authorityto set project definition and direction.
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper.
10 Journal of Construction Engineering
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