resource november 2012

Cover StoryUD Trucks: Leading the way by meeting

customer expectations 6

RegularsPresidents comment 3

Editors comment 5

IWMSA News 50

Solid wasteTyre recycling plan: the next step in

waste minimisation and recycling 9

Solid waste management

practices in Western Africa 12

RecyclingAnton Hanekom chats with RSource

about the recycling industry in SA 14

LandfillsLeachate is one of the highest

risks in landfills 19

Waste to energySewage as a reliable supply

of energy 22

Air pollution/CDMGlobal business remains

far too carbon intensive 26

Hazardous wasteE-waste awareness is low and

it is a growing challenge in SA 28

Healthcare waste The safe disposal of healthcare

waste lies in training and research 35

ProfileCAIA:Managing the safe management

of chemicals 40

WastewaterWater remains our most limited resource

and, as such, it must be managed 43

Industry Opinion: Protecting the environment in

hazardous waste disposal 46

+5504

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Promoting integrated resources management

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Pollution Leachate containment critical on landfills

Carbon taxGlobal climate

mitigation pie in the sky

Rolling outTyre recycling plan cleans up

Urban miningLucrative, but buy-in

is essential

6JGQHEKCNLQWTPCNQHVJG+PUVKVWVGQH 9CUVG/CPCIGOGPVQH5QWVJGTP#HTKEC

+550

'ZRGTV1RKPKQP

is printed on 100% recycled paper

Our energy recovery rates are lower than that of the European Union. On the mechanical side, though, we are better off than them. Anton Hanekom, executive director at Plastics|SA

contentswww.3smedia.co.za ISSN 1680-4902, Volume 14, Number 4, November 2012

The RSource team stands firmly behind environmental preservation. As such, RSource magazine is printed on 100% recycled paper and uses no dyes or varnishes. The magazine is saddle-stitched to ensure that no glues are required in the binding process.

RSource November 2012 1

in association with }

infrastructure news infrastructure4 www.infrastructurene.ws

09 Tyre recycling

22 Waste to energy

28 Electronic Waste

19 Leachate control

RSource offers advertisers an ideal platform to ensure maximum exposure of their brand. Companies are afforded the opportunity of publishing a cover story and a cover picture to promote their products and services to an appropriate audience. Please call Christine Pretorius on +27 (0)11 465 6273 to secure your booking. The article does not represent the views of the Institute of Waste Management of Southern Africa, or those of the publisher.

:HRHUessential productsIRUwaste storage and transportation.

Wheeled Bins: 140 litre 240 litre 770 litre 1000 litre 1100 litre

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240 litre

770 litre

Mpact Plastic ContainersNeil Hare Road, Atlantis, South Africa 9 Piet Pretorius Street, Brits, South AfricaPO Box 1551, Dassenberg, 7350 Tel: +27 (0) 21 573 9400/ 0861 672 444 www.mpcsa.co.za

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Cover strapPresident's comment

Patron members of the IWMSA

WasteCon 2012, Southern Africas most comprehensive waste man-agement conference, drew to a close in East London on 12 October 2012

and we are delighted to report a resound-

ingly successful event. This years WasteCon

boasted over 500 delegates and 100 exhibi-

tors, and was the biggest waste conference

to have been hosted in South Africa to date.

Now in its 25th year, this four-day, flagship

biennial event brought together municipals as

well as private entities to deliberate and set

up processes that will move our nation ahead

in addressing crucial issues pertinent to the

waste management industry.

At the IWMSA, we believe that we are on

the brink of change, facing exciting new

opportunities and challenges. Establishing

a quality assurance framework for our mem-

bership base is foremost on the agenda,

which will not only result in that base having

acquired sound knowledge but also serve

to enhance the reputation and credibility of

the IWMSA.

We simply have to move away from landfill

as the primary option for waste disposal and

in order to achieve the desired result, our

focus will continue to be on reuse, recycling

and recovery. The IWMSA seeks for its mem-

bers self-regulation within an appropriate

legal framework. We understand that it is

critical that the IWMSA serves its members

by engaging with the various stakeholders in

determining legislation and also to provide

education in the form of workshops and

training that is relevant and informed.

A successful bout at WasteCon 2012

We are pleased to have established a

much greater rapport with government,

and the resultant attendance of more

municipal delegates than ever before at

WasteCon 2012 is evidence of the strides

taken in this regard. We are excited, too, to

have received inputs from young delegates

attending WasteCon 2012, who were there

as a result of concern for the environment

and for their future. We need to nurture

and encourage such interest wherever

possible in order to more effectively com-

municate with communities so that trans-

formation takes place from the ground up.

In the past five years, the IWMSA has

made signifi-

cant progress in

appointing spon-

sored and accred-

ited assessors

and moderators to

facilitate accred-

ited training pro-

grammes. These

individuals are

professionals in their respective fields who

give voluntarily of their time and expertise

and are, as such, truly invested in combat-

ting our waste management crises. We

thank and salute them all.

The role of the IWMSA as an organisation

is to educate its members, as well as pri-

vate and government sectors, and to set a

new standard for IWMSA members in terms

of certification and accreditation. In order

to implement effective and sustainable

waste management processes, we need

to be proactive, especially at grass roots

level. The challenges that are faced by

those on the ground on a day-to-day basis

must be addressed in order to effect real

change in the industry.

We, at the IWMSA, focus on providing

education and training for our members, as

well as other interested parties, whether

private individuals or government entities.

The IWMSA is a non-profit organisation

comprising a body of dedicated profes-

sionals in their respective fields, who give

freely and voluntarily of their time and

expertise in order to effectively educate,

promote and fur ther

the science and prac-

tice of waste man-

agement. Anyone

wishing to find out

more about the

IWMSA or how to

become a mem-

ber can visit

www.iwmsa.

co.za.

We believe that we are on the brink of change, facing exciting new opportunities and challenges. Deidr Nxumalo-Freeman, president, IWMSA

WRESTLING WITH WASTE

by Deidr Nxumalo-Freeman, president, IWMSA


Waste is part of the human con-dition. It is a by-product of our very existence and for this rea-son, solutions to minimising and managing

it are critical. The amount of waste gener-

ated per person is highly dependent on

living standard measures and the higher

that measure, the higher the consumption

and, consequently, the higher the levels of

waste. Thus, you would not be wrong for

thinking that as a country, South Africa

should be in a better position since the

bulk of our population falls into the lower

levels of income but this, in turn, provides

a new challenge as a lot of recyclable waste

is sent to landfill. Re-

cycling and concern

for the environment

is not exactly top of

the list for people

who are struggling to

meet the most basic

needs. Maslows hi-

erarchy of needs is

applicable here. We cannot expect of peo-

ple whose basic needs are not met to care

about recycling, litter and things like the

environment. We cannot expect people who

need plastic canisters to keep water to be

concerned about what the canisters held in

the first place. Neither can we expect those

self-same people to not litter or separate

their waste for the benefit of reducing land-

fills. In fact, many of those people are on

landfills trying to reclaim what they can to

make a living or collecting recyclables from

more affluent suburbs.

By the same token, recycling initiatives

cannot solely rely on private individuals

and companies, with very little assis-

tance from government. More support

is required to back up the legislation

and, as discussed by Anton Hanekom,

the chief at Plastics|SA in this edition,

more incentives and subsidies could form

part of that solution. Training and polic-

ing of waste management and disposal,

including hazardous waste, along with

forums where all the role players can

come together and keep communication

channels open to engage everyone, are

very important to achieve country suc-

cess. The process is moving forward but

it is fragmented because the business,

economic and infrastructure environment

to see it achieve the success it has to

achieve, is not in place.

Waste is not an isolated concept. Every

citizen is involved because we are all gen-

erating it. We cannot expect innovation,

recycling and minimisation to take place

if we are not all involved and we do not

all understand the paramount importance

of it. A lot of information was put for-

ward at the recently

held WasteCon in

East London, hosted

by the Institute of

Waste Management

of Southern Africa,

but in-depth research

is required. Solutions

include training, edu-

cation, employment opportunities to uplift

communities living on the fringe of soci-

ety, and a conducive environment in which

to operate. There are many initiatives and

while this puts us on our way to waste

management success, we are nowhere

near close enough yet.

Yanna Erasmus

RSource is endorsed by:

It has to be a collective and inclusive effort

Publisher: Elizabeth ShortenAssociate Publisher: Ferdie PieterseEditor: Yanna Erasmus Tel: +27 (0)11 233 2600, [email protected] of design: Frdrick DantonSenior designer: Hayley MendelowChief sub-editor: Claire NozacSub-editor: Patience GumboProduction manager: Antois-Leigh BotmaProduction coordinator: Jacqueline ModiseFinancial manager: Andrew Lobban Marketing & online manager: Martin HillerDistribution manager: Nomsa MasinaDistribution coordinator: Asha PursothamAdministrator: Tonya HebentonPrinters: United Litho JohannesburgTel: +27 (0)11 402 0571 Advertising sales: Christine PretoriusTel: +27 (0)11 465 8255 [email protected]

Publisher: MEDIANo.4, 5th Avenue Rivonia, 2191PO Box 92026, Norwood 2117Tel: +27 (0)11 233 2600Share Call: 086 003 3300 Fax: +27 (0)11 234 7274/5www.3smedia.co.za

Annual subscription: [email protected] (incl VAT) South Africa ISSN 1680-4902

The Institute of Waste Management of Southern AfricaTel: +27 (0)11 675 3462E-mail: [email protected]

All material herein RSource is copyright-protected and may not be reproduced either in whole or in part without the prior written permission of the publisher. The views and opinions ex-pressed in the magazine do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher or editor, but those of the author or other contributors under whose name contributions may appear, unless a con-tributor expresses a viewpoint or opinion in his or her capacity as an elected office bearer of a company, group or association.

Copyright 2012. All rights reserved.

We cannot expect innovation, recycling and minimisation to take place if we are not all involved

Editor's comment

APOLOGY RSource left out the references from the following case study in the August 2012 edition: Water balance covers and their applicability to South African land-fills. For more information on the case study, please contact Riva Nortje on +27 (0)11 519 0200 or e-mail: [email protected]. We apologise for any inconvenience caused.

UD Trucks forms part of one of the worlds largest trucking groups, with operations in South Africa being the brands largest market outside of Japan, sig-

nifying its strategic importance in the country

as well as in Southern Africa.

For more than 50 years, UD Trucks

has produced legendary vehicles that have

built an outstanding reputation in the local

transport industry, says Jacques Carelse,

UD Trucks Southern Africa MD. This is

mainly due to the vehicles unrelenting reli-

ability, versatile performance and suitability

to South African road and operating condi-

tions. The company has invested greatly in

developing innovative and modern vehicles

that offer better efficiency, fuel economy and

environmental responsibility.

Through its environmental

policy, UD Trucks aims to cre-

ate a better environment by

taking every possible meas-

ure to tackle global environ-

mental issues. The company

also aims to develop envi-

ronmentally friendly products

through measures such as

reducing exhaust emissions, improving fuel

efficiency, developing cleaner fuels and

reducing external automobile noise.

Matching customer expectations with global business insightsExtensive research by UD Trucks has

revealed that customers are increasingly

looking for a truck provider that can be a

true professional partner. The company is

therefore committed to continue building

closer professional relationships with its

customers and offers dependable transport

solutions a recipe for future success.

UD Trucks extensive dealer network

remains committed to providing customers

with innovative transport solutions and ser-

vice offerings, built on trust, in-depth industry

knowledge and a strong technical skills set.

The company has more than 60 dealers in

Southern Africa, including Botswana, Kenya,

Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius,

Mozambique, Namibia, Uganda, Swaziland,

Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

UD Trucks has a proud after-sales care

record as a result of a concerted commit-

ment to consistently improve product and

customer support to ensure the best pos-

sible vehicle availability and utilisation.

This commitment

starts with excellent

product support from

UD Trucks in Japan.

The company also

continuously employs

and trains specialist

technicians in order

to ensure the highest

quality of workmanship, explains Carelse.

The efficient and timely supply of quality

UD Trucks parts remains one of the com-

panys main priorities.

UD Trucks dedicated distribution centre

aims to provide the best service in the

industry and contribute to the low life

cycle costs of all UD Trucks products. With

more than 400 000 parts internationally

and 28 000 locally all of which are man-

aged through a computer-controlled storage

system an industry-leading parts supply

has consistently been achieved.

Legendary trucks, future-forward technologyThrough a pioneering spirit, groundbreak-

ing engineering and a customer-centric

approach, UD Trucks applies the expertise

amassed in the diesel-engine field to pro-

duce trucks that are comfortable, safe and

environmentally friendly.

UD Trucks Southern Africa offers a well-

balanced range ensuring appropriate tech-

nology for the needs of customers in the

waste management and related industries.

Medium duty trucks UD85 Recycling (skip loader)

UD90 Recycling (compactor)

Specifically configured for the waste manage-

ment industry, UD Trucks range of medium

duty trucks (MDT) offers a comfortable ride

and low noise levels, with advanced safety

features and a powerful engine that provides

high levels of fuel economy and durability.

UD Trucks MDT range is geared to achieve

excellent fuel consumption and gradeabil-

ity, ensuring that a high average speed is

attained to boost productivity.

The class-leading performance of these

units is achieved by the unique combination

of engine power, transmission ratios and

final drive ratio.

The high specification, inherent strength

and minimalist approach of UD Trucks MDT

engine range, proven through extensive

testing, make the trucks ideal for work.

The vehicles are easy to drive, operate and

UD TRUCKS

As one of the regions leading truck manufacturers, UD Trucks Southern Africa is driven by its vision of being professional, passionate and dependable in everything it does.

6 RSource November 2012

Into the future after UUD TR

QUALITY AND AFTERSALES SUPPORT FORM THE BACKBONE OF UD TRUCKS

UD Trucks MDT range is geared to achieve excellent fuel consumption and gradeability

Cover Story


Cover story

RSSRSRSRSRSRSRSRSRSRSR ourouourourourourourrceccecececeeec NovNovNovNovovNovNovvNovNovNovN vvvembembembemembembembemembemem er eererrerer errererr 20120120120201201202012012200010012012012012010001000102002010 222 22 2 22 2 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 22222 77777777777777777777777777777

maintain, and are exactly what UD Trucks

Southern Africa wants to offer its South

African customers.

Heavy duty trucks UD330WF Recycling (compactor)

CW26 490 Recycling (skip loader)

UD Trucks Quon range of heavy duty trucks

has been specifically designed and devel-

oped as a smart worker a truck that

works intelligently as part of a profitable

transport solution for its owner.

The design fuses UD Trucks tradition of

environmentally friendly technology, with the

smartness and stalwart power of a new-

generation working truck that is endowed

with high levels of intelligence. After thou-

sands of kilometres of testing, UD Trucks

believes the new Quon range also adheres

to stringent local requirements.

A selection of manual and automatic

manual transmissions has been employed

across the range to suit a variety of appli-

cations. The automatic gearboxes were

specifically developed to improve safety,

overall economy and offer the operators

easy driving capabilities. The AO612 group

new automated manual transmission, offers

two-pedal or clutchless operation through

the innovative 12-speed Escot V gearshift

mechanism, and is suitable for the skip

loader application. For compactor applica-

tions, the Allison fully automatic transmis-

sions are employed specifically like in the

case of the UD330 WM.

ESCOT has been specifically designed

for enhanced driver comfort and safety,

lower maintenance as well as greater fuel

efficiency. It offers both power and econ-

omy in a wide variety of driving scenarios

by increasing driving performance at low

speeds at time of start, and reducing engine

speeds in high gear at cruising speeds.

The UD Trucks Quon range successfully

combines leading environmentally friendly

technology with the smartness and stalwart

power of a new-generation working truck that

is endowed with high levels of intelligence.

However, the Quon range remains easy to

operate and maintain, providing customers

with the best of both worlds.

A special off-road chassis packaging has

also been introduced specifically to suit the

regions unique operating conditions. This

includes uprated front axle ratings, heavy

duty front suspension and stabiliser, radia-

tor protection, as well as a higher reposi-

tioned exhaust silencer and fuel tanks.


50 successful years


Solid Waste

Somewhere between 10 and 15 million tyres are produced annually in South Africa, which equates to approximately 300 000 t. The number of scrap tyres, or tyres

that can no longer be retreaded or reused,

amounts to 10 million per year. Currently, there

are only three active tyre recycling companies

in the country, recycling around 1 000 t each,

which means an estimated

13% of total waste tyres re-

cycled, and this is currently

meeting market demand for

crumb. Tyres are a particu-

lar problem for landfill due

to their large volumes and

75% void space, which

provides a breeding ground for mosquitoes

and rodents. They also trap methane, not

only risky in itself for fires at landfills, but the

gas also causes the tyres to become buoy-

ant or bubble to the surface, damaging the

liners in landfills and enhancing groundwater

pollution with toxic leachate.

The controversyOriginally, three plans to deal with the sur-

plus existed; the Retail Motor Industry

Organisation (RMI), the South African Tyre

Recycling Process (SATRP) and the Recycling

and Economic Development Initiative of South

Africa (Redisa) all prepared plans. The RMI

accused Redisa of hijacking the plan pre-

pared by the RMI and

the Tyre Dealers

and Fitment

Association plan,

as the Redisa chief,

Herman Erdmann,

was formerly the

chairman of the lat-

ter. Erdmann denied these allegations, but

allegedly agreed to repay the association for a

disputed amount that was spent on the plan.

The SATRP also submitted a plan that cost in

the region of R8 million, which it had worked

on for around 12 years. At the end of it all,

after several attempts and interdicts and

other actions, the court ruled in favour of the

Redisa plan, which was approved by the min-

istry, and all tyre manufacturers were ordered

to join Redisa by 21 September this year. The

judge ruled that no one would be prejudiced

if the other plans were also approved by the

environment ministry as they could then leave

Redisa and join another plan. The other organ-

isations are continuing their submissions.

The recycling planRedisas recycling plan, which is now gazet-

ted, involves a levy of R2.30/kg on all locally

manufactured and imported tyres. Instead

of the producer responsibility system for

recycling, the association opted for a levy

system. The argument for this is based on

its argument that producer responsibility is

a voluntary system, which does not offer a

fair playing field. In a levy system, it says

REMOVAL OF SCRAP TYRES BY YANNA ERASMUS

As South Africa continues in its drive to manage and limit waste, in particular waste to landfi ll, recycling initiatives are growing. The driving force for recycling is attaching a value to the waste product and in the next step to waste minimisation, one plan for dealing with scrap tyres has recently been gazetted, albeit surrounded by controversy.

ABOVE A pile of scrap tyres near a landfill in the East Rand

The number of scrap tyres, or tyres that can no longer be retreaded or reused, amounts to 10 million per year

Rolling out tyre recycling


Solid waste

all producers and importers operate equally.

Redisa has focused on small and very small

black businesses to remove waste tyres that

are already in the environment. These will be

delivered to one of a 150 collection points

which will be established across the country.

The document states that a network of

collection depots and recyclers will be estab-

lished, and part of the operating cost of the

plan will be devoted to training and support-

ing of the SMMEs. Another component will

be allocated to research and development to

create recycling processes.

Formalising collectionThe roll-out of the plan is that collections

of passenger and truck tyres must start

within 10 months. They are aiming to better

that target. New recycling plants will typi-

cally take 18 to 24 months to establish from

scratch, but some are being commissioned

now and others estimated to account for

about 10% of the total volume of waste tyres

are currently operating.

Redisa stated: At the moment, collec-

tors pick up the tyres from dealers but

there is no agreed tariff and no agreed

or regulated depot for transporting the

tyres, which often results in the tyres being

indiscriminately dumped either at landfills

or in the veld. There is, as yet, little for-

malised recycling of tyres, and the majority

is disposed in environmentally unfriendly

ways (burning, illegal dumping, landfill).

Recycled rubber for other avenues, such as

rubber shoes and so on, have not yet been

formally set-up and there is therefore no

overall regulation of this informal industry.

By creating a sustainable recycling indus-

try (that includes product development

and transporters), formal income earning

opportunities will be significantly increased

(and tracked and reported on).

This will not be without its challenges.

Currently, there are three recycling plants

in operation with one in Gauteng, one in

KwaZulu-Natal and another in the Western

Cape. They are meeting market demand.

More crumb markets neededAccording to Ika van Niekerk of SA Tyre

Recyclers in the Western Cape, the company

handles around 1 000 t scrap tyres monthly

and produces crumb from them. He is also of

the opinion that the three recyclers are meet-

ing market demand. It is becoming a very

limited and competitive market for direct or

wholesale sales to crumb users. More crum-

bers would result in profitability challenges

and inevitably the survival of the fittest.

Thus, a market must be created for crumb.

The future lies in utilising rubber crumb

in value-adding industries, such as motor

industry components, foot wear and many

other possibilities. This process will inevi-

tably compete with Chinese imports and

other countries in the East, where labour

costs are very competitive. To establish

markets for downstream products is easier

said than done. It might well require seri-

ous intervention from government and an

approved waste tyre plant to assist in creat-

ing markets. One of the challenges is a sur-

plus of crumb in Europe and if the market

here is not protected, the prices that the

crumb can be imported at will be equivalent

to what it costs us to produce it.

The challenge of recyclingTyres offer a particular challenge for recy-

cling, because unlike waste products like

glass, plastics and paper, they cannot be

remade. Natural rubber consists of polymers

that exist in chains, and virgin or new rubber

cannot bind to the polymers in crumb, the

final product of the tyre recycling process.

Scrap tyres can be used in the construction

of houses, roads, boarding, apparel and

the like.

Incineration in cement factory kilns is also

an option, but only 15% of the coal load can

be replaced by crumb and the technol-

ogy is very expensive. Thus, Van Niekerk

says that his plant does not sell crumb for

incineration. He says that he is aware of

one factory near Port Elizabeth that uses

shredded tyres in the brick-making process.

Road construction companies, however,

order crumb and the Heidelberg highway

for example, was constructed this way. The

use of crumb in this way is very efficient

as the road lasts five times longer because

the crumb protects the road foundation.

The problem of red tapeAnother criticism of the Redisa plan is the

levy system. Riaan van Niekerk from Pirelli

and the SATRP plan is of the opinion that the

levy system will cause a lot of red tape. A lot

of tyre brands are imported to South Africa

and from here, service the SADC region. The

levy must be paid on the import but once

exported the levy must be claimed back. This

is considered to be a strength in the SATRP

plan and the levy is lower at R1.98/kg. The

levy on the tyre is charged at the point of

sale in South Africa, which eliminates the

system of credits and debits that the Redisa

plan will cause.

The majority of countries in the European Union are using producer responsibility above the levy system

ABOVE Scrap tyres are baled to reduce their volume for transport to a recycling plant


t Integrated Waste Management Planst Waste Disposal Strategiest Identification and permitting of landfill sitest Design of General and Hazardous Waste sitest Design of Solid Waste Transfer Stationst Design of Material Recovery Facilitiest Optimisation of Waste Collection Systemst Auditing of Waste Management Facilitiest Development of Operational Planst Closure and Rehabilitation of Landfillst Quality Assurance on Synthetic Linerst Waste Recycling Plans

Specialist Waste Management ConsultantsSustainable and appropriate engineering solutions with integrity and professionalism.

Jan Palm Consulting EngineersTel +27 21 982 6570 / Fax +27 21 981 0868 / E-mail [email protected] / www.jpce.co.za

Gansbaai Recycling Centre

Velddrif Transfer Station

Botrivier Drop-off

Hermanus Materials Recovery Facility

Vissershok Waste Management Facility

Stanford Drop-off

And the European Tyre and Rubber

Manufacturers Association (ETRMA) agrees.

Research published in 2011 on end-of-

life tyres (ELT) shows that the majority of

countries in the European Union (EU) are

using producer responsibility above the levy

system. Some 57% in 2011 used producer

responsibility. This system, the association

says, is robust and suitable and currently,

there is a 100% recovery rate with producer

responsibility. Denmark and Slovakia still

use the levy system and six countries are

using the free-market system. In the EU,

countries can choose the system they want

to use, but landfilling has been abolished

since 2006. Only two countries are still

landfilling: Bulgaria and Cyprus. Europe has

around 5.7 Mt of tyre stockpiles, which is

almost double the number of used tyres pro-

duced in 2010, and the number continues to

increase. Material recovery stands at 40%

and energy recovery at 38%.

The total recycling rate in the EU stands at

96% compared to 50% in 2005. The asso-

ciation says that the improvement is due

to the sustained deployment of the producer

responsibility model. Genan in Denmark,

one of the largest recycling operations in the

world, does not agree due to unfair competi-

tion and Redisa has followed this model.

If it is indeed true, as Redisa says,

that South Africa has 60 million scrap

tyres lying around,

then the countrys

challenge is mas-

sive. Once value

has been added

to these tyres,

the influx will

grow quickly and

the market has to

catch up. Plants

have to be built, research into new products

must be completed and a market created

for these products as a matter of urgency.

However, in spite of these tangible obsta-

cles, South Africa has to deal with its waste

tyre problem and the gazetting of this plan is

the first step in the right direction.

Options for recycled and scrap tyresBesides reuse and retreatment, there are

other products that can be created. Options

for tyre derived products include the use of

crumb as an energy source, binding whole

tyres together used as barriers including col-

lision reduction, erosion control, rainwater

runoff, wave action that protects piers and

marshes, landfill walls and sound barriers

between roadways and residences. Entire

homes can be built with whole tyres by ram-

ming them full of earth and covering them

with concrete. Shredded tyres can also be

used in civil engineering applica-

tions such as sub-grade fill and

embankments, backfill for walls

and bridge abutments, sub-grade

insulation for roads and septic

system drain fields. Ground and crumb rubber

can also be used in both paving type projects

and mouldable products. These types of pav-

ing are rubber-modified asphalt or concrete,

livestock mats and more.

This means an estimated 13% of total waste tyres are recycled

Solid waste


and formal private role players are mostly in-

volved in insufficient collection and final

disposal (landfills), whereas informal actors

are involved in pre-collection and recycling.

Pre-collection is generally per formed by

the informal sector in low-income neigh-

bourhoods that are not covered by the

formal collection systems. So, informal

actors or NGOs organise pre-collection and

transportation up to the level of transfer

stations. From here the waste is collected

by trucks belonging to either public or pri-

vate entities and brought to the municipal

dumping site. Sometimes informal col-

lectors also deposit the waste in illegal

dumping sites, especially when there is no

reloading site nearby or when waste is not

collected regularly.

When zoning of waste collection was initi-

ated, conflicts between formal and informal

sectors was observed especially in the

metropolitan areas of Accra, Kumasi, Tema,

Takoradi and Tamale. There is an ongoing

dispute about whether or not the informal

sector should be allowed to continue oper-

ating, to be integrated or organised into the

formal sector or to be stopped all together.

Final disposal infrastructureThe Accra Metropolitan Assembly is struggling

to secure land for the construction of a sani-

tary landfill. Residents are against the idea

of constructing landfills close to their homes

because of the fear of the unbearable stench

that is likely to emanate from the landfill and

also of the possibility of flies and rodents

invading the area.

In Ivory Coast, after having provided an

emergency support during the political

crisis (four SMEs have signed service

agreements with Abidjan), the World Bank

in its partnership strategy for 2010-2013

has committed to funding the construc-

tion of two sanitary landfills in Abidjan

TABLE 7 ORGANISATION OF WASTE MANAGEMENT IN WESTERN AFRICAStep Actors Infrastructure and equipment availablePre-collection (in low income areas)

Informal sector, CBOs, NGOs, coop-eratives, SMEs

Very low. Wheelbarrows, handcarts, tricycles (in Ghana).Communal collection points or transfer stations.

Collection (in high income areas)

Municipality, formal private sector

Plastic bags, bins, barrels, skip containers.

Transportation Municipality, formal private sector

Compactor trucks, skip trucks, tipper trucks and roll-on roll-off trucks, or in more rural areas tractors and carts. An important share of the vehicles is second hand vehicles (international donations), which is not in working order.

Zoomlion Ghana Limited, the largest Ghanaian company has 50 000 collection trucks and tricycles.

Separation Households, infor-mal sector

By households (if they sell to the informal waste buyers), by informal workers in the street and on dumping sites.

Recycling Informal and for-mal sector

Informal sector: manual metal smelting equipmentFormal sector: plastic shredders etc.

Final disposal Municipality, formal private sector

70% to 90% of the municipal solid waste is disposed of in official dumpsites. The rest is irregularly or illegally dumped.

On the official dumpsites, the waste is compacted with trucks. There are usually no installations for gas collection and treatment or leakage water drainage. The leakage water runs uncontrolled to the next river. Only in Lagos the leakage water reaches a leachate pond.

Information on total and remaining capacities of official dumpsites could not be acquired.

Open air incineration is very common for households and at irregular and official dumpsites, to reduce the volumes.

Source: (IWWA 2011)

Solid waste management practices in Western Africa

PART II OF V

In Western Africa, the rapid rate of uncontrolled and unplanned urbanisation, coupled with a high density of urban settlements and changing consumption patterns, have accelerated the need for water supply, sanitation and waste management infrastructure.

Solid waste

In Western African countries, as in many other low-income countries, waste man-agement is generally organised as sum-marised in Table 7, with low income area

collection informally organised and separa-

tion for recycling done by households and

the informal sector. Recycling takes place in

both the informal and formal sectors. Public


Mills & Otten ccEnvironmental Consultants

1998/46338/23 Johannesburg Cape TownTel: (011) 486 0062 Tel: (021) 671 7107 Fax: (086) 554 6573 Fax: (021) 671 7107 Contact: Charles Mills / Kirstin Otten Contact: Stephanie de Beer

Independent Environmental Consultants specialising in:

Environmental Impact Assessments Environmental Management Systems Environmental Audits

Contaminated Land Assessment Environmental Management Plans Waste License Applications

[email protected]

TABLE 10 JOBS IN MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE COLLECTION, TRANSPORTATION AND DISPOSAL

Ghana Ivory Coast Nigeria SenegalAccra KEEA Abidjan Lagos Ido Dakar Matam

Number of formal companies 17 in Ghana 7 10 n.a. n.a. n.a.

Number of formal workers 3 200 141 1 765 3 000 120 1 701 9

Number of formal workers per 1 000 inhabitants

0.80 0.71 0.0003 0.38 n.a. 0.57 0.51

Number of informal workers engaged in separation, re-selling of recyclable materials and recycling

On Abgog-bloshie scrap yard: 3 000 members of the scrap dealers association.

n.a. Over 25 000 in the Kano metropolis

Sources: IWWA 2011; San 2002; Saleh 2008

Solid waste

and further, to support the government

in conceiving a national strategy for solid

waste management. The objective is to

secure 9 000 permanent jobs (waste col-

lectors) by 2013 and to collect and deposit

in the landfills 80% of the waste generated

in Abidjan.

In Dakar, a sanitary landfill is built in

the region of This next to Dakar, where

Dakars waste will be disposed in the

future. The landfill will be operated by a

private company. In addition, a transfer

and separation station is being built in

Mbao. There is currently a conflict regard-

ing the geographical location of the landfill

between the Ministry of the Environment,

the National Agency for Cleanliness

(APROSEN), the network of the main cities

of the region of Dakar (Entente CADAK-

CAR) and inhabitants of neighbouring areas

in the rural communities of Sindia and

Diass. In the City of Matam, the NGO Lux-

Development is implementing a project

including three transfer stations and a

sanitary landfill for the municipal waste.

Prior to the project, the city administration

together with the inhabitants has carried

out an environmental impact analysis.

Collection and recycling ratesConcerning recycling rates, there is no public

monitoring of such figures as recycling is left

to the formal and informal private sector.

There is hardly any support from both local

authorities and governmental agencies for

companies and business people who intend

to establish businesses that make use of

waste materials. However, paper, cardboard,

organic waste, plastics, e-waste and scrap

metal are sorted by the informal sector on

dumpsites or scrap yards and either recy-

cled locally by formal or informal actors, or

exported. Some fractions such as metal

scrap have a very high recycling rate while

less valuable fractions end up in the dump-

sites to a large extent.

Employment opportunitiesThe number of formal workers responsible for

the collection and transportation of municipal

solid waste varies from 0.003 (Abidjan) to

0.8 per 1 000 inhabitants (see Table 10).

The number of informal workers is high in all

four countries. The informal sector is particu-

larly developed in Nigeria and is structured

in the following way (Adebola, 2006):

Cart pushers: house to house waste col-

lection at a small fee.

Scavengers: involved in both on-site and

off-site waste and resource recovery. They

recover re-usable and recyclable materials

like plastics, aluminium, glass, paper,

scrap metal and animal waste such as

horn, bones and the like.

Resource merchants: traders involved

in the purchase of all recovered

recyclable and reusable materials from

the scavengers.

Recyclers: includes both the micro- and

the small-scale recycling companies. They

convert recovered waste materials like

paper, aluminium, animal by-products,

plastics and scrap metals, to valuable

materials and raw materials for the con-

sumption of the industrial sector.

Costs and financing mechanismIt is generally assumed that the cost of the

management of solid municipal waste in

Africa is very low with an average of 2 (R26) per year per inhabitant, as compared to the

high income countries where it can go well

beyond 100 (R1 300). The City of Accra is practicing full cost recovery and thus charging

close to commercial rates, while waste man-

agement in the most Western African cities

is subsidised. Moreover, households pay the

service providers directly, particularly in the

informal sector for pre-collection services.

This is an abridged version of the second

part of a paper on the project of Integrated

Waste Management in Western Africa. The

duration of the project, funded by the EU

within the Seventh Framework Programme,

was two years and the results of the research

were submitted during May 2012. For a full

version, including references, please contact

Yanna Erasmus at [email protected]


Recycling

PLASTICS RECYCLING

SA has unique circumstances in the recycling sector

Plastics|SAs executive director, Anton Hanekom, speaks to Yanna Erasmus about the business of recycling plastics. The industry in South Africa is growing in leaps and bounds and the country leads in many aspects, but there are diffi culties and obstacles that must be overcome.

The advent of plastics changed the packaging landscape and human society forever. Not only was it rela-tively inexpensive and easy to make, it was

light and easier to handle than the packag-

ing solutions of old. In South Africa, it is a

relatively young material, having only been

around for about 50 or 60 years. Today, and

in the public eye, plastics have a bad repu-

tation, thanks to litter in par ticular plastic

bags. Hanekom says: Our modern lifestyle

will not be possible without plastics. The in-

dustry provides essential products to a vari-

ety of sectors, including medical and health,

automotive, mining, agriculture, packag-

ing, building and construction, electrical,

and electronics.

South Africa conver ts around 1.3 million

tonnes of virgin plastic material a year,

and 52 to 55% of this goes into packaging.

The rate of plastics packaging recycling is

around 30%, and this figure grows annu-

ally. That, however, does not mean that

there is more room for growth. Plastics

are getting lighter and lighter, resulting in

more products being created out of the

same total weight and hence, more are

recycled. Many recycled plastics also go

into long-term products, like motor vehicle

bumpers and water pipes, and do not

return into the recycling stream. In fact,

DID YOU KNOW? Just over 245 000 t of plastics were

recycled in 2011 and of this, 76% was packaging material.

South African consumers spend around R45 billion on plastics every year.

Some 63 000 people are employed in the plastics industry.

Plastic packaging has a low carbon footprint because only between 1 and 3% of the total product weight is the packaging. This decreases the rate of transport.

Around 27% fewer apples are discarded if they are purchased shrink-wrapped in a tray.

The shelf life of an average cucumber is increased by 333% (from three to 14 days) if it is packaged in a mere 1.5 g of plastic wrap.


our recycling rate is higher than that of the

UK and the US. But it is not that simple,

says Hanekom.

As a country, we are both ahead and

behind in terms of plastics recycling. Our

energy recovery rates are lower than that of

the European Union (EU), which has histor-

ically incinerated its waste due to the lack

of landfill space. On the mechanical side,

though, the collection, sor ting, separation

and reprocessing process, we are better

off than the above-mentioned countries.

It can therefore be said that because

South Africa historically did not focus on

recycling and mostly landfilled its waste,

the recycling of plastics and innovation in

this waste stream has grown, due to the

pressure of the decreasing landfill space.

The EU, on the other hand, has focused

on developing waste to energy strategies

instead of innovations in recycling, due to

its incineration of waste.

Innovations are driven by Plastics|SAs

Sustainability Council. Here, issues of dif-

fering polymers, which affect the success

of recycling, are discussed to maintain and

increase the recycling rate. The aim is to

achieve a 35% plastics packaging recycling

rate by 2015. However, Hanekom says

that innovation star ts at the planning,

design and manufacturing of the original

product. Its complexity influences its even-

tual rate of recovery.

For example, a plastic water bottle is

made from PET, the closure from poly-

propylene (PP) and the label from a dif-

ferent plastic material. Thus, the choice

of material used by the manufacturer can

influence the recycling process of the

plastics. Ink on the bottle, which indicates

the manufacturing and expiry dates, can

also act as a contaminant in the pro-

cess. These are the things that need to

be considered. Plastics are multidimen-

sional, and this is the central challenge in

recycling success.

Public awareness is also important. A lot

of plastics are going to landfill, in par ticu-

lar plastic bags, as they are used in the

home to dispose of nappies, organic and

general waste, for example. A low level

of separation at source and the efficient

sor ting of domestic waste with collection

also hampers success.

Separation at sourceMunicipalities must increase capacity to

ensure that sor ted domestic waste is kept

sor ted and that consumers develop the dis-

cipline to do the separation. This may take

some form of incentive for the consumers,

but municipalities can save a lot of money

as landfills are expensive. WastePlan was

very successful in Cape Town with its house-

hold recycling collection service. This two-

bag curb side collection project was rolled

out to cer tain areas in Pretoria. PikiTup has

recently launched its second pilot project for

this in Johannesburg.

Skills shortageTo maintain our current success, it is vital

that skills are retained and, as in other

sectors, there is a skills shortage in the

country. There are too few university gradu-

ates that specialise in polymers, and too

few plasticians, setters and operators. The

designers who create the product are also

few and far in between. Says Hanekom:

The process is not cheap, and because

there is a skills shortage the price of recy-

cling increases. This, in turn, affects the

success of the entire process.

Challenges for the plastics industryThere are other problems as well. Company

compliance costs in South Africa are high

and this could increase final product price

by between 5 and 15%. Energy, labour

and logistics costs continue to increase.

In some instances, it is cheaper to ship

products to South Africa than to transport

them within the country. Cheap imports also

undermine plastics recycling. In China, for

example, there are subsidies and cheaper

operating costs. This results in a cheaper

final product. The bulk of local consumers

are poor and purchase according to price,

which affects not only the industry that

manufactures local products but also the

recovery of these products.

We are exporting jobs, money and raw

material, states Hanekom.

Companies that recycle must also import

all the equipment from overseas, and

the moulds used to manufacture the

actual products are also imported from

the Far East or the EU. This pushes up the

cost substantially.

Another challenge is the public view that

recycled plastics are second-hand and

substandard, or that purchasing glass and

paper packaging is the greener option.

It is critical that this mind-set is changed.

Recycled plastic products are new prod-

ucts and the bad reputation of plastic is

undeserved. The total carbon footprint

resulting from the creation of a plastic

product and its recycling is in many cases

lower than the manufacturing and recycling

of other products such as glass. Only 4%

of the total global oil production is cur-

rently going into plastic manufacturing.

So how do we keep the industry in posi-

tive growth? Hanekom is of the view that

it needs to be protected. South Africas

borders are open to imports, and there

are no protective measures such as lev-

ies or standards. For example, the current

levy on plastic bags should be going to the

industry. There should be incentives and

subsidies for plastics recycling companies,

ABOUT PLASTIC WATER BOTTLES: Close to four million PET bottles are

recycled every day in South Africa. Recycling plastic bottles decreases the

need for raw materials and saves energy. Recycling a tonne of PET bottles saves

1.5 t of carbon dioxide emissions. Some 100 kg of plastic, in a car weighing

1 000 kg, ensures a fuel saving of up to 7.5%.

A total of 41 recycled polystyrene hamburger clamshells make one plastic picture frame.

Five recycled PET bottles are equal to one T-shir t.

A total of 11 coke bottles is equals to a pair of trousers.

It takes 35 recycled water bottles to produce a polar fleece jacket.

The carbon footprint of plastic water bottles can be reduced by 25% if consumers simply recycle the bottles.

Producers must create local, recyclable products and take responsibility for them. This should not be voluntary

Recycling


Recycling

Johannes Schuback & Sons(S.A.) PTY Limited, Johannesburg / RSAPhone: +27 11 7062270, Fax: +27 11 7069236

[email protected]

AMANDUS KAHL GmbH & Co. KGDieselstrasse 5, D-21465 Reinbek / Hamburg, GermanyPhone: +49 (0)40 727 71-0, Fax: +49 (0)40 727 71-100

[email protected] www.akahl.de

Recycling of Municipal and Industrial WasteRecycling of Municipal and Industrial Waste

Pellets or fluff as alternative fuels

as adding a levy onto a recycled product is

too much of a burden for already burdened

consumers in the current economic cli-

mate. Consumers should be educated to

support locally manufactured products, as

this will combat pover ty overall.

SolutionsStandards are crucial. These have to be

put in place and maintained in our industry.

If this occurs and they are enforced, certain

imports will be limited and those that enter

the country will comply. Our Enviromark on

products also guarantees that the producers

of those products are committed to extend-

ed producer responsibility. This is important

as producers must create local, recyclable

products and take responsibility for them.

This should not be voluntary. Communication

between the trade and industry and environ-

mental departments is also essential to

this process.

The Preferential Procurement Policy

Framework Act that came into force during

December, last year, is a good example

of what can be done. Previously, the only

requirement for a tender was an empower-

ment policy, but with this Act there must

be a cer tain amount of locally manufac-

tured product or content to secure the

work. However, government procurement

of plastics is low and hence, local content

should be specified.

Hanekom adds that the industry as a

whole must become more original and inno-

vative. There are a host of small companies

This logo indicates that the manufacturer has expressed its commitment to environmental responsibility. It is registered in the name of the Plastics Federation of South Africa.

making the same product. Industry should

be thinking about how it can diversify and

enter a more niche market with an original

product. This will decrease competition and

increase innovation.

The recycling of plastics is a group effor t

and all role players, from the manufacturer,

the user and the municipal utility through

to the government, must be involved if

the industry is to grow and develop. Many

successes have been achieved as was

seen with the awards for the best recycled

products held in September. A wide variety

of innovative products were entered but

support is needed for the manufacture of

these products to grow from small com-

munity products to large and inexpensive

mainstream products. It has to be a col-

lective effor t.

Our modern lifestyle will not be possible without plastics. The industry provides essential products to a variety of sectors. Anton Hanekom, Executive Director of Plastics|SA


Landfills

South African experts in the field be-lieve that between 20 and 30% of landfills in South Africa comply with the minimum requirements. This is primar-

ily due to smaller towns and villages across

the country with landfills that can only be

described as dumpsites.

If this is indeed true, or if overestimated

and around 50% of landfills do not com-

ply, our groundwater resources are under

threat. Smaller towns and villages also

do not separate organic waste and when

coupled with high rainfall, the potential for

contamination is high. Consider a dump-

site on top of a hill in a high rainfall area

such as Mpumalanga. There is a settle-

ment at the base of the hill, drawing water

from stream or borehole. Chronic infec-

tions in these communities are considered

to be a by-product of their lifestyle when it

could be due to polluted groundwater. But

Pulling the plug on leachateCOMPLIANCE

If it is true that leachate is somewhere between 10 and 1 000 times more contaminated and damaging to the local surface and groundwater than sewage, then the case is made for well-engineered and more importantly, well-managed landfi ll sites. Yanna Erasmus reports.


Landfills

the problem is not only centred around

landfill sites that do not comply. According

to Leon Grobbelaar of Interwaste: Around

50% of the active landfills in the country

are poorly managed. The cause of this

is not necessarily that the landfill was

badly designed but that the knowledge

of managing it well is lacking. In some

cases, municipalities, being unaware, also

damage liner systems. Municipalities also

often move away from non-compliant land-

fill sites and simply construct new ones.

And this is not all we do not know.

According to Dr Luis Diaz, a member of

the solid waste management task group

for the International Waste Working Group,

and expert in the field for the past 40

years: We still have insufficient knowl-

edge of the science associated with waste

management. Luis raised several con-

cerns including increased consumption,

which is coupled with increased affluence

and the excessive increase in packaging in

urban societies. Globally, the focus is on

the diversion of waste from landfill.

While this is the emphasis in South

Africa as well, with the well-known dead-

line of zero waste to landfill by 2022, we

still have the problem of existing land-

fills, many of them holes in the ground

filled with a variety of waste from vastly

differing sources.

While some landfills may be classified

as dry and the potential for leachate low,

there is still some runoff, albeit consid-

ered negligible. Leachate becomes a tan-

gible challenge in wet or B+ rated landfills

as well as hazardous landfill sites. For the

purposes of this discussion, the focus will

be on general waste landfills.

The goal of landfill technical design

is complex and the main objective is to

preserve groundwater and to protect the

environment. Stormwater systems for both

contaminated and clean water must be

in place and collection and storage for

leachate, including lined leachate dams,

must form part of the site. Rod Claus from

Fiber tex says that clay liners in landfills

are risky. Early in the landfill operations,

clay may be exposed to the open environ-

ment and dry out. This can cause cracks

and consequently, a drainage path for

leachate. Darryn Meissel, regional direc-

tor of Geotextiles Africa, agrees. Clay

is moisture dependent. In a wet and dry

season, it has the potential to desiccate.

Clay needs to function at its optimum

moisture content and wet clay does not

crack and create a leak path. Liners,

although not infallible, seem to be the

penultimate solution to capturing leachate

and ensuring that it is drained to leachate

collection dam.

Except for waste type, landfill liners and

design depend on the topography and

rainfall of the area, among other things.

For a large, general waste and wet landfill

though, minimum requirements in the draft

standard include drainage and monitoring

system on top of in situ soil is topped by

a geosynthetic clay liner. This, in turn, is

topped by four 150 mm of compacted clay

topped by a 1.5 mm HDPE geomembrane.

On top this either a 100 mm protection

layer of silty sand or a geotextile of equiva-

lent per formance is required. This is fol-

lowed by a stone leachate collection sys-

tem which is topped by another geotextile

layer on which the waste body is collected.

At the Rietfontein landfill (GLB+) site near

Springs, which is managed by Interwaste,

the municipality has taken the linings a

step fur ther. Below the leakage detection

and collection layer, a 150 mm compacted

clay liner and below that 150 mm base

preparation layer tops the in situ soil.

Sanitar y landfills have been par t of

human settlements since 1937 with the

first one built in Fresno, California, in that

year. By the 1960s, laws and regulations

were implemented and in the 1970s the

US star ted separation at source.

A paper published in 1982 examined

the potential of German sanitary landfills

to pollute through leachate and methane

entering the groundwater system. The

results indicated that landfills compacted

with a compactor instead of a crawler trac-

tor had a lower incidence of leachate gen-

eration, around 15 to 25% of the annual

precipitation as compared to between 25

and 50% in the case of the crawler tractor.

This was measured at a 500 to 800 mm

annual precipitation rate. The author, R

Stegman suggested, already at that time,

that biological processes be used to fil-

ter leachate. The product, although still

relatively contaminated, can be recircu-

lated to increase moisture content in the

landfill and after it is closed, leachate

recirculation should be practiced in order

to maximise evaporation on top of the

landfill. Leachate production of closed-up

landfill sections can also be reduced by

supporting vegetation growth on top of the

landfill and erosion prevention methods

should be used such as growing grass on

the slopes.

We still have insufficient knowledge of the science associated with waste management Dr Luis Diaz


VERMEER PORTRAIT

Cut-off trenches that effectively isolate landfills hydraulically

from the surrounding environment and monitoring boreholes

also assist to manage leachate.

Treating leachateThere are a variety of factors that can influence the production

and composition of leachate. One major factor is the climate of

the landfill. For example, where the climate is prone to higher lev-

els of precipitation, there will be more water entering the landfill

and therefore more leachate generated. Another factor is the site

topography of the landfill, which influences the runoff patterns

and again the water balance within the site.

There are two natural treatments that can be used to filter and

treat leachate although the product is still not entirely free of

toxins. Bioremediation is the treatment of choice for mineralis-

ing most organic compounds in landfill leachate. Under aerobic

conditions, microorganisms can degrade organic compounds to

carbon dioxide, and under anaerobic conditions to carbon dioxide

and methane. Xenobiotics can also be degraded with the correct

species of microorganisms that are introduced.

This is what was done at Mariannhill Landfill in Durban.

According to Lindsay Strachan of SLR Consulting: The applica-

tion of naturalistic engineering to landfill development is crucial

to environmental acceptance of the landfill site. Naturalistic

engineering encompasses many landfill facets, for example:

the provision of landfill capping layers that would stimulate

vegetation growth, the use of simple and low-cost yet robust

natural systems to treat landfill leachate, and the installation

of wetlands to reduce stormwater energy and to simultaneously

reintroduce bird life to the site.

Phytoremediation was also used as a second-phase polish-

ing treatment with the use of a reed bed at the Mariannhill

landfill site.

At WasteCon 2012, held in October, Jeffares and Green

announced the commissioning and initial results of a leachate

treatment plant at Vissershok in the Western Cape. It is the

largest treatment plant of its kind in the country and it was

commissioned after upgrades towards the end of April. After

10 days, denitrification of the leachate was achieved. The plant

also boasts an innovative design that is internationally state of

the ar t for broader wastewater treatment. It is the first in South

Africa to denitrify landfill leachate. Although expensive, costing

just under R34 million, Jeffares and Green is of the opinion

that plants like these are very important due to the pollution

potential of leachate.

Leon Grobbelaar of Interwaste agrees: Pollution by anti-

quated landfills and those that are badly managed will only be

seen years from now.

Liners will only go as far as preventing leachate from penetrat-

ing and polluting groundwater resources, and while leachate

collection dams are useful for the evaporation of leachate, the

product still remains, drained off the landfill site. Durban Solid

Wastes Mariannhill site is a world-class solid waste site and

leads the way for the country. Hence, bioremediation, phytore-

mediation and leachate treatment plants are the way of the

future, even after waste is completely diver ted from landfills.

Leachate is produced years after landfills have been closed,

albeit in a lower potency. It must be dealt with as a matter of

priority focus in landfill and solid waste management.


Waste to energy

Waste not, want notIt has become abundantly clear that South Africa does not have enough energy to supply its power and supplement Eskoms output. The government has announced the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Programme, which is looking to supply 3 725 MW to Eskoms grid from renewable sources and wastewater is one of those sources, as Yanna Erasmus discovers.

Biogas is similar to landfill gas in that both are pro-duced by anaerobic bacterial processes from suit-able organic substrate. As such, wastewater treat-ment works are abundant sources of power waiting to be

exploited, since wastewater plants should be able to gener-

ate between 60 and 70% of their own power needs. The

resource, in this case organic substrate, is constantly fed

into wastewater treatment plants and, as such, is readily

and reliably available for conversion to electricity.

The biggest wastewater treatment plant in South Africa

processes around 450 M/d in wastewater from suburbs of the city of Johannesburg and this is a reliable and

continuous supply of raw material for the generation of

electricity. Depending on the design and the operational


Waste to energy

oxygen, which produces a methane-rich gas.

Typically, biogas comprises 60% methane

and 40% carbon dioxide and other impuri-

ties, which typically must be removed before

beneficial use of the biogas. While this may

appear complicated, it is possible with the

right equipment and plant plan.

The method of a treatment works that

harnesses biogas uses a biological nutrient

removal (BNR) process whereby the waste-

water that arrives enters a balancing tank,

which ensures consistent flow and feed

into the BNR system. This is very important

to the stability of the BNR process as the

influx of sludge must be steady and consist-

ent for the nutrient removal processes to

work efficiently. The raw sewage enters the

primary settling tank and then three phases

of the BNR process: an anaerobic phase

followed by an anoxic phase and then the

aerobic phase. It is then transferred to the

secondary clarifier as the final step. This

philosophy of the wastewater treatment

plant, a biogas-to-power plant has the ability

to run and supply power in conjunction with

Eskom. This is referred to as grid parallel

operation and supplies power to works in the

absence of Eskom or to feed power into the

Eskom grid as well, as is practiced in some

parts of the world. However, this is very

rare. Where this is the case, the wastewater

treatment plant supplements this with other

organic material.

Biogas is a product of anaerobic diges-

tion, the decomposition of suitable organ-

ic matter by bacteria in the absence of

SAFETY FIRSTSafety features, such as those included in the Johannesburg Water biogas plant, are essential to ensure safe generation of methane-rich biogas for electricity. Biogas, which is made up of 50 to 70% of methane, can form an explosive mixture in air, the lower explosive limit being 5% methane and the upper limit 15% methane. Biogas mixtures containing more than 50% methane are combustible and lower percentages may support combustion. With this in mind, no naked flames should be used in the vicinity of a digester and electrical equipment must be of suitable quality, normally what is referred to as explosion proof. As biogas displaces air it reduces the oxygen level, which restricts respiration, so any digester area needs to be well ventilated to minimise the risks of fire, explosion and asphyxiation.

entire process settles out solids (primary

sludge and waste-activated sludge), which

comprise anaerobically digestible carbon-

based organic material.

The settled, thickened combined sludge is

pumped to the anaerobic digesters where

the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and

volatile suspended solids (VSS) are partially

destroyed in the absence of oxygen. The

anaerobic process destroys about 30 to

50% of the VSS, resulting in a stable sludge

that is suitable for dewatering, composting

and final disposal of the stabilised solids

OPPOSITE TOP Applied filter technology and the digester gas conditioning system for siloxane and hydrogen sulphide removal as well as dewatering the gas. This picture from Portland, Colombia

OPPOSITE BOTTOM Aerial view of a modern biogas plant in Ramstein, Germany

ABOVE Digesters at Edar de Rubis biogas plant in Madrid, Spain


to land. Interestingly, the volume of sewage

is only an indicator of how much biogas

can be generated. As digester capacity

increases, more biogas and thus more elec-

tricity can be generated on-site for beneficial

use by a water works. The retention time

remains the same regardless of the volume

of the sewage and this is why more digest-

ers mean more biogas.

In essence, anaerobic digestion is simply

about reducing the organic load and stabi-

lising the sludge by decreasing the volume

of VSS in the solution. The by-product?

Valuable methane-rich biogas. Historically,

a small proportion of gas would be used to

fire the boilers, which heat the anaerobic

digesters and the balance of the biogas

is flared off. However, the flaring of gas,

essential as a safety mechanism, is not

applied in a biogas plant that generates

electricity. In most of these types of plants,

mesophilic bacteria are used, a species

that operates best at temperatures between

36 and 38C.The process works as follows: Once the

sludge enters the digesters, the biogas pro-

duced is stored in a gas holder from which

the boiler, flare and biogas-to-power plant

can draw biogas.

As mentioned earlier, wastewater treat-

ment works that elect to make beneficial

use of the biogas produced by the anaerobic

digester for electricity and heating on-site

at the waste treatment works first must

clean the biogas before being used to

fuel the generators. This clean-up process

includes removing hydrogen sulphide, water

and siloxanes. The hydrogen sulphide is

removed by a biological process, resulting in

hydrogen sulphide levels far below the gener-

ators maximum tolerance. Once the biogas

has passed through the biological hydrogen

sulphide scrubber, it is compressed before

dewatering and reheating. This process

ensures that the relative humidity is reduced

from 100% to a maximum of 30%. The

biogas then passes through a segmented

activity gradient unit, which ensures the total

removal of all species of siloxanes present

in the biogas produced at the works. Lastly,

before being made available to the engines,

the dry siloxane-free biogas passes through

a three-micron filter to ensure no particles

(solids) are in the gas.

Plants of this nature are designed for

maximum energy efficiency and utilise as

much of the available energy as possible.

The generators run an electrical efficiency of

38 to 40% and a thermal efficiency of 55%,

giving the installation an overall efficiency of

93 to 95%.

The thermal energy is used to heat water,

which in turn is used to maintain the temper-

ature within the anaerobic digesters between

36 and 38C. The heat is recovered from the engine cooling circuit and engine exhaust,

and is transferred to the digester heating

circuit via a plate heat exchanger. The heat

recovery process ensures that the water

to heat the anaerobic digesters leaves the

power plant between 85 and 90C. There are

Waste to energy

As digester capacity increases, more biogas and thus more electricity can be generated on-site for beneficial use by a water works

A BRIEF HISTORY OF BIOGAS

The use of biogas has been with us a long time. Anecdotal evidence indicates that biogas was used for heating bath water in Assyria as early as 900 BC and also in Persia, albeit much later, around AD 1500. Marco Polo also made mention of covered sewage tanks and Chinese literature mentions it around 2 000 to 3 000 years ago. The technology consequently goes back a long time, with experiments in 1630 to around 1808 where biogas was collected successfully. Scientifically, it was determined in 1600 that flammable gas could be extracted from decaying organic matter and methane was discovered in the 1800s from cattle manure. The first digester was built in 1840 in New Zealand and in 1859, an actual plant was built in Bombay, in a leper colony. By 1895, believe it or not, street lamps in Exeter, England, were fuelled by biogas.

Anaerobic digesters (left) and the double membrane gas holder (right) at the Edar de Rubis wastewater treatment plant in Spain


Waste to energy

safety features required throughout the pro-

cess, including methane gas and fire detec-

tion, flame arresters and breather valves.

Plants that do not have power purchase

agreements in place with municipalities

of electricity providers require protection

mechanisms in place to prevent reverse

feeding into Eskoms or the municipal grid.

Such a wastewater treatment works would

use the power available from the biogas-to-

power plant and draws the additional power it

requires to supplement its energy demands

from Eskom. With more than 400 M of sew-age and enough digesters, biogas-to-power

plants can produce in excess of 4 MW and

a biogas plant of this scale will pay back the

investment in between four and seven years.

Although the generation of electricity from

biogas is not a new concept, it is relatively

new for South Africa.

SILOXANE REMOVALThe prevalence of siloxanes in wastewater and solid waste has increased over the past decades due to their use in almost all cosmetics and industrial applications. Research has indicated that they are persistent and can bioaccumulate in aquatic systems. At wastewater treatment plants and landfills, low molecular weight siloxanes volatilise into digester gas and landfill gas. When this gas is combusted siloxanes are conver ted to silicon dioxide, which can deposit in the form of white powder in the combustion and/or exhaust stages of the equipment. These deposits can compromise the functioning of the equipment and have to be removed, at a cost. Manufacturers of combustion turbines and reciprocating engines are expressing an increasing desire for siloxane control. There is no doubt that some maintenance cost benefit can be realised by siloxane removal, which is why it is such an important step in any biogas plants operation.

A Guascor SFGLD 560 (1 025 kW) generator, complete with heat recovery

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Air Pollution

Global 500 companies not doing enough

CARBON EMISSIONS REDUCTION

PwCs report on the carbon disclosure of the Global 500 companies shows that the carbon-intensive nature of business has not changed much, or as much as it should have. Yanna Erasmus reports.

PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) re-cently released its research into the carbon disclosure of the Global 500. The research, conducted on behalf of 655

investors representing around US$78 tril-

lion (R672.2 trillion) in assets, showed that

less than half of the respondents reported

a decline in carbon emissions solely due to

emission reduction activities. Some 31% of

the respondents did not report any reduction

in carbon emissions, and the average of the

long-term reduction targets of these compa-

nies is around 1% per annum. This, of course,

is too low to achieve the limit in warming of

2C. For this reduction to be achieved, the re-port states that absolute emission reduction

must be 4% per year, between the years 2020

to 2050. Companies appear to be making

short-term decisions for operations, but there

is no long-term capital investment.

The research showed that 82% of the

Global 500 companies had set emission

targets and while this appears to be posi-

tive, long-term targets are lacking. Only

20% set their targets to 2020 or beyond.

As with most of the COP (Conference of

the Parties) meetings, Durban too has not

translated into government policy. On a

more positive note, 2012 has seen a 10%

increase year on year for companies that

have included climate change into their over-

all business strategies.

There has been a 13.8% reduction in

reported greenhouse gases from 3.6 bil-

lion tonnes in 2009 to 3.1 billion tonnes

in 2012. This is equivalent to the closure

of 227 gas-fired power stations or remov-

ing 138 million cars off the road. The

failure of absolute reduction appears to

be linked to legislation. Almost half, 49%,

of the respondents said that regulation is

an important driver of corporate action.

Emission reduction in the past year has

occurred due to the credit crunch and

economic climate, which has affected pro-

duction levels. While this is positive, it is

for the wrong reason. It appears to be a

catch-22 situation. Reductions in emissions

on this level are set to continue as increas-

ing erratic weather conditions will seriously

affect markets, causing financial damage.

Long-term investments are therefore critical

to company resilience and shareholders are

putting increasing pressure on these compa-

nies to demonstrate this.

The report states that the new normal is

a period of high uncertainty, subdued growth

and volatile commodity prices. Regulatory

certainty must come soon or business

ability to act and plan around energy and

elements such as supply chain risk could be

anything but normal.

The primary conclusion drawn from the

research is that some companies are dem-

onstrating awareness of strategic opportuni-

ties in acting on climate change, but few

are setting the needed targets or invest-

ing in the long-term. Climate change risks

are physical in nature and are tangible,

The average of the long-term reduction targets of these companies is around 1%. This, of course, is too low to achieve the limit in warming of 2C



but capital is hard to come by for these

changes. PwC is of the opinion that capital

investments will be made if plans and strat-

egies are structured over three years and

more. Only a fifth of companies reported

that they have a dedicated budget for low

carbon production research and develop-

ment, and these companies, with a good

position on climate change, will generate

better stock performance.

The carbon marketThe Clean Development Mechanism (CDP)

driven by the United Nations also seems to

be slowing down and research into better

managing it has recently been completed.

The bottom line, however, is that due to cli-

mate change initiatives, the growing of the

global consciousness of the importance of

environmental responsibility and the global

economic downturn, a reduction in emis-

sions has taken place, whether by capping

or simply economics. Thus, although this

initiative has seen more than R215 billion

in investments in 75 projects worldwide,

with a total reduction in emission of a

billion tonnes of carbon, carbon credits

are simply not being bought the way they

used to. Valli Moosa, the chair of the CDP

board, urges countries to restore their faith

in global carbon markets, saying that the

system has improved markedly in the past

years and has mobilised the private sector

to combat climate change. But, the current

level of mitigation ambition is simply not

sufficient, writes Crispian Olver in the Mail

& Guardian.

Global mitigation to achieve the 2C target will require an enormous effort to

restructure our economies on a low-carbon

footing. This will impose a heavy burden in

terms of costs and job losses. It is vital for

the world that we are able to find the least

costly way of cutting emissions. Inevitably,

the negotiated system of national emission

reductions, which will impose some form

of caps on emissions of the major emitting

countries, will be an imperfect solution

some countries will face a much higher cost

of reducing emissions than others. South

Africa is one of those countries.

Regulation and corporate actionIf regulation drives corporate action then

South Africa is on the right track with

the planned carbon tax to take off in

the 2013/14 financial year. The tax was

announced by minister of Finance, Pravin

Gordhan, during this years budget speech.

The proposal currently stands at R75 per

tonne of carbon dioxide emissions, which

could amount to almost R7.79 billion for

the top 40 companies in the country. South

Africa relies heavily on fossil fuels to drive

the economy, and measures to change this

are critical. Part of this is the carbon tax.

But South African companies are not

happy. They question the implementation

of such a tax in the context of a develop-

ing country, and while the government has

reiterated that it is open to negotiation, it

correctly states that the potentially cata-

strophic effects of climate change must

be addressed. The status quo cannot be

maintained as productivity will be impacted

in the near future. As was demonstrated by

the PwC research, companies that do com-

ply and manage carbon could draw benefit

from this tax

and its conse-

quences, and

subsequently

also compete

better and

grow their mar-

ket share.

At the end

of the day,

there is only

one thing that

is important.

We must cut

emissions and

slow the rate

of climate change and global warming. This

in spite of whatever companies may say and

how difficult it is to change production sys-

tems and power generation, whatever legis-

lation governm

resource november 2012

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