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Art in the Era of the Great Depression

ART

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RESOURCE GUIDE

2010–2011

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ART RESOURCE GUIDE § 2010–20112

Unauthorized Duplication is Prohibited Outside the Terms of this License Agreement

Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

SEC T ION I : Art Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Introduction to Art History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Methods and Inquiries of Art History . . . . . . . . . . .5

THE NATURE OF ART HISTORICAL INQUIRY . . . . . . . . 5

SOURCES, DOCUMENTS, AND THE WORK OF ART HISTORIANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ART HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Brief Overview of the Art of the Western World . . . . . 7

Ancient Civilizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

ART OF THE OLD STONE AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ART OF THE MIDDLE STONE AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ART OF THE NEW STONE AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIAN ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PERSIAN ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

NUBIAN ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Greek and Roman Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

CYCLADIC, MINOAN, AND MYCENAEAN ART . . . . . 11

ANCIENT GREEK ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

ETRUSCAN ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

ROMAN ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Byzantine and Medieval Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

The Renaissance in Southern Europe . . . . . . . . . .15

The Renaissance in Northern Europe . . . . . . . . . .18

Baroque Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism . . . . . .20

Realism and Impressionism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Post-Impressionism and Other Late Nineteenth-Century Developments . . . . . . . . . . .22

The Emergence of Modernism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism . . . . . . . .25

Earthworks, Installations, and Performance . . . . .26

Brief Overview of Nonwestern Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Asian Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

CHINESE ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

INDIAN ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

JAPANESE ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

African and Oceanic Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Islamic Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

The Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Elements of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Formal Qualities of Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

SHAPE AND FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

COLOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

TEXTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

COMPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Processes and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35DRAWING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

PRINTMAKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

PAINTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

PHOTOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

SCULPTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

MIXED MEDIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

CRAFT AND FOLK ART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Section I Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

SEC T ION I I : Art and the New Deal (Painting and Sculpture) . . . . . 42Introduction and Historical Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Government and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Federal Support for the Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Selected Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Selected Work: Diego Rivera, South Wall of a Mural Depicting Detroit Industry, 1932–33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Selected Work: Aaron Douglas, Aspects of Negro Life: Song of the Towers, 1934 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

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2010–2011 § ART RESOURCE GUIDE 3


Selected Work: George Biddle, Tenement, Mural Study, Department of Justice Building, Washington, D .C ., 1935 . . . . . .50

Selected Work: Ben Shahn, The Riveter, Mural Study for the Bronx, New York Central Postal Station, 1938 . . . . . . . . .52

Selected Work: George Stanley, Muse of Music, Dance, Drama, 1938–40 . . . . . . .55

Section II Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

SEC T ION I I I : Documentary Photography of the 1930s . . . . 58Introduction and Historical Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

The History of Documentary Photography in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

New Deal Photography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Selected Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Selected Work: Walker Evans, Negro Barber Shop Interior, Atlanta, 1936 . . . . . .61

Selected Work: Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, 1936 . . . . .63

Selected Work: Berenice Abbott, Contrasting No . 331 East 39th Street with Chrysler Building and Daily News Building, Manhattan, November 8, 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Selected Work: Ansel Adams, Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico, 1941 . . . . . .67

Section III Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

SEC T ION I V : Architecture of the 1930s . . . . . . 71Urban Architecture: The Skyscraper in the 1930s . . . . 71

Selected Work: Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Empire State Building, New York City, 1931 . . . . . . . . 73

Public Architecture in the 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Selected Work: Gordon Kaufmann, et al . Hoover Dam, Nevada-Arizona Border, 1931–36 . . . . . 75

Domestic Architecture in the 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Early Twentieth-Century Domestic Architecture and Urban Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

Selected Work: Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania, Designed 1935, Built 1936–39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Selected Work: Winona, Sears Honor-Bilt Home, Available 1913–40, 1930s Catalogue Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Section IV Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

SEC T ION V : American Regionalism/ American Experiences . . . . . . . . 84Introduction and Historical Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

The Search for “America” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84

Artistic Styles in the 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84

Selected Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Selected Work: Grant Wood, American Gothic, 1930 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

Selected Work: Georgia O’Keeffe, Cow’s Skull with Calico Roses, 1931 . . . . . . . . . . .88

Selected Work: Thomas Hart Benton, Departure of the Joads, from The Grapes of Wrath, 1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

Selected Work: Jacob Lawrence, And the Migrants Kept Coming, from the “Migration Series,” 1940–41 . . . . . . . . .91

Selected Work: Edward Hopper, Nighthawks, 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

Section V Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

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Introduction

This resource guide presents an introduction to art history, with a specific focus on painting, sculpture, prints, and architecture produced in the United

States during the 1930s and early 1940s . Art historians seek to understand works of art in their historical con-text; to do this we frame our studies with specific kinds of questions and use vocabulary that is unique to the discipline .

Section one provides readers with a great deal of background information to assist in the study of art-works . This introductory section consists of an overview of Western art from the prehistoric period to contem-porary times as well as a brief discussion of nonwestern art . Section one also presents the specific vocabulary used to discuss works of art .

Sections two through five focus more specifically on American artworks from the 1930s and early 1940s . The eighteen works of art presented are all discussed in relation to the Great Depression . Section two explores

art patronage over the course of a decade through an examination of mural paintings and sculpture . Section three focuses on documentary photography, giving special consideration to the role of government com-missions in the production of photographs during this period . Section four explores architecture from the 1930s; the examples include an urban skyscraper, a tremendous engineering project, and two distinct kinds of domestic architecture . The fifth and final sec-tion examines artistic explorations of American identity during the 1930s .

The scope of this resource guide is limited, of course, given that only eighteen works are discussed in detail . The 1930s was an exciting time in the visual arts in the United States, particularly because government patronage opened the door to a flowering of public art projects . You can use this guide to help initiate an exploration of other works produced during this fasci-nating period in American history .

NOTE TO STUDENTS: You will notice as you read through the resource guide that some key terms and phrases are boldfaced. While many of these terms are defined and/or explained in the text of the guide, you can also find explanations of these terms in the glossary at the end of the resource guide.

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S E C T I O N I : Art Fundamentals

Introduction to Art History

Art history is an academic discipline dedicated to the reconstruction of the social, cultural, and economic contexts in which an artwork was cre-

ated . The basic goal of this work is to arrive at an understanding of art and its meaning in its historical moment, taking into consideration the formal quali-ties of a work of art, the function of a work of art in its original context, the goals and intentions of the artist and the patron of the work of art, the social position and perspectives of the audience in the work’s original time and place, and many other related questions . Art history is closely related to other disciplines such as anthropology, history, and sociology . In addition, art history sometimes overlaps with the fields of: aesthet-ics, or the philosophical inquiry into the nature and expression of beauty; and art criticism, or the explana-tion of current art events to the general public via the press .

This brief introduction to the discipline of art history will help you understand the kinds of questions that one may ask in order to arrive at a deeper understand-ing of a work of art . We will put these ideas into prac-tice as we proceed through case studies related to the specific topic of the resource guide .

Methods and Inquiries of Art History

Art historians today generally define “art” very broadly and include in their inquiries almost any kind of visual material that is created by people and invested with special meaning and/or valued for its aesthetic appeal . In the past, art historians often limited their focus to what was called “fine art,” which gener-ally included paintings, prints, drawings, sculpture, and architecture, usually produced specifically for apprecia-tion by an audience who also understood these objects as works of art . Today we define art much more broadly, also taking into consideration objects that in the past were dismissed as “craft”: textiles, pottery, and body art such as tattoos, for example . Art historians also con-sider objects that might not be considered art by their

intended audience, including mass-produced posters and advertisements and even the design of ordinary household items like telephones, forks, and the living room sofa .

Art historians acknowledge that the meaning of a work of art can shift over time, and that an artwork may be perceived differently by viewers who approach it from different perspectives . To give one hypothetical example, Michelangelo’s paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel would have certainly been signifi-cant in different ways in the eyes of 1) the Pope, who commissioned the work and who had sophisticated theological knowledge and nearly exclusive access to this private space within the Vatican and 2) a worker who was charged with cleaning the floors of the chapel and whose level of literacy was probably quite low . Differences such as social status, education, physical access to a work of art, religious background, race, and gender have an impact on the construction of the meaning of a work of art . Similarly, the paintings’ meaning to a twenty-first-century Protestant, Muslim, or atheist is certainly different from the meaning they had for a practicing Catholic in the sixteenth century, even though the works may be equally admired for their aesthetic value by all of these viewers . In other words, the meaning of a work of art is not fixed; it is sometimes open to multiple interpretations taking into consideration factors such as historical context .

The Nature of Art Historical Inquiry

Art historians generally analyze works of art in two ways that are distinct from one another, but also inter-related . These two modes of analysis are called formal analysis and contextual analysis . Formal analysis focuses on the visual qualities of the work of art itself . A basic assumption of formal analysis is that the artist makes decisions related to the visual aspects of the artwork that can reveal to us something about mean-ing . From this point of view, aspects of meaning are intrinsic to the work of art . Terms associated with the formal qualities of works of art, or the “elements of art,” are discussed in detail a bit later in this section of the guide . Formal analysis requires excellent skills

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in observation and description . Beginning our study of an artwork with formal analysis keeps the focus on the object itself, which to the art historian is always primary .

Contextual analysis involves looking outside of the work of art in order to determine its meaning . This involves examining not only the context in which the work was created, but also later contexts in which the work was and continues to be consumed . Contextual analysis focuses on the cultural, social, religious, and economic context in which the work was produced . Art historians may examine issues of patronage, viewer access to the work, the physical location of the work in its original context, the cost of the work of art, the subject matter in relation to other artworks of the time period, and so on .

Art history often emphasizes a chronological devel-opment with the assumption that within one cultural setting the work of one generation of artists will have an impact on following generations . Art historians often use comparative study . For example, by contrasting a Gothic with a Renaissance artwork, we can understand more clearly the unique features of each and the series of stylistic changes that led from one to the other . Then, we can seek to relate these changes to historical context . Art history provides information and insights that add background to the meaning and significance of the works of art we study . As we place these works of art in their cultural and historical context, they are connected to the long history of events that has led up to our present culture .

Sources, Documents, and the Work of Art Historians

Art historians often begin their analysis with a close examination of a work of art . Direct examination of the work of art is ideal because much is lost when we look at a reproduction rather than an original work of art . In the case of sculpture, it is often difficult to get a proper sense of the scale and the three-dimensional qualities of a piece from a photograph . We lose the texture and some of the rich colors when we experience paintings in reproduction . Even photographs can appear flatter, lacking their subtle transitions from light to dark when seen reproduced in books . It is quite common, though, for art historians to settle for studying from reproduc-tions due to practical constraints . In some cases, works of art might be damaged or even lost over time, and so art historians rely on earlier descriptions to aid in their formal and contextual analysis . In addition to examin-ing the work of art in question, art historians will also seek to understand any associated studies (sketches, preparatory models, etc .) and other works by the artist and his or her contemporaries .

Art historians also use many written sources in the quest for contextual information about a work of art . Often these texts are stored in archives or libraries . Archival sources may include items such as letters between the artist and patron, or other documents per-

taining to the commission, and art criticism produced at the time the work of art was made . An art historian might also search for written documentation about the materials used to produce the work of art, such as their cost and source, and about the function of the artwork—how a particular sculpture was used in ritual practice, for example . Art historians also seek to situate the work in the context of the literature, music, theater, and history of the time period .

Art historians may also rely on interviews with art-ists and consumers of works of art . This is especially the case in cultures that rely more on oral history than on written documents . Guided by the field of anthro-pology, some art historians also use methods such as participant observation to understand the context of a work of art . An art historian studying masquerade tradi-tions in West Africa, for example, may participate in a performance while carefully documenting the event in order to better understand art traditions .

The Development of Art History

As an academic discipline, art history arose in the mid-eighteenth century . However, we can look at the

Giorgio Vasari, self-portrait c. 1567.

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work of much earlier writers to see how commentary on art has developed over time . The ancient Roman historian Pliny the Elder (23–79 c.e.) sought to analyze historical and contemporary art in his text Natural History . During the Renaissance, the author and artist Giorgio Vasari (1511–74) gathered the biographies of great Italian artists, past and present, in The Lives of the Artists . Vasari’s text provides us with insights into the changing roles of artists in society during this period and the developing concept of artistic genius .

Modern art history was strongly influenced by eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophy . Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–68) was a German scholar who shifted away from Vasari’s biographical emphasis to a rigorous study of stylistic development as related to historical context . Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, art historians continued to develop approaches that placed increasing emphasis on an understanding of the interrelationship between the formal qualities of a work of art and its context .

When considering contemporary views of art history as well as perspectives on art history from the past, it is important to keep in mind that all histories are individ-ual stories and thus will inevitably reflect certain biases . More recently, art history has been revised, particularly by feminist historians, who have noted that the tradi-tional version of art history has largely focused on white men, whether as artists or as patrons . As a result of such revisions, art history has expanded its scope in recent years and has become a field that is broader, more international, more multicultural, and more inclusive than in the past, often involving Marxist, feminist, and psychoanalytic methods and viewpoints . Moreover, the concern with great artistic geniuses and masterpieces has lessened as the full range of “visual culture,” rang-ing from advertisement posters to film to photography and television imagery, has come to view .

Brief Overview of the Art of the Western World

This brief overview of Western art is intended to provide you with a basic understanding of important art historical periods as they developed chronologi-cally . This abbreviated discussion also covers some key artistic innovations that occurred over time, providing you with examples of artists and works in their historical context . This basic information will set the stage for our more in-depth discussion of our case study focusing on art in the United States in the 1930s . Of course, a brief guide such as this only begins to touch upon the rich-ness and power of the stories that comprise the history of art . You may also enjoy looking at other works from each of the periods discussed, beginning your own exploration of these works in their historical contexts .

Much of what we know of the earliest life on earth has been revealed through a study of the objects or arti-facts that remain from early cultures . In many cases, the

objects that remain are those made of enduring mate-rials such as stone, metal, or fired clay, as opposed to those made of perishable materials like wood or fibers . Environmental conditions also have a major impact on preservation . The hot dry climate of the desert in Egypt, for example, enabled the preservation of even delicate materials like papyrus, and the sealed atmosphere of a cave or tomb likewise helped to preserve the contents contained within them for our wonder and enjoyment centuries later . In contrast, the humid climate of West Africa means that objects made of perishable materi-als have had little chance of survival over the course of decades, not to mention centuries .

This is one reason that the history of art as a dis-cipline has placed greater emphasis on Western cul-tures, often neglecting to focus on developments in Nonwestern cultures . It is important to recognize that the civilizations that are most often studied in art his-tory courses are not necessarily those where the most or the best art was made . Rather, they are the civiliza-tions whose art has been preserved and whose art has been discovered . There are, for example, many sites of important civilizations in Central and South America that though known, remain yet unexplored . Too often the story at these sites has been one of exploitation and destruction, as people will carelessly take artifacts to sell them on the international market in antiquities .

Painting found in Chauvet Cave.

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Ancient CivilizationsArt of the Old Stone Age

The oldest works of art that we will consider are the cave paintings found in Chauvet Cave in south-eastern France . These paintings, discovered in 1994, date from c . 30,000 b.c.e. and thus are placed in the Old Stone Age (Upper Paleolithic Period) . Except for a minimal use of yellow, the paintings and engravings in Chauvet Cave were created using red ochre and black charcoal and depict animals such as horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalos, and mammoths . Later cave paintings (c . 13,000–11,000 b.c.e.) have also been discovered in other parts of France and in Spain, with Lascaux and Altamira being the most famous . The art in these caves takes the form of large colored drawings of animals such as horses, bears, lions, bison, and mammoths, and the paintings include several outlines of human hands . The earliest scholarship on these drawings considered them to be the spontaneous scribbling of primitive cavemen . However, with further study, it became appar-ent that the various groups of drawings had been cre-ated by skilled artists working within an established tradition . The artists used pigments of red and yellow ochre to add color to the elegant black outlines they had created using charcoal . Though we cannot be sure of their original function, it is possible that these works were created as a part of hunting ceremonies or other ritual behaviors .

Another well-known group of artworks from the Old Stone Age are small stone female figures that have exaggerated bellies, breasts, and pubic areas . The best known of these figures is the Venus (or Woman) of Willendorf (c . 28,000–25,000 b.c.e.), which is about four and one-eighth inches high . In contrast to the exagger-ated female features of the body, the facial features of the statue are undefined, the arms are barely visible, and the feet are missing . Scholars contend that these statues were fertility figures although it is not known precisely how they were used .

Art of the Middle Stone Age

During the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Period) the climate warmed, and a culture developed that produced art similar in some ways to the cave paint-ings of the Paleolithic Period . With the warming of temperatures during this era, cave dwellers moved out of their caves and began using rock shelters, as evidenced by the various paintings that have been dis-covered on such locations in eastern Spain . There has been much scholarly debate regarding the dating of these paintings, but it is generally estimated that they were created from around 7000 b.c.e. until 4000 b.c.e. The rock shelter paintings, like the cave paintings that preceded them, demonstrate the skill of their creators in the depiction of animal figures . What sets the rock shelter paintings apart from the cave paintings is their depiction of the human figure . Except for one human

figure found in the paintings at Lascaux, cave paintings did not include any human beings . The rock shelter paintings, however, portray human beings, both alone and in groups, and there seems to be an emphasis on scenes in which human beings dominate animals .

Art of the New Stone Age

The art forms most often linked with the New Stone Age (Neolithic Period) are rings or rows of rough-hewn stones located in Western Europe . These formations have been dated as early as 4000 b.c.e. The stones used were often exceedingly large—as much as seventeen feet in height and fifty tons in weight . Indeed, the sheer size of these works led historians to call the stones megaliths, meaning “great stones,” and the culture that created these works is often termed “megalithic .” The most well known of these rock arrangements is the one found at Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England . Stonehenge is believed to have been built in many phases from around 2000–1000 b.c.e. Stonehenge features concentric rings made with sarsen (a form of sandstone) stones and smaller “blue-stones”––rocks indigenous to the region . The outer-most ring is comprised of huge sarsen stones in post and lintel construction––two upright pieces topped with a crosspiece, or lintel . The next ring is composed of bluestones, which encircle a horseshoe-shaped row of five lintel-topped sarsen stones—these are the larg-est ones used at Stonehenge, with some weighing as much as fifty tons . Outside the formation, to the east, is the vertically placed “heel-stone .” If one stands in the center of the rings and looks outward, this “heel-stone” marks the point at which the sun rises on the midsum-mer solstice .

The works of art and the ideas we have consid-ered thus far have been isolated examples that have survived a very long time . The works and civilizations that we will consider next point to further conditions that allow for the creation of artworks and enable their survival . Usually, art thrives in highly organized cultures with stable population centers––usually great cities––that house ruling classes who in turn support the work of artists . Also, if a civilization has a tradition of protect-ing its art in locations that are largely inaccessible, it is more likely that the works from that culture will survive to a point where they are included in a study of art history . Many extant artifacts have come from burial chambers, caves, and tombs, where they have been protected by being naturally concealed .

Ancient Mesopotamian Art

The civilizations that arose in Mesopotamia in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers devel-oped writing and arts in parallel with Egypt (discussed later) . Unfortunately, the Mesopotamian civilizations formed in a valley that lacked the natural barriers of deserts and mountains that protected Egypt . This left them vulnerable to invasion, and hence, the history of

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this ancient region is one of successive conquest and destruction . Moreover, the use of more perishable materials by Mesopotamian civilizations has left us with fewer examples of their arts .

From around 4000 b.c.e. through 2340 b.c.e., the Sumerians in Mesopotamia created impressive sculp-tures and buildings . Religion was a central aspect of Sumerian life, and the Sumerians built massive temples at the centers of their cities . Less complex platform structures evolved over time into the stepped pyramids called ziggurats . Around 2340 b.c.e., the cities of Sumer came under the rule of Sargon of Akkad . Although the Akkadians spoke a different language from the Sumerians, they assimilated Sumerian culture . With the Akkadian dynasty, loyalty to the city-state was sup-planted by loyalty to the king, and consequently the art of this period tends to reflect an emphasis on the mon-archy, with Akkadian rulers depicted in freestanding and relief sculptures . Around 2150 b.c.e., Akkadian rule came to an end as the Guti, barbarous mountaineers, invaded and took control . About sixty years later, how-ever, the cities of Sumer were able to reassert control,

and a Neo-Sumerian ruler was established in the King of Ur . Perhaps the greatest known works of this era were the ziggurats that were built at the city centers . The ziggurats functioned primarily as temples but also served as administrative and economic centers .

The next important civilization in Mesopotamia was that of the Babylonians . For centuries Mesopotamia had witnessed the coexistence of several independent city-states, but around 1792 b.c.e., Hammurabi, king of the city-state of Babylonia, was able to centralize power . Hammurabi left an enduring legacy in that he codified Babylonian law––the Code of Hammurabi is the oldest legal code known in its entirety . The best-known artwork from this period, preserved in the Louvre Museum, is related to this code of law; it is a stone stele onto which Hammurabi’s code is carved with a sculpture in high relief at the top that depicts Hammurabi receiving inspiration for his code of law from the sun-god, Shamash .

While the Sumerian, Akkadian, and Babylonian cultures grew in southern Mesopotamia, the Assyrians dominated in the north . From about 900 b.c.e. to

Photograph of Stonehenge. Photo by Frédéric Vincent.

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around 600 b.c.e. the Assyrians were the most powerful civilization in the Near East . Among the most notable of Assyrian artworks are relief carvings, which often depict battles, sieges, hunts, and other important events . Throughout the seventh century b.c.e., the Assyrian hold on power weakened, and from c . 612–538 b.c.e., Babylonia once again became the dominant force in the region . It was during this Neo-Babylonian period that the famous hanging gardens of Babylon were constructed . Another important construction at this time was the gateway to the great ziggurat of the temple of Bel, called the Ishtar Gate, which is consid-ered one of the greatest works of architecture in which figures—in this case animal figures—are superimposed on a walled surface .

Persian Art

The Persian Empire (c . 538 b.c.e.–330 b.c.e.) flourished in what is present-day Iran . The Persians were notable for their impressive architectural achievements, the most important of which was the palace at Persepolis,

which was constructed of stone, brick, and wood and reflects the influence of Egyptian architecture .

Ancient Egyptian Art

Ancient Egyptian civilization is generally dated from c . 3500 b.c.e., beginning with the predynastic period, through 332 b.c.e., when Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great . Recognizable works include the great monuments of ancient Egypt: the Sphinx, the great pyramids at Giza, the larger-than-life-sized stat-ues of the Pharaohs, and the portrait head of Queen Nefertiti .

Much Egyptian art emphasizes a style called hierar-chical scale, which uses the status of figures or objects to determine their relative sizes within an artwork . Hierarchical scale is exemplified in the Palette of King Narmer, c . 3000 b.c.e., a relic from the Old Kingdom (Dynasties III–VI) . This slab of stone, which may have been used as a ceremonial palette for mixing cosmet-ics, presents King Narmer centrally, and he is depicted as being considerably larger than the other figures . In the main image on the Palette, Narmer is seen hold-

The Great Ziggurat of Ur, near Nasiriyah, Iraq.

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ing the hair of a fallen enemy, with his arm raised in preparation for delivering a deathblow . In the lowest section of the palette, below the king and his enemy, are two smaller figures of defeated enemies . The orga-nization of the figures, their relative sizes, and their poses recurred in most of the ancient Egyptian art that followed . Figures are presented so that each part of the body is shown as clearly as possible, in a technique known as “fractional representation .” The head is in profile with the eye in frontal view, the torso is in full frontal view, and the lower body, legs, and feet are in profile . This formula became a standard style that endured for centuries as the typical way of representing people in Egyptian art .

We know a great deal about the art of Egypt because excellent conditions for preservation were present in much of Egypt . In addition, the burial cus-toms of the Egyptians, which decreed mummification and entombment with lavish furnishings, symbolic ser-vants, and jewelry, resulted in rich stores of objects and images . The most famous of the Egyptian tombs is that of the boy king, Tutankhamen (1361–1352 b.c.e.) . By the

twentieth century, most of the ancient Egyptian tombs of the Pharaohs had been broken into and robbed of the materials inside . However, Tutankhamen’s tomb, because it was cleverly hidden, remained almost com-pletely intact until 1922 . When it was opened, the exca-vators found a treasure-trove of objects, all superbly made of rich materials . Among the most famous of the objects is Tutankhamen’s burial mask . This mask, found in the innermost layer of the king’s sarcophagus, rested on the mummy’s face and shoulders . It is made of gold and is decorated with blue glass and semi-precious stones . The mask presents an idealized portrait of the young king .

Nubian Art

The kingdom of Nubia lay to the south of Egypt and covered a large area of Africa . As contemporary historians become increasingly interested in revising and expanding art history, more knowledge about this great African civilization is being uncovered . Indeed, it is now known that there was a period in the history of Egypt when Nubia ruled the area, and the Pharaohs of that era were Nubian . While there are few collections that feature Nubian works, this may well soon change as revisions to the story of art continue .

Greek and Roman ArtCycladic, Minoan, and Mycenaean Art

The Aegean island cultures were very important as precursors of the Greeks in terms of art produc-tion . Three major cultures flourished on the islands in the Aegean Sea, on Crete, and along the Aegean coast . The earliest of these cultures, the Cycladic culture, flourished from about 3200 to 2000 b.c.e. in the Cyclades, a group of islands in the Aegean . Archaeologists still have many unanswered questions about Cycladic culture, but the simplified, geometric nude female figures from this area are highly appealing to modern sensibilities . In addition to these sculptures, the Cycladic culture produced decorated pieces of pottery as well as marble bowls and jars . Eventually, the Cycladic culture was supplanted by the Minoan culture, which developed on the island of Crete and reached its pinnacle in the second millennium b.c.e.

The Minoan culture centered around the city of Knossos on Crete, where the legend of the Minotaur––the creature believed to be half man and half bull who devoured those who entered his maze––is supposed to have taken place . The maze was actually the royal palace, a sprawling complex that has since been exca-vated . The art of these island people depicts sea life and includes statues of a female snake goddess . The Minoans created artworks that were characterized by a naturalistic pictorial style . Their paintings took two major forms: frescoes painted on palace walls and pottery designs . The architectural achievements of the Minoans were also impressive, as they built four major

Burial mask of King Tutankhamen.

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palaces, all completely unfortified and designed in a light, flexible, and organic style .

The collapse of the Minoan civilization coincided with the pinnacle of Mycenaean culture, and as a result, many historians believe the Minoans were destroyed by the Mycenaeans . The Mycenaean culture was centered around the city of Mycenae on the Greek mainland . The Mycenaeans built elaborate tombs, and their burial practices allowed for a large number of objects to be preserved . The objects that are best known are made of gold and show astonishing levels of mastery in gold-smithing . Additionally, the Mycenaeans demonstrated much skill in their use of relief sculpture .

Ancient Greek Art

From around 660 to 475 b.c.e., during the Archaic Period, the Greeks, influenced by the stone sculptures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, created sculptures carved in marble and limestone . These freestanding figures borrowed the frontal pose used in Egyptian art, but were more dynamic and placed greater emphasis on depicting realistic human features . Temples were also built during this time period using columns in the early Doric and Ionic decorative styles . Vase painting was another notable art form and was done in many dif-ferent styles . Some vases portrayed black silhouetted

figures, while those in the Corinthian style set figures against a floral, ornamented background . Athenian-style vases used black figures, but were more linear and larger in scale . Red-figure vases, with red-figures standing out against a black background, were also common .

The best-known ancient Greek art is that from the city-state of Athens from the Classical Period (475–323 b.c.e.) . During the Early Classical Period (c . 475–448 b.c.e.), temples were typically built with slim, Doric col-umns . Unfortunately, much of the sculpture from this period has perished, but luckily Roman copies have provided us with a good deal of information on these ancient works . The sculpture of the Early Classical Period was characterized by its solemnity, strength, and simplicity of form and most often focused on a figure or scene either in the moment before or the moment after an important action . Significant advances were made in sculptural techniques, as the stiff frontal postures of the Archaic Period were largely abandoned in favor of more complex and life-like figures and positions .

Greek statuary evolved from a stiff, frontal presenta-tion like that of the Egyptians to an increasingly natu-ral-looking figure . A pose called “contrapposto,” or counter positioning, was invented to show the body to

Diagram of Greek and Roman Orders. Classical Greek and Roman columns consist of a base, shaft, capital and an emblature. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian

orders are differentiated by their degree of ornamentation.

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its best advantage . In contrapposto, the standing fig-ure is posed with its weight shifted onto one leg, for a more relaxed, naturalistic appearance . Greek sculpture set the model for thousands of years in Western art, and the Renaissance, Baroque, and Neoclassical art-ists of the fifteenth through early nineteenth centuries aspired to equal the perfection displayed by the surviv-ing Greek statues .

The Middle Classical Period (c . 448–400 b.c.e.) witnessed important advances in architecture as is evident in the temples of this time period . The temple called the Parthenon, restored in 447 b.c.e. after being destroyed by the Persians in 480 b.c.e., is one of the most admired works of all ages, and the use of columns as exemplified in the Parthenon has been a principal feature of Western architecture for more than two thousand years .

Architecture declined during the Late Classical Period (c . 400–323 b.c.e.) as Athens was defeated in the Peloponnesian War . Temples in this era were still built using simple Doric columns, but the use of highly decorative Corinthian columns became more and more popular . The Hellenstic Period (c . 331–23 b.c.e.) saw an increasing influence from Eastern civilizations as Greek styles blended with those of Asia Minor . Notable works

of this time period include freestanding sculptures such as the Venus de Milo and the Laocoön Group, which are masterworks designed to present ideals of beauty .

Etruscan Art

The art of the Etruscan civilization is seen as a transition from the ideals of Greece to the pragmatic concerns of the Romans . Etruscan civilization arose in what is now Italy in the first millennium b.c.e. Like other cultures we have examined, this one is known largely from the arts of tomb decoration . Nothing remains of Etruscan buildings as these were constructed of brick and wood . However, ceramic models depict temples with tiled, gabled roofs supported by columns in the fashion of the Greeks . Extant Etruscan artifacts also include sarcophagus lids and other art forms made of baked clay, as well as objects that display the Etruscans’ talent in bronze work . The only paintings that remain from the Etruscan culture are those found on the walls and ceilings of tombs . These were done in bright, flat colors, and they show figures playing music and danc-ing as part of funeral celebrations .

Roman Art

The story of Rome is one of conquest and empire building . Early Roman art reflected the influence of

The Colosseum in a 1757 engraving by Giovanni Battista Piranesi.

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Etruscan art . However, by the second century b.c.e. many Roman sculptures and other Roman artworks were variations of Greek works, and the standards for idealized presentations of Roman rulers were based on those of the Greeks . The Romans, however, made pio-neering advancements in architecture and engineer-ing . The Roman discovery of the equivalent of modern concrete was a major contribution to architecture, as it enabled Roman builders to fill the spaces between their stone walls with rocks and rubble bound together by the concrete mixture . With this strong material, the Romans were able to construct huge domed build-ings . They also pioneered the use of the curved arch, using this form to build bridges and aqueducts . These structures were part of the paved road system, mak-ing communication and control very effective in the Empire . Two buildings that can still be seen in Rome, the Colosseum (70–80 c.e.) and the Pantheon (118–125 c.e.), remain as monuments to the engineering genius of the Romans .

The Romans created numerous sculptures . Often, colossal triumphal arches would be topped with relief sculptures portraying Roman emperors or Roman mili-tary victories . The Romans also created relief sculptures for funerary purposes . Tombs and sarcophagi were decorated with reliefs . Some of these reliefs were sim-ply decorative, but many others had narrative subject matter . The Romans also sculpted portraits, which ranged in size from tiny busts to huge statues . During the Roman Republic it became common for members of a funeral procession to carry small carved images of the deceased family member . Later, statues in memory of great statesmen or other noble figures were erected in public areas . Both the funerary sculptures and the public statues did not present naturalistic depictions of their subject . Rather, the Romans favored an idealis-tic style that highlighted Roman ideals . The art of the Romans not only had a tremendous influence on the art of the Middle Ages, but also had a notable impact on the art of the Renaissance and much of the art that followed .

Byzantine and Medieval ArtWith the fall of the Roman Empire, the connections

between its parts disintegrated, and what was once a vast empire evolved into separate and often warring kingdoms . But even as the Empire disintegrated in Western Europe, it continued in Byzantium . The art that is best known from this Eastern culture is mosaic work in which small ceramic tiles, pieces of stone, or glass were set into a ground material to create large murals . It is an art that is largely Christian in content and can best be studied in the glimmering, shining mosaic walls of the great churches of Ravenna . Although Ravenna is in present-day Italy, it was then under Byzantine control . In terms of Byzantine architecture, the Hagia Sophia (532–537 c.e.), built in Constantinople, is still

considered one of the greatest architectural achieve-ments in history .

The medieval period witnessed a great deal of civil strife, and consequently the art of this era was preserved largely by the Church . During these times, the majority of the population was illiterate; formal education was largely limited to the noble class and the clergy . The international language was still Latin, and books were hand copied on vellum or parchment . The preserva-tion and production of books was largely confined to monasteries, where the monks spent time copying and illustrating the books in their collections, which were so valuable that they were chained to the tables where they were read . These illuminated manuscripts were remarkable works of art and helped facilitate the exchange of artistic ideas between northern and southern Europe . Among the many notable examples are the Book of Kells (late eighth or early ninth century) and the Coronation Gospels (c . 800–810) .

Notable from the early medieval period (c . 375–1025) is the art of nomadic Germanic peoples, particularly their metalwork . The metal arts of this time period were abstract, decorative, and geometric and often took the form of small-scale, portable jewelry or ornaments made of bronze, silver, or gold and covered with pat-terns of jewels . Artifacts from this era also exist from the seafaring culture of the Vikings in Scandinavia . While metalwork was popular with the Germanic peoples, wood was the most important medium to the Vikings, who carved artistic designs and sculptures on their wooden ships . As a result of Viking invasions, the artis-

Major types of arches and vaults.

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tic styles of the Vikings eventually merged with those found in Anglo-Saxon England and Celtic Ireland . The resultant style is often termed Hiberno-Saxon .

In later medieval art (c . 900–1500), the architecture of churches became a dominant art form . Every city, town, and village had a church at its center, and the largest of these are masterpieces of art that often took more than a century to complete . The earliest churches of this period used a Roman arch as the basis of their design, and so the style used is called Romanesque . One famous example is Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, France (c . 1070–1120) . Romanesque churches were stone vaulted buildings that often replaced earlier churches that had highly flammable wooden roofs . Romanesque churches are usually formed of a tunnel of arches called a barrel vault . A vault is an arch-shaped structure that is used as a ceiling or as a support to a roof . Massive walls had to be built to support the heavy stone arches of the Romanesque style . Consequently, window and door openings were usually kept quite small and were often decorated with carvings and relief sculpture .

The Gothic style developed in the first half of the twelfth century and remained popular into the sixteenth century . Though this style was used for some secular buildings, it was largely applied to the construction of churches . One characteristic of the Gothic style was the use of pointed arches, which gave an upward, soaring sense to Gothic interiors . Another important element of the Gothic style was the addition of ribbed vaults, a framework of thin stone ribs or arches built under the intersection of the vaulted sections of the ceiling . A key innovation came in the early Gothic period when archi-tects learned that the downward and outward pressure created by the arches of the barrel vault could be coun-teracted by the use of flying buttresses––additional bracing material and arches placed on the exterior of the building . This advance allowed for larger windows, many of which were filled with beautiful stained glass, and higher ceilings . A classic example of a Gothic cathedral is Chartres Cathedral in France (begun 1134; rebuilt after 1194) . Here the effect of the tall arches and the brightly colored light from the stained-glass windows directs attention heavenward .

The Renaissance in Southern Europe

Although we often tend to divide historical periods into a series of discreet and separate styles and events, in actuality, history is much more complicated and sub-tle . The transition from the later medieval period to the Renaissance provides a good example of this, as the styles from this period cannot be neatly identified as either Gothic or Renaissance, but rather involve a mix of the two . The artist most often mentioned in connection with this transitional time period is a Florentine named Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337), who is best known for his frescoes . A key advance visible in Giotto’s works is his use of a simple perspective, achieved in large part

by overlapping and modeling his figures in the round . This technique created the illusion of a stage for his figures, giving the viewer a sense of looking into the event . Giotto’s works were different from many Gothic works as he gave his figures powerful gestures and emotional expressions . To our eyes, his paintings may not look entirely naturalistic, but his artistic innovations must have had quite an impact on viewers at the time, who were accustomed to the flat, unexpressive, and stylized figures of the Gothic style .

Like the art of ancient Greece, the art of the Renaissance continues to have an impact on art today . It is interesting to note that a change in the economy played a key part in triggering the Renaissance . It was in this time period that paper money was first devel-oped, and its use led, in part, to the vast fortunes accumulated by notables such as the Medici family . These wealthy families were the major patrons of the arts during the Renaissance era . Another important factor was the fact that examples of Greek and Roman art were readily available in Italy, and these classical

View of the dome of Florence Cathedral.

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works of art had a tremendous impact on the art of the Renaissance .

As we discuss the art of this period and later, you will observe that the lives and works of individual artists are often highlighted, while this has not been the case in our discussion of earlier periods . In part this can be attributed to a new emphasis on the individual and the concept of individual genius that emerged during the Renaissance . Until the time of the Renaissance, painters and sculptors were, in accordance with Greek traditions of art, considered artisans . That is, they were people who were viewed as being of lesser status because they worked with their hands . During the Renaissance the role of artists in society changed, as great artists came to be recognized as intellectual figures . Consequently, artists were accorded a special place in society .

An important event in the beginning of the Renaissance was a competition held in the city of Florence in 1400 for the design of the doors for the city’s new baptistery . The winner of that competition was Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378?–1455), who designed a door panel that had figures harkening back to those of classical Greece . Ghiberti’s panel design depicts the sacrifice of Isaac, in which Isaac appears as a clas-sical Greek figure . Soon after the doors were installed, Ghiberti was asked to make a second set for another entrance to the cathedral . This second set took more than twenty-five years to complete . The doors were so magnificent that Michelangelo called them the “Gates of Paradise,” and they have been referred to by that name ever since .

The second-place winner in the competition was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) . After losing the com-petition, he concentrated on architecture and won a competition to complete the dome of the cathedral in Florence, which had remained unfinished for many years because architects had not been able to construct the huge vault that was required to span the open space . Brunelleschi achieved this major engineering feat with the help of a double-shelled dome design that has been imitated by many later architects . Brunelleschi is also credited with developing linear (single vanishing point) perspective . Masaccio (1401–28), a Renaissance painter, is given credit for putting Brunelleschi’s theory into practice, as he used both linear and aerial per-spective in his frescoes . The development of linear perspective had a tremendous and lasting influence on the world of art .

Among the most remarkable of Renaissance artists was Donatello (1386?–1466), who is widely considered the founder of modern sculpture . The influence of clas-sical antiquity on his sculpture was strong, as evidenced by his best-known work, a bronze statue of David (c . 1430–32) . This work was the first known freestanding nude statue to have been cast since antiquity . Toward the end of his life, Donatello’s sculptures reflected a greater emphasis on naturalism and the expression of character and dramatic action .

A generation later, the work of Botticelli (1444?–1510), particularly his best-known painting, The Birth of Venus (c . 1482), established an image of female beauty that has lasted through the centuries . His long-necked Venus with her languid pose and flowing hair was one of the first paintings of a full-length nude female since antiquity .

The generation of artists that followed are often referred to as High Renaissance artists . Two well-known artists of this time period, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Michelangelo (1475–1564), are the models for the term “Renaissance Man .” Leonardo da Vinci is well known as an inventor, but also is recognized as an architect, engineer, painter, sculptor, scientist, and musician . His design for the locks that control movements along canals from one level to another is still used today, and his drawings of submarines and helicopters have been found to be viable models . Two of his paintings, The Last Supper (c . 1495–98), and the Mona Lisa (c .1503–05), have become so well known that they are now icons of popular culture . Leonardo’s

Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa.

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key innovation in painting, which is readily apparent in the Mona Lisa, is the use of sfumato . Sfumato, from the Italian word fumo, meaning smoke, is the use of mellowed colors and a blurred outline . Sfumato allows forms to blend subtly into one another without percep-tible transitions .

At the same time that Leonardo was working in Florence, another artist, Michelangelo di Buonarotti, was at work on the piece that would establish his reputation as a sculptor . The city held a competition to have a statue created from a massive piece of marble that it had acquired, only to discover that the marble was flawed . Taking this difficult piece, which had a large crack in the middle, Michelangelo turned it into his vision of David (1504) . The statue is larger than life-sized, as it was originally meant to be placed high on the façade of the cathedral in Florence and would have been viewed from far below . The beautiful carving, the smooth texture of the finished marble, and the striking pose were seen as the very embodiment of the spirit of Florence as a republic .

Throughout his stormy career, Michelangelo cre-ated a large number of other important sculptures, but it is a painting that often comes to mind when people hear his name . In 1505, Pope Julius II commissioned Michelangelo to design his tomb . Michelangelo began sculpting great statues such as Moses (c . 1513–15), The Dying Slave (1513–16), and The Bound Slave (1513–16) to be included in the Pope’s colossal tomb . However, in the midst of this commission, the Pope canceled the project for uncertain reasons . The cancellation of his work on the Pope’s tomb was one of the greatest disap-pointments of Michelangelo’s career, and he was bitter and hesitant when Pope Julius II gave him another commission . This time, the artist was asked to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel . It took Michelangelo four years, from 1508 to 1512, to cover the seven hun-dred square yards of the ceiling, but the result was an astonishing tour de force . The great masterpiece of the Sistine Ceiling received renewed attention in recent decades, as restorers set about cleaning the great fres-coes . The cleaning removed the collection of oil, wax, and grime that had accumulated over the centuries, and the colors have returned to their original bright-ness . Not everyone was happy with the results of the cleaning, however, and a controversy about this resto-ration, as well as the restoration of artworks in general, continues within the art world .

One of the most influential painters of the High Renaissance was Raphael Sanzio (1483–1520) . When he was a young painter, Raphael was brought to Rome, where Julius II gave him several commissions . During this period, Raphael learned much from Michelangelo, his older rival . Unlike Michelangelo, Raphael was not a loner, but employed numerous assistants to assist him in covering the Pope’s official chambers with large, sumptuous frescoes, notably the School of Athens (1509–11), an homage to the great Greek philosophers

and scientists . Raphael is considered the most influen-tial painter of the Madonna . His masterworks, such as the Sistine Madonna (c . 1513–14), created an image of the Virgin Mary that has endured in religious paintings throughout the centuries .

Rome and Florence were not the only locations to witness an incredible flowering in the arts . Venice, too, became a center of artistic creativity . Giorgione (1477/78–1510) is credited with making innovations in the subject matter of landscapes, as he painted scenes not taken from the Bible or from classical or allegorical stories . Prior to Giorgione’s painting The Tempest (c . 1508), artists had generally begun with the figures that were to be the subject matter of the painting and then added the background . However, in The Tempest the landscape became the subject of the painting––the fig-ures depicted are of lesser importance than the storm that threatens them .

Titian Vecelli (c . 1488–1576) was one of the most prolific of the Venetian painters . Titian is well known for his portraits of his patrons, and he is also recognized as having been the greatest colorist of the Renaissance artists . Titian was an innovative portraitist . He used vari-ous elements of setting, such as a column or a curtain, as the backdrop for his portraits instead of an atmo-spheric neutral background, as had been the custom . The influence of Titian’s use and arrangement of back-ground elements can be seen in portraiture up through the twentieth century .

Tintoretto (1518–94), another great Venetian paint-er, is often linked with an artistic style called Mannerism that grew in popularity in the late sixteenth century . Mannerist works are characterized by the distortion of certain elements such as perspective or scale and are also recognizable by their use of acidic colors and the twisted positioning of their subjects . But although Tintoretto used some Mannerist pictorial techniques, his color schemes differed from those of the Mannerists . Tintoretto presented his figures from dramatic angles––it is said that he used small figures as models and arranged them and rearranged them until he had the most dramatic effect . He also used dramatic contrasts of light and dark, called chiaroscu-ro, to heighten the emotional impact of his subjects . Tintoretto’s later works are marked by their spiritual subject matter, and his use of sharp perspectives and chiaroscuro anticipate the Baroque era .

One of the most important events impacting the history of sixteenth-century art was the Reformation . Protestants criticized the opulence and corruption of the Catholic Church and called for its purification . For art, this meant a move away from the richly decorated churches and religious imagery of the Renaissance . The Church reacted to the Protestant Reformation by launching a Counter Reformation, which emphasized, even more than before, lavish church decoration and art of a highly dramatic and emotional nature . One of the artists most closely associated with the Counter

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Reformation is Dominikos Theotokopoulos, known as El Greco . El Greco was strongly influenced by Tintoretto’s paintings, and he worked for a period of time in Titian’s workshop in Venice . In 1576, El Greco left Italy for Toledo, Spain . El Greco is one of the most well-known of the Mannerist painters, and his dramatic use of elongated figures captured the religious fervor of the Counter Reformation . The works of both El Greco and Tintoretto can be seen as transitional works bridging the end of the Renaissance and the beginning of the Baroque period .

The Renaissance in Northern Europe

During the fifteenth century, the artworks being produced in northern Europe were smaller in scale than those of contemporaneous artists to the south . However, the work of northern artists displayed a degree of realistic detail beyond what can be seen in

works of the south, primarily due to their use of new oil paints . While the Renaissance was occurring in Italy, much of European art north of the Alps was still Gothic in style . The influence of classical antiquity was also much less of a factor in the north, as the northerners did not share Italy’s cultural connection with ancient Rome, nor did they have the advantage of being in close proximity to ancient Roman works as did their Italian counterparts .

The art of northern Europe in the sixteenth century demonstrates a far greater awareness of the Italian Renaissance than that of the fifteenth century . Many artists traveled to Italy to study the great works of the Renaissance, and some Italian artists brought these ideas with them when they traveled to the north . Engravers copied some of the more notable Italian works, and these engravings became available throughout Europe, thus spreading the ideas and styles of the Renaissance . Trade connections between upper-

A partial view of Albrecht Dürer’s Insenheim Altarpiece.

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class German merchants and merchants in Venice, a center of trade and art, provided another avenue of influence .

Though the influence of the Italian masters was notable, not all northern artists embraced the ideals and innovative techniques of the Renaissance, as many maintained a more traditional approach . Moreover, though linear perspective and the colors used far-ther south did travel northward, the manner in which they were used in the northern countries was quite different .

During the fifteenth century and into the early decades of the sixteenth century, areas of southern Germany witnessed a flowering of artistic production . Matthias Grünewald (1475?–1528) and Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) are often considered the greatest artists of the Renaissance in northern Europe . Although only ten of Grünewald’s works have survived, his influence has nonetheless been notable . Grünewald is known for his religious scenes and his depiction of Christ’s crucifixion . The Isenheim Altarpiece (c . 1510–15), a work consisting of nine panels mounted on two sets of folding wings, is considered to be his greatest masterpiece .

Albrecht Dürer is perhaps the most famous artist of Reformation Germany . Dürer’s early training was largely influenced by late Gothic works, but as the ideas of the Italian Renaissance spread northward in the sixteenth century, Dürer’s work began to reflect some of these new influences . Dürer aimed to achieve a style that combined the naturalistic detail favored by artists of the north with the theoretical ideas developed by Italian artists . He traveled to Italy, studied the work of his Italian contemporaries, and brought his new knowledge back to Germany . Dürer wrote about theo-ries of art and published many series of woodcuts and copper engravings, such as The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (c . 1498) .

Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1593) is another important artist of this era, and he is considered one of the greatest Renaissance portraitists . Though born in Germany, Holbein is best known for his work in England . He became court painter to King Henry VIII of England, and his portrait of Henry VIII shows not only his talent for presenting details, but also his ability to capture the psychological character of his subjects . Holbein’s works became the model and standard for English painting up through the nineteenth century .

Baroque ArtThe term “baroque” is generally used to refer to

artworks produced from the late sixteenth century through the mid-eighteenth century . Baroque styles differed from those of the Renaissance in that Baroque artworks tended to be less static than Renaissance examples; the Baroque is characterized by a greater sense of movement and energy . The political structure of Europe during the Baroque era also differed from that of the Renaissance . Whereas the Renaissance wit-

nessed wars between cities, the Baroque era saw con-flicts between empires . During this time, the Church was determined to preserve its dominance in Spain and Italy, and movements like the Jesuits were founded to convert the peoples of other areas . Baroque art appealed largely to the emotions, and thus, these art-ists, influenced by the Counter Reformation, aimed at dramatic and moving appeals to faith .

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe were a time when society was governed by a ruling class that viewed its power as a divine right . Some of the most powerful sovereigns ever to rule are from this period . Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, Peter the Great and Catherine the Great of Russia, and King Louis XIV of France dominated the lives of the people of their countries . It was a time that saw the ongoing concentration of power and wealth into the hands of a few, until the results eventually became intolerable for the majority of the people . While a small minority of the population lived in great luxury, the lives of ordinary people were generally quite difficult, and eventually this disparity gave rise to protests like those found in the writings of Enlightenment authors, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in particular . Ironically, however, it was the patronage of the wealthy ruling class that gave rise to the great works of art of the period .

As we might expect, the art of the Baroque period moved away from the classic simplicity and calm that was so characteristic of Renaissance works . The word “baroque” has come to represent a richness of color and ornamentation that heightened the energy and emotion that were characteristic of the great works of art of this period . The emphasis was on dynamic

Rembrandt’s painting known as the “Night Watch.”

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works that presented imagery in the most dramatic way possible .

Baroque painters made use of chiaroscuro, using exaggerated contrasts between light and dark to cre-ate a theatrical kind of lighting that made the subject appear to be in a spotlight . Caravaggio (1573–1610), an Italian Baroque painter, was renowned for his dramatic use of light and dark, and his technique influenced many artists who followed . Caravaggio’s work is so important that artworks using extremes of dark and light are often termed “caravaggesque .” Caravaggio’s work is also notable for its provocative degree of naturalism . For example, Caravaggio portrayed the Virgin Mary and the apostles not as noble figures in classical garb as they had traditionally been represented, but instead depicted them as poor and simple folks in threadbare garments . His use of actual lower-class individuals as models for his work helped him achieve this effect . It is no wonder that several patrons of Caravaggio’s can-vases rejected them for this reason .

With recent revisions of art history, a woman named Artemisia Gentileschi (1593?–1652?) has also joined the ranks of important Baroque artists . Gentileschi, the daughter of a painter, had the unusual opportunity to study in her father’s studio . She is particularly known for her remarkable adaptation of Carravaggio’s tech-niques . Her works include self-portraits and paintings of Old Testament women .

The most important Baroque artist, Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598–1680), the son of a sculptor, was a child prodigy who received recognition from the Pope at age seventeen . Bernini did his most significant work in sculpture, but he was also a talented architect, painter, and draftsman . He worked as a designer in the theater, and many of his works reflect the influence of his theat-rical background . His most important masterpiece, the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647–52), is set into the altar of the Cornaro Chapel . The space includes a concealed stained-glass window that bathes the figure of the saint in dramatic gold lighting, as if she were on a stage . Bernini treated his medium in a new way as well . He did not adhere to the classical calm and natural flow of drapery around the figure that had been used in the past . Instead, Bernini pushed the use of marble to new limits and tried to make stone look like real fabric and even clouds .

The importance of the Baroque style extended beyond Italy . In Flanders, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) established a huge workshop and produced works of great energy and color that became models for many artists . In the mid-seventeenth century, Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–69), a Dutch artist, created some of the best-known works from the Baroque period . Rembrandt is recognized not only as a painter and printmaker, but also as one of the greatest draftsmen ever . Perhaps his best-known work is The Night Watch (1642), more properly known as Sortie of Captain Banning Cocq’s Company of the Civic Guard . Like many other group

portraits of the time, each member of the company depicted paid a certain sum to be included in the painting . Rembrandt chose to break with tradition and grouped the members of the company in a way that gave more attention to some members than to others . This break with tradition, as well as other problems in his life, ultimately caused the decline of his career . Though Rembrandt died in poverty, the self-portraits of his later years are considered to be some of the greatest studies of the inner life of the sitter ever to be painted .

It might be argued that the Baroque period reached its peak in France . There, Louis XIV had come to power, and his long reign was marked by a blossoming of French culture . Louis XIV united all of France and built a lavish palace at Versailles beginning in 1669 . The palace and its grounds covered about two hundred acres and included various grand chateaux and gardens . There was a stable, capable of housing hundreds of horses, and a grand orangerie, or greenhouse, for the king’s orange trees . Eventually there was also a zoo and a sys-tem of fountains and waterfalls that included a grand canal large enough for the staging of mock sea battles . The opulence and power of this “sun king,” around whom the world of the court revolved, became a model that contemporaneous monarchs tried to emulate .

An important feature of Louis XIV’s court that was to influence art well into the nineteenth century was the system of choosing and supporting artists called the Salon . This annual exhibition established a set of rules for judging art that is still influential in the art world today . It was also under the rule of Louis XIV that the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, often referred to simply as the “Academy,” was established, and it soon came to be a means for imposing aesthetic standards and principles of taste .

To the south, the Spanish Court of King Philip IV of Spain tried to emulate the court of France, and his court painter, Diego Velázquez (1599–1660), was a con-temporary of Bernini . Velázquez’s method of building his figures from patches of color, rather than starting from a drawing, became a model for many later artists . In fact, Velázquez’s work had an influence on the move-ment we call Impressionism .

Rococo, Neoclassicism, and Romanticism

While the Rococo style might be seen as an exten-sion of the Baroque period, it is quite different in style and content . Whereas the Baroque aimed to arouse grand emotions, Rococo works were celebrations of gaiety, romance, and the frivolity of the grand life at court, particularly the court at Versailles . The emphasis was on light-hearted decoration with the use of gold and pastel colors .

Three artists who excelled at capturing the elegance and wit so valued by their aristocratic patrons are considered the greatest masters of the Rococo style .

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Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684–1721) was the leader of a new generation and the innovator of a new genre of painting called the fête galante . Paintings of this genre generally depicted members of the nobility in elegant contemporary dress enjoying leisure time in the coun-tryside . François Boucher (1703–70) was influenced by Watteau’s delicate style . He became the favorite paint-er of Madame Pompadour, mistress to Louis XV, and his works often transformed the characters of classical myth into scenes of courtly gallantry, with an emphasis on nubile nudes . Jean-Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806) was also promoted by Madame Pompadour . Fragonard studied with Boucher, and his works strongly reflect Boucher’s influence .

The Revolution of 1789 in France ushered in an era of great change throughout Europe, and the idea of a democratic republic ruled by and for the people was reflected in the artwork of the time . In an attempt to hearken back to the democratic ideals of the ancient world, art of this period demonstrated a revival of interest in the art of classical Greece and Rome . This style, called Neoclassicism, emerged in the decades leading up to the Revolution and was also influenced by Enlightenment philosophy . The Neoclassical style, a direct challenge to the Rococo and its associations with the aristocracy, is epitomized in the work of Jacques Louis David (1748–1825), whose paintings, such as the Oath of the Horatii (1784), illustrated republican virtues . Following the Revolution, David joined members of the new government as the master of ceremonies for the grand revolutionary mass rallies . Later he became a dedicated painter to Napoleon Bonaparte, and in this capacity he painted large propagandistic canvases that would seem to undermine his earlier revolution-ary ideals . A closer investigation of his work and his

career reveals the complicated world of an artist and his patrons . The work of David’s pupil, Jean Dominique Ingres (1780–1867), shows the sharp outlines, unemo-tional figures, and careful geometric composition and rational order that are hallmarks of the Neoclassical style .

Ingres’s rival, Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863), was a proponent of Romanticism . This style hearkened back to the emotional emphasis of the Baroque and had similar characteristics, though the subject matter was different . Whereas Neoclassical works emphasized line, order, and a cool detachment, Romantic paint-ing tended to be highly imaginative and was charac-terized by an emotional and dreamlike quality––the Romantics favored feeling over reason . Romantic works are also characterized by their incorporation of exotic or melodramatic elements and often took awe-inspir-ing natural wonders as their subject matter . Delacroix’s works are characteristic of the Romantic movement in that they centered on exotic themes and included foreign settings, violence involving animals, and his-torical subject matter . Théodore Gericault (1791–1824) and William Blake (1757–1827) were also important Romantic artists .

Realism and ImpressionismIn many ways, Realism was a reaction to Neoclassicism

and Romanticism . The Realist style was inspired by the idea that painting must illustrate all the features of its subjects, including the negative ones . It was also obli-gated to show the lives of ordinary people as subjects that were as important as the historical and religious themes that dominated the art exhibitions of the day . The artist who represented this movement most force-fully was Gustave Courbet (1819–77), a flamboyant and outgoing personality who outraged conventional audiences by showing a painting of ordinary workmen repairing a road at the official government-sponsored Salon . This work, called The Stonebreakers (1849–50), also had political implications in the context of a wave of revolutions that spread across Europe beginning in 1848 . Realism can also be seen in the works of Honoré Daumier (1808–79) and Jean François Millet (1814–75) .

Impressionism largely grew out of dissatisfaction with the rigid rules that had come to dominate the Salons held to recognize selected artists each year . Édouard Manet (1832–83) is sometimes referred to as the first Impressionist . Although he refused to consider himself as one of the Impressionists, Manet’s work, which showed light by juxtaposing bright, contrasting colors, nonetheless greatly inspired and influenced the generation of artists following him . Manet’s paint-ing Le Dejéuner sur L’herbe (Luncheon on the Grass) (1863)––included in the Salon de Refusés in 1863, an exhibit of works rejected by the “official” Salon––was singled out for ridicule . The scandal surrounding this work resulted from its violation of the unwritten rule that the only appropriate nudes in contemporary art

Jacques Louis David’s Oath of the Horatii (1784).

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were classical figures or women in suitably exotic set-tings . In Luncheon on the Grass, Manet based his work on an engraving with a classical subject matter, but he showed clothed men with a nude woman as part of the group . This caused an uproar .

While Manet continued to submit his work to the Salon, other artists who disagreed with the rigid artistic standards espoused by the Académie des Beaux Arts in Paris and favored by the Salon set about establishing Impressionism as a new style . A work by Claude Monet (1840–1926) was the source of the movement’s name . Monet showed a work that he called Impression Sunrise (1873), and the critics seized on this mere “impression” as a means by which to ridicule the movement . It was Monet who urged his fellow artists to work outdoors, and these endeavors were aided by technical advances in paint and brush production that made the medium more portable . Impressionist artists put their colors directly on the canvas with rapid strokes to capture the rapidly changing light . Scientific studies of vision and color led to the discovery that shadows were not merely gray but that they reflected the complemen-tary color of the object casting them . Camille Pissarro (1830–1903) and Alfred Sisley (1839–99) were two other Impressionists of note .

Post-Impressionism and Other Late Nineteenth-Century Developments

The artists who followed Impressionism, though influenced by the earlier artists, took various features of Impressionism in quite different directions . The most influential of these artists was Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) . Dissatisfied with the lack of solid form in Impressionist works, Cézanne set about redefining art in terms of form . He suggested that a painting could be structured as a series of planes with a clear fore-ground, middle ground, and background and argued that the objects in the painting could all be reduced to their simplest underlying forms––a cube, a sphere, or a cone . Here we should note the obvious influence that these ideas, presented first by Cézanne, later had on the development of Cubism in the early twentieth century .

The ongoing search for more and more brilliant color was a unifying feature for many of the Post-Impressionists . The work of Georges Seurat (1859–91) placed an emphasis on the scientific rules of color . Seurat applied his colors in small dots of complemen-tary colors that blended in the eye of the viewer in what is called optical mixing . The results were vibrant,

Gustave Courbet’s The Stonebreakers.

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though the emphasis on technique also resulted in static compositions .

As Seurat was attracting attention and Cézanne was formulating his rules for painting, a young Dutch paint-er named Vincent van Gogh (1853–90) was studying art . Van Gogh, using theories of contrasting color and very direct application of paint, set about capturing the bright light of southern France . His vigorous brushwork and twisting forms were designed to capture an intense response, and though his career was short, many of his works have become very well known . Van Gogh developed the idea that the artist’s colors should not slavishly imitate the colors of the natural world, but should be intensified to portray inner human emotions . The intense and jarring yellows, greens, and reds in the poolroom of Van Gogh’s Night Café (1888), which van Gogh considered a place of vice, illustrate this very influential idea .

The search for intense light and clear color also marks the work of Paul Gauguin (1843–1903), who is perhaps known as much for the story of his life as he is for his art . Though he was a successful stockbroker, Gauguin left his wife and family while in his forties to pursue his art career . He worked for a short time with van Gogh in southern France but was still dissatisfied

with his art . Searching for more intense color and a more “unschooled” style, he went to Tahiti, where he painted works that depict the island’s lush, tropical setting and native people, as seen through the lens of colonialism .

At this juncture, it is important to note the outside influences that were affecting the changing art world . The invention of the camera called into question the very need to capture ordinary reality in art . Some of the most important inventions may seem quite mundane . The invention of chemically based paints and the paint tube allowed the Impressionists to paint outdoors easily for the first time . This was also a time of global exploration and colonialism, and the objects brought back from around the world had a profound effect on the Impressionists and the artists who followed . Artists were intrigued by masks from Africa, and many col-lected the Japanese prints that were used as packing for shipments of goods from Japan . An Impressionist whose work exemplifies these new influences is Edgar Degas (1834–1917) . Degas often combined the snap-shot style of photography with a Japanese-like per-spective from slightly above his subject .

In England, a group of artists dissatisfied with the effects of the Industrial Revolution banded together and became known as the Pre-Raphaelites . These art-ists created a style that attempted to return to the sim-pler forms of pre-Renaissance art . The Pre-Raphaelites created many quasi-religious works that often blend-ed Romantic, archaic, and moralistic elements . Their emphasis on nature and sweeping curves paved the way for Art Nouveau . Art Nouveau, which became pop-ular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centu-ries, was a style of decoration, architecture, and design that was characterized by the depiction of leaves and flowers in flowing, sinuous lines . It was this movement, with its focus on the intricate swirls of plant life and on borrowings from Asian art, that later influenced the art of the flower children of the 1960s .

The Emergence of ModernismAs we move into the twentieth century, we see art-

ists who were continually striving to discover new ways of presenting their ideas . Furthering the attempts the Post-Impressionists had made to extend the bound-aries of color, a group of artists led by Henri Matisse (1869–1954) used colors so intense that they violated the sensibilities of critics and the public alike . Taking their cue from van Gogh, these artists no longer thought their use of color needed to replicate color as seen in the real world . Their wild use of arbitrary color earned them the name of fauves, or “wild beasts .”

Natural form was to be attacked with equal fervor, as can be seen in developments in Paris around 1908 . Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), in close collaboration with Georges Braque (1882–1963), was at work develop-ing a whole new system of art . Picasso and Braque broke down and analyzed form in new ways in the style

Self-portrait of Vincent van Gogh.

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that came to be known as Cubism . Psychologists had explained that human experience is much richer than can be gathered from a traditional painting that shows a single view from a fixed vantage point . When we look at any given scene, we remember the scene as an overlay of visual impressions seen from different angles and moments in time . Picasso and Braque were famil-iar with these theories, as indicated by their habit of breaking figures up into multiple overlapping perspec-tives . The Cubists were also influenced by African art, which they imagined to be more intuitive and closer to nature than intellectualized European art . Cubist works reacted against the naturalistic, often sentimental, artworks that were popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century . The Cubists favored abstract forms over lifelike figures .

In Germany, an art developed that emphasized emo-tional responses . A group of artists calling themselves Die Brücke, which included Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) and Emile Nolde (1867–1956), took the brilliant arbitrary colors of the Fauvists and combined them with the intense feelings found in the work of the Norwegian artist Edvard Munch (1863–1944) . This highly charged attempt to make the inner workings of the mind visible in art is known as Expressionism . Another Expressionist group in Germany, Der Blaue Reiter, was led by the Russian artist Vasily Kandinsky (1866–1944), who around 1913 began to paint totally abstract pictures without any pictorial subject . Other pioneers of total abstraction were the Russian painter

Kazimir Malevich (1878–1935) and the Dutch artist Piet Mondrian (1872–1944), whose De Stijl canvases, con-sisting of flat fields of primary color, have become a hallmark of modern art .

The next events in our story of the history of art are important because they mark the beginnings of mod-ern art in the United States . It was these beginnings, coupled with the effects of the First World War, that were partly responsible for the eventual shift of the center of the art world from Paris to New York . While the movements of modern art were sweeping Paris, the American scene remained largely unaffected until 1913 . The Armory Show, arranged by the Barnes Foundation and held from February 17 through March 15, 1913, was the first major showing of modern art in the U .S ., and it caused a sensation . Artworks that were to become landmarks of various European art movements were a part of the Armory Show, and they had a profound and lasting effect on American art . Marcel Duchamp’s (1887–1968) Nude Descending a Staircase (1912) and Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’ Avignon (1907) both shocked viewers with their challenging approaches to the figure and space . Brancusi’s (1876–1957) The Kiss, with its abstracted, block-like figures, and Kandinsky’s non-objective paintings added to the outrage .

While the effects of the European works in the Armory Show rippled through the American art world, there was also a quintessentially American movement underway . During the 1920s, Harlem became a center for African-American creativity . Fueled by the popular-ity of jazz, writers and artists joined musicians in a flow-ering of the arts that is called the Harlem Renaissance . Though the movement lasted only a decade, it was an inspiration to many artists, including Jacob Lawrence, Romare Bearden, and other well-known artists of the next generation .

During World War I and its aftermath, another move-ment arose that challenged established ideas about art . This movement, called Dada, originated among a group of disaffected intellectuals living in Zurich and grew out of the angst of artists who were disillusioned with the war . Dada was an art that aimed to protest against everything in society and to lampoon and ridicule accepted values and norms . Marcel Duchamp created two works that have come to represent this amusing and irreverent view of the world . He added a mustache to a reproduction of the Mona Lisa and gave it an insulting title (LHOOQ, 1919), and he also exhib-ited a common porcelain urinal (Fountain, 1917) .

Duchamp, in fact, invented a new category of art-works that he referred to as ready-mades . By taking an ordinary object and giving it a new context, Duchamp would create a work of art . In this way, Duchamp chal-lenged traditional ideas about the way the artist func-tions—rather than physically making a work of art, an object became a work of art merely through the artist’s choice . Picasso created several works that may also be considered ready-mades . For example, in a famous

Pablo Picasso’s Les Demoiselles d’ Avignon.

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work Picasso took an ordinary object––bicycle handle-bars––and made them appear as bull horns when coupled with a bicycle seat (Bull’s Head, 1943) .

Some artists, influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud, attempted to portray the inner workings of the mind in their artworks . This group of artists became known as the Surrealists and included artists such as Salvador Dalí (1904–89), René Magritte (1898–1967), and Joan Miró (1893–1983) .

One of the most influential events in the history of art took place in Germany between the first and second world wars . A school of design called the Bauhaus––a name that would become a byword of modern design––established standards for architecture and design that would have a profound influence on the world of art . The Bauhaus made a bold attempt to reconcile indus-trial mass-manufacture with aesthetic form . Taking the view that form should follow function and should be true to the materials used, the faculty at the Bauhaus designed a curriculum that continues to influence many contemporary schools of art . After the school was closed by the Nazis in 1933, many of the Bauhaus’ faculty, including Josef Albers (1888–1976), a well-known painter, graphic artist, and designer, came to the United States and continued to teach . We can still recognize the Bauhaus influence in our contemporary society with its streamlined furnishings and buildings .

AbstractionDuring World War II organized movements in art

came to a virtual standstill . Art was produced, but attention was really on the war . Many artists did in fact serve in the military, and often art was designed to serve as propaganda in support of the war effort . When the war was over and Europe was recovering,

a new center for the international art world emerged . The action had shifted to New York, and it would be at least another fifty years before the artistic centers in England, France, Italy, and Germany would regain something that approximated the prominence of New York .

During the 1950s the art scene in New York was dominated by the ideas and writings of critics such as Harold Rosenburg and Clement Greenberg . These critics had a tremendous influence on the develop-ment of art styles . Greenberg chose to promote a particular view of art and was an advocate for artists who were further developing abstraction . Beginning in the 1940s, Abstract Expressionist artists followed Kandinsky’s dictum that art, like music, could be free from the limitations of pictorial subject matter . These artists aimed at the direct presentation of feeling with an emphasis on dramatic colors and sweeping brush-strokes . The Abstract Expressionist movement, which included the artists Willem de Kooning (1904–97), Lee Krasner (1908–84), and Franz Kline (1910–62), reached its pinnacle with the work of Jackson Pollock (1912–56) . Pollock eventually abandoned even the use of his paintbrush and instead dripped his paint directly onto the canvas .

Abstract Expressionist works tended to fall into two types: action-paintings, which employed dramatic brushstrokes or Pollock’s innovative dripping tech-nique, or color field paintings, which featured broad areas of color and simple, often geometric forms . Mark Rothko and Josef Albers are two well-known color field artists .

In response to the non-objective style of Abstract Expressionism, other artists began to return to natural-ism, producing works that, though they may appear in some ways similar to those of the abstractionists, focused on ordinary consumer objects . Jasper Johns (1930– ) created a series of works that featured com-mon things such as flags, numbers, maps, and letters . Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008) created sculptures from the cast-off objects he found around him to cre-ate what he called “combines .” He hung his own bed-clothes on the wall like a canvas and painted them (Bed (1955), and one of his most famous works, Monogram (1959), consists of numerous “found” items, including a stuffed goat, a tire, a police barrier, the heel of a shoe, a tennis ball, and paint . This use of everyday objects in artistic works had a decided influence on the next big movement in art––Pop Art .

Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism

1960s Pop Art, with its incorporation of images of mass culture, violated the traditional unspoken rules regarding what was appropriate subject matter for art . Andy Warhol (1928–87), the icon of pop art, achieved the kind of popularity usually reserved for rock stars . His soup cans, Brillo boxes, and images of movie stars

Robert Rauschenberg’s Monogram.

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were created with a factory-like silkscreen approach that he used to mock the art world . Roy Lichtenstein (1923–97), another pop artist, adopted the imagery of comic books and recreated them on such a large scale that the pattern of dots used to print them was made massive . Robert Indiana (1928– ) used stencils that had been originally used to produce commercial signs to create his own artistic messages .

Minimalism sought to reduce art to its barest essen-tials, emphasizing simplification of form and often fea-turing monochromatic palettes . The invention of acrylic paint and the airbrush enabled Minimalist painters to achieve very precise outlines, which resulted in the term “hard-edge painting .” The artist who is best known for these large, entirely non-objective paintings is Frank Stella (1877 –1946) . The sculptors David Smith (1906–65), who used stainless steel, and Dan Flavin (1933–96), who used neon tubing, also created large pieces that reflected this abstract minimalist sensibility .

A Pop-inspired group of artists began to produce works that aimed to create a kind of super-realism or what came to be called Photorealism . In these works, a hyper-real quality results from the depiction of the subject matter in sharp focus, as in a photograph . This technique offered a clear contrast to the use of sfuma-to, developed in the Renaissance, which had added a haziness to the contour of painted objects . Photorealist artists Chuck Close (1940– ), with his portraits, and Duane Hanson (1925– ), with his witty sculptures of ordi-nary people, hearkened back to the Realism promoted by Gustave Courbet .

Earthworks, Installations, and Performance

One intriguing development in the contemporary art world since the 1970s is that art is no longer limited to gallery or museum spaces, and many important works of art are departures from traditional formats . Some artists have taken their work to a new scale and have developed their artworks in new venues, often out of doors . In this way, artists also challenge conven-tional ideas about art and its function . An artist known by the single name Christo (1935– ), working together with his partner Jeanne-Claude (1935–), is responsible for creating much interest in these kinds of Earthworks . Beginning in Europe, Christo startled the world with the idea that landscape or architecture is something that can be packaged . He wrapped several well-known monuments in fabric, built a twenty-four mile long cloth fence in California, surrounded eleven Florida islands with pink plastic, and set up orange fabric gates on pathways throughout Central Park . These works, which require years and even decades of preparation, are as much about the process as they are about the finished product, and it is for this reason that Christo’s partner, Jeanne-Claude, plays such an important role . While Christo designs the projects, Jeanne-Claude handles many of the logistical details that must be addressed to

carry out the work . Their partnership raises important questions about the concept of the individual genius of the artist and how he or she works . Other artists associ-ated with Earthworks are Michael Heizer (1944– ) and Robert Smithson (1938–73) .

The growth of Performance Art is another develop-ment that allows artistic expression to transcend tradi-tional boundaries . Some artists work in conventional media such as photography and painting, as well as in performance art . Performance art is a combina-tion of theater and art in which the artists themselves become the work . Such works exist in time, like music or theater, and are fleeting and transitory in nature . The point is to create a real event in which the audi-ence can participate, but that does not result in a fixed, marketable artwork for a museum or living room wall . Sometimes performance art is socially conscious in its intent . An example is the Guerilla Girls, a group of New York-based artists who began to work together in 1985 . The individual identities of the artists in this all-female group are kept anonymous at all times . The artists even wear gorilla masks when they appear in public to conceal their identities . The artists use guerrilla-warfare tactics, such as pasting up posters and flyers, as well as giving public speeches, to challenge what they see as an art world dominated by white men .

Postmodernist art arose in reaction to the mod-ernist styles, and not surprisingly, it takes many forms across a variety of media . Postmodern works tend to reintroduce traditional elements or to exaggerate modernist techniques by using them to the extreme . Postmodern works often return to earlier styles, peri-ods, and references and often question the mores and beliefs of contemporary society . A leading proponent of Postmodernism in architecture is Philip Johnson (1906–2005), who at one time was known as one of the leading modern architects of the International Style . For decades, architecture had largely been dominated by the Bauhaus idea of form following function, and sleek towers of steel sheathed in glass were the standard for large buildings . But, in 1970, Johnson suggested the radical idea that one of the functions of art was decora-tion, and with the AT&T (now Sony) Building (1984), he added a finial to the top of the standard office tower .

Today, artists around the world work in an endless variety of media and styles . One can no longer say that any particular city, country, or even continent is the “center” of the art world . The next section of this guide provides a brief overview of “nonwestern” art, but we should note that the categories of Western and non-western in the world of contemporary art are becoming obsolete with the emergence of transnational artists in an increasingly mobile and interconnected world .

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Brief Overview of Nonwestern Art

The story of art that we have been studying thus far has been a traditional one and has been told over and over again by countless writers since Giorgio Vasari’s time . It chronicles a history of Western European ideas that grew out of the concepts put forth by early Greek philosophers . These ideas experienced a revival dur-ing the Renaissance and were further refined in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . Atomic power, the increasing pace of technological inventions, and the electronic age further expanded and changed the realm of art in the twentieth century .

We should keep in mind that the history we have chronicled thus far, though valuable, has clear limita-tions . In recent decades, art history, like many other academic disciplines, has been challenged to include artists and works that were previously marginalized . The influence of feminist critics in particular has led to major revisions, and there has also been an increasing inclusion of the histories of art of other cultures . At this

point, we will look at the arts of Asia, Africa, Oceania, the Americas, and the art of Islam throughout the world . The art histories of these cultures are increas-ingly central to the development of the discipline of art history . Of course, this brief survey covers only a tiny fraction of the rich world of art beyond the boundar-ies of the Western world . The works considered here might be categorized as “traditional”; contemporary art from Asia and Africa, thoroughly immersed in the global art scene, is beyond the scope of this discussion, for example . Illustrations of the works of art discussed here can be found through basic internet searches and in standard art historical textbooks .

Asian ArtChinese Art

Civilization and art have been present in China for thousands of years, and some archaeological finds in China rival those in Mesopotamia and Egypt . Remains of painted wares have been found that date back to the fourth millennium b.c.e. Perhaps the most famous work of Ancient Chinese art is the two-thousand-mile-long

The terracotta army was buried with the First Emperor of Qin.

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Great Wall, constructed over the course of centuries . Of course this wall, now considered an enduring work of art and admired both for its engineering and aes-thetic appeal, originally had a utilitarian function . This is an example of how meaning and function can change over time . In fact, many of the works we will examine here were created for a specific purpose but are now seen as works of art in a different context .

The dynasties or kingdoms that ruled for long periods of time had an impact on the history of art in China . In many cases, these rulers left elaborate tombs that contained many objects that have become great treasures of art . One of the most amazing works from the early period of Chinese art history is the monu-ment to the first emperor to unite the kingdom––the Emperor of Qin (c . 210 b.c.e.) . He had a full army of soldiers and their equipment, including their horses, created life-size in clay and buried as part of his tomb . The technical ability demonstrated in these sculptures and the life-like detail of the soldiers and their horses are quite astonishing . The dynasties succeeding Qin built grand walled cities with huge palaces and tombs . These dynasties are noted for bronze statues and cer-emonial vessels . These vessels are covered with intri-cate designs, and the methods of casting are still not completely understood .

The introduction of Buddhism from India had a pro-found effect on Chinese arts and culture . During the reign of the Tang dynasty (618–907 c.e.), often referred to as China’s Golden Age, artists produced some of the greatest works of ceramic sculpture ever made . Traditional Chinese art also placed great value on ink drawings . Many scrolls are meant for contemplation, and this contemplative aspect is a feature often associ-ated with Asian art . Chinese traditions in writing, paint-ing, and sculpture were maintained over the centuries . With the communist revolution that established the People’s Republic of China in 1949, art became suf-fused with political ideas and was often an instrument of propaganda . However, since the late 1970s, Chinese art has gradually become less political .

Indian Art

India is an extremely diverse nation in which more than 1600 different languages and dialects are currently spoken, and India is home to a variety of religious and cultural traditions . India’s artistic traditions are among the oldest in the world, and here we will only be able to touch on one or two aspects of India’s rich artistic heritage . The influence of Buddhist traditions is strong, of course, but what often astonishes people unfamiliar with the art of India is the influence of Greek art on the classical images of Buddha . India has ruins of great early civilizations that rival those of Egypt and Mesoamerica, and the sensuous style of Indian sculptures has had an enduring impact on art over the centuries . Much Indian art reflects the tremendous influence of Hinduism . This religion, with its many gods and goddesses, gave rise

to a lovely, lively, and sinuous style . Images of Shiva, who dances gracefully with his multiple arms, are par-ticularly striking .

Japanese Art

The island kingdom of Japan, though tiny in size, has had a great influence on the international art world . Japan was closed to the West for the majority of its his-tory, and this allowed Japanese art to remain relatively consistent and traditional . As with China, the history of Japan is one of succeeding dynasties, with each one leaving its mark in a series of succeeding styles . Also, as with China, Buddhism was imported to Japan and became an important focus in the traditional arts . The strength of Japan’s artistic traditions remained even when the country became more open to Western cul-tures . During the rise of the Impressionist movement in Europe, Japan sent a group of artists to study in France . These artists returned to Japan and introduced the ideas they had encountered in the West, and so, for a short time at the end of the nineteenth century, there was group of artists in Japan who used linear per-spective and the colors and subjects of Impressionism . However, what is noteworthy is that the Japanese soon rejected these ideas and returned to the isometric per-spective and flat areas of color favored by Japanese traditions . Although Japanese artists created excellent works in painting, architecture, crafts, and sculpture, it is for their printmaking that Japanese artists are best known in the Western world . Japanese prints had a profound influence on Western art, as French artists began to imitate the prints that they began to collect in the late nineteenth century . The flat colors and over-head viewpoint of these prints were adopted by many French artists during this period .

African and Oceanic ArtSome of the historic traditions of African art have

already been discussed in our survey of Western art . As a result of the relationships between Egypt and the Mediterranean world, the ancient arts of north-ern Africa are often incorporated into the history of Western art . Usually the art of sub-Saharan Africa is treated separately from that of northern Africa because of the regions’ very different histories . A close look at all areas of the continent reveals that impressive art traditions emerged in west, central, east, and south-ern Africa quite early . Some of the oldest examples are cave paintings in what is now Namibia, painted in c . 23,000 b.c.e., that are thought to predate any known European paintings . In West Africa, the Nok civilization emerged in c . 500 b.c.e. Located in what is present-day Nigeria, this impressive civilization produced fantasti-cally life-like terracotta sculptures, many of which were probably portraits of political and religious leaders . It is possible that the early Nok civilization had an influence on later cultural groups such as the Yoruba .

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Another important historical tradition from Nigeria relates to the Benin Kingdom (thirteenth–eighteenth centuries) . Much of the remaining art from the Benin Kingdom was produced in association with a rich life at the royal court . Cast bronze portrait heads were intended for ancestral altars, and a variety of objects were made to reinforce the tremendous power of the oba, or Benin king . Countless treasures from the Benin Kingdom were destroyed or confiscated by the British in the 1897 raid on the royal palace . As a result, many more of these objects from historic Benin can be found in museums in Europe and the United States than in Nigeria .

While art objects in a variety of media have been created by many different African cultural groups, our study of them has been limited in many cases by the lack of necessary conditions for preservation . While there are some objects in metal and clay, the use of fiber and wood, which are quite perishable, has resulted in relatively few artifacts being preserved . Unfortunately, much African art was also destroyed by early European traders and colonial settlers on the continent . Westerners often viewed much of what they found in Africa as dangerous and threatening to the colonial pursuit, perceiving artworks as pagan sym-bols that should be destroyed rather than preserved . Hence, a wealth of cultural artifacts has been lost . The objects that were preserved were often collected as archaeological artifacts and, in most cases, important contextual information was lost . It is only relatively recently that art historians have begun to explore the rich variety of artworks and aesthetic systems of African cultures . In many cases, traditional African arts chal-lenge the Western concept of art for art’s sake—func-tional baskets, ceramics, and textiles, for example, are some of the most prized material objects for many African cultural groups .

When we look at African art in a museum, a great deal of contextual information that is crucial to our understanding of the object is lost . Many African cul-tural groups, such as the Dan and the Bwa, are well-known for their impressive masks . Masks, though, are not meant to be seen in isolation as they are typically displayed when in art museums . Instead, masks are usually integrated into performance, coupled with a full-body costume and accompanied by music, dance, jokes, festivities, and a great meal shared with friends and family . It is difficult, of course, to recreate all of this in a museum context!

Similar issues occur in relation to the arts of Oceania . Oceania is the collective name for the thousands of islands that constitute Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia . As is the case with Africa, many perishable objects dating back for centuries have been lost to us due to the use of fragile materials in a sometimes hostile climate . In Polynesia, tattooing and other body arts were important ways of expressing social stature . Clearly these art forms are lost with the death of the tattooed person and were preserved only through engravings made by visitors to the islands prior to the invention of photography .

Some of the most important art traditions of the Asmat cultural group of Melanesia relate to warfare . Traditionally the Asmat engaged in head-hunting prac-tices, but these traditions have died out . Enormous carved wooden shields decorated with beautiful black, red, and white abstract patterns were traditionally used for protection in raids among groups throughout the area; today these shields are seen as cultural symbols, but they no longer serve the same function in war .

Fang mask used for the ngil ceremony, an inquisitorial search for sorcerers.

Wood, Gabon, 19th century.

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Carved masks were a central part of Melanesian cultures . In many cases, these masks were used in cer-emonies that involved summoning the spirits of ances-tors to honor the dead . As is the case with African art traditions, much is lost when these objects are viewed in museum collections .

Rich traditions continue to develop throughout Oceania today, especially as groups such as the Maori of New Zealand seek cultural renewal by reviving old traditions in a new context . Many people from tradi-tional cultural groups that have been threatened by colonization recognize that art offers vibrant possibili-ties for expressing and reinforcing cultural identity .

Islamic ArtToday, Islam is a major religion that is not limited

to any one region of the world . However, historically Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula following the teachings of the prophet Muhammad (c . 570–632) . The revelations of Muhammad are recorded in Islam’s holy book, the Quran . This text plays a central role in

the practice of Islam, and some of the most valued art objects are beautifully produced copies of the Quran or containers that hold the sacred text . Following the Quran’s scriptures, Islamic art is largely non-figurative . Abstract or calligraphic decoration can be found on most Islamic art objects, including sacred architecture which has a long history in the Islamic tradition . The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (687–692) is one of the oldest examples of Islamic architecture . Its position in Jerusalem marks the presence of Islam in a city that is also sacred to Jews and Christians . The act of prayer is central to the practice of Islam, and the mosque, with its qibla wall facing toward Mecca, emerged as a site for communal prayer . Mosque architecture can be found in a variety of forms throughout the world today .

The AmericasFor many years art historians classified much of the

art of North and South America as products of simple craftsmanship . These artifacts were not truly consid-ered works of art and therefore were kept solely in

An image of the Dome of the Rock from Phillip Baldensperger’s “The Immovable East: Studies of the People and Customs of Palestine,” published in 1913.

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archeological and anthropological museums . However, renewed interest and new studies of these works have added considerably to our understanding and appreci-ation of the art of the first Americans, and objects from these cultures are becoming more and more common in the collections of art museums . Great civilizations grew and flourished in the Americas, including the Olmec, Toltec, Maya, Inca, and Aztec . Great pyramids, rivaling those of Egypt, rose as the central features of large cities, of which the Pyramid of the Sun in Mexico is one of the best known . The decorative carvings on the Mayan ruins continue to amaze us, and in addition to architectural marvels, statues in clay and stone, as well as fine textiles and jewelry, remain as reminders of the glories of these civilizations .

While there is evidence of early people in many areas of present-day Canada and the United States dating back nearly 12,000 years, several of the condi-tions that we identified earlier as being necessary for preservation were not present . As a result, the major-ity of artifacts from these cultures are only from the last two thousand years . During the later centuries of the prehistoric period, the Native Americans of the Southwest demonstrated remarkable architectural skills in the building of pueblo complexes . These dwellings often consisted of well over a hundred rooms laid out in multiple stories .

Elements of ArtFormal Qualities of Art

While it is crucial to examine any given work of art in its historical context in order to arrive at an understand-ing of its meaning, it is also important to focus intently on the formal qualities or the basic visual components of a work of art . These include line, shape, form, space, color, and texture, among other things . Formal analysis requires careful observation and description, often using the special vocabulary of art .

Line

Line is the most basic of art elements . Any kind of mark-making tool––a finger, pencil, paint, etc .––can be used to create a line on a surface . The strict definition of a line is the path of a point moving through space . But beyond this technical definition, lines have a variety of characteristics such as length, width, and direction . Lines may appear hard or soft, bold or indistinct, uni-form or varying in width . Sometimes lines are not solid but consist of a series of interrupted dots or lines that the eye connects to create an implied line . Think of prints in the sand or snow that imply the path of a per-son or animal . Sometimes we see the edges of objects as lines . The corners of rooms, the edges of doors, and the line where two colors meet all provide examples of how edges may be seen as lines .

Artists use lines to express ideas or feelings visually . Horizontal and vertical lines create a stable and static

feeling . Vertical lines cause the eye to move upward . Medieval churches were created with very high arched ceilings, designed to raise the eyes of the people upward toward heaven to promote a feeling of spiritual awe . Horizontal lines, such as the line of the horizon, suggest a feeling of peace and tranquility while curving and jagged lines create a sense of activity . Though the use of lines is perhaps most essential and noticeable in drawing and some kinds of printmaking, all artists use line in their artwork in some way .

Shape and Form

Shape and form are two elements of art that are closely related to one another . Shape is what defines the two-dimensional area of an object, whereas forms are objects that are three-dimensional, having length, width, and depth . For example, a square is a shape, but a cube is a form . A triangle is a shape; a pyramid or a cone is a form . When one draws an apple that in nature is a form, one draws a shape that represents the apple . If one creates an apple out of clay, that clay apple is a form . In a two-dimensional artwork, an artist may try to create the illusion of form through the use of shading, foreshortening, perspective, and other techniques .

Shapes and forms may be geometric, such as circles/spheres and squares/cubes . These geometric shapes and forms can be defined mathematically and are precise and regular . Some shapes and forms are described as being “organic” since living things tend to be freeform and irregular in shape or form . A geometric shape or form can convey a sense of order and stability, while organic shapes and forms tend to express movement and rhythm .

Space is an element of art related to the organiza-tion of objects and the areas around them . The objects, shapes, or forms in an artwork occupy what is termed positive space . Sometimes these objects, shapes, or forms may be called the figure . The area around these objects, shapes, or forms represents negative space . In three-dimensional forms, negative space may surround the forms or may be created as a result of open spaces within the forms . Three-dimensional artworks include, among other forms, architecture, ceramic objects, and sculpture . The two primary types of sculpture are free-standing, or fully in the round, and relief, meaning that the sculpture projects from a surface or background of which it is a part . Such sculptures may be in high relief––projecting boldly from the surface––or bas (low) relief––projecting only slightly from the surface of the sculpture .

Perspective

The creation of perspective or the illusion of depth is another important use of space in two-dimensional artworks . There are many effective techniques that artists can use to create an illusion of three-dimension-ality . They may use shading and highlighting on the contours––the visible borders ––of objects to replicate

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the manner in which light shining on objects lends those objects a sense of volume and space . An art-ist can also create a sense of depth in an artwork by placing objects or figures lower on the picture plane to make them appear closer to the viewer . Or, one can do the reverse and place objects and figures higher on the plane to make them appear farther away from the viewer . Artists can also manipulate the size of objects to create a sense of perspective––larger objects will appear closer to the viewer than smaller objects . An artist can also have closer objects overlap objects that are farther away to indicate depth and distance . Moreover, the artist can make objects appear closer to the viewer by giving them greater detail than objects that are farther away––replicating the manner in which our eyes are able to perceive more detail in objects that are nearer to us .

Aerial perspective, also called atmospheric per-spective, is a technique that takes into account the ways that fog, smoke, and airborne particles change the appearance of things when they are viewed from a distance . When an artist uses this technique, objects that are farther away will appear lighter and more neu-tral in color and will lack contrast of color or value .

Frequently, when we think of perspective, we think of the mathematical techniques that were developed during the Renaissance which can be used to create the illusion of space . Such techniques create what is called linear perspective because this perspective is founded on the visual phenomenon that as lines recede into the distance, they appear to converge and eventually vanish at a point on the horizon . We may, for example, notice this effect when viewing highways, railroads, or fence posts as they stretch into the distance . In employ-ing linear perspective, the artist establishes one or more vanishing points on the real or imagined horizon of the artwork . Then, lines are carefully drawn to ensure a precise and extremely realistic depiction of interior and exterior scenes . Thus, in drawing a black and white checkerboard floor (a frequent feature in Renaissance interior paintings), the horizontal lines of the tiles are drawn as parallel, but the vertical lines––which we know are also parallel in reality––appear to converge or come together in a systematic way as they recede toward the back wall of the interior .

Pietro Perugino’s usage of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (1481–82) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome.

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Color

Color surrounds us wherever we go and is a com-pelling element in art . Hue is simply the name of the color . There are three primary colors—red, blue, and yellow—from which all other colors are produced . Secondary colors are formed from the mixture of two primary colors: red and yellow make orange; yellow and blue make green; blue and red make violet . There are six tertiary colors, made by combining a primary and an adjacent secondary color: red and violet make red-violet; violet and blue make violet-blue; blue and green make blue-green; green and yellow make yel-low-green; yellow and orange make yellow-orange; orange and red make red-orange . The organization of these hues into a visual scheme, known as the color wheel, dates from the eighteenth century, though the underlying concepts were developed by Sir Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century . The color wheel is a useful tool for predicting the results of mixing hues .

Two important variables affecting color are the amount of light that is reflected and the purity of the color . The term “value” is often used when discussing the lightness or darkness of a color or of gray . Values in an artwork may be primarily dark or primarily light or may be contrasting from dark to light . The artist’s use of value contributes to the expressive quality of the artwork . In mixing colors, artists create a lighter hue by adding white to the color . Adding white to red, for example, makes a lighter red or pink . Artists create darker hues by adding black to the color . Adding black to red, for example, makes a dark red . A few words about black and white are necessary at this point . Black and white are not hues; they are called neutrals . When mixing black and white, artists can create a continuum of grays .

Intensity refers to the brightness or purity of a color . The unmixed primary colors, being pure in color, are generally considered to be the most intense colors . If pure colors are mixed, they become less intense . Adding black or gray to a color will reduce its intensity . Adding a color to its complement lowers the intensity of the color, making it more dull or neutral in tone . Equal parts of two complements, such as red and green, will produce a dull, muddy brown tone .

Artists often use specific color schemes to produce particular visual or emotional effects . In the nineteenth century, scientists discovered the relativity of color; they determined that a given shade of red will look brighter or darker, more or less intense, depending on what other (similar or contrasting) colors are placed next to it . Thus, colors do not have a fixed or immu-table character or value .

In discussing art and color, we often speak of warm colors and cool colors . These color associations are culturally constructed and are not absolute . In the con-text of Western art, warm colors include red, orange, and yellow and are referred to as such because we

associate them with the warmth of the sun, the heat of a roaring fire, or the dry grass of a late summer day . Cool colors––green, blue, and violet––remind us of cool forests, mountain lakes, and snow . Artists often use warm and cool colors to create space in artworks . Warm colors seem to advance toward the viewer while cool colors appear to recede . By employing contrasts of warm and cool colors, artists can create a sense of movement as the viewer’s eyes move over the surface of the artwork .

Color may be local, arbitrary, or optical . Local color refers to the “true” color of an object or area as seen in normal daylight, irrespective of the effects of distance or reflections from other objects . For instance, in a work using local color, a grassy field would be green despite the fact that it may, in reality, appear bluish from a distance . Optical color refers to the effect that special lighting has on the color of objects . Consider how col-ors change in moonlight, at daybreak, in candlelight, or in artificial lighting . Artists who use arbitrary color choose colors for their emotional or aesthetic impact . In the twentieth century, artists have come to use arbi-trary color schemes more and more often .

Texture

Texture refers to how things feel or how we think they would feel if touched . From a young age we explore the surfaces of things and store away these tactile experiences in our memory . When we see new objects or artworks, we call upon our previous experi-ences to determine the quality of the surface texture . In the context of art, we make reference to two kinds of texture: actual and visual . Some artists use actual tex-tures in their art . For example, a ceramic artist may cre-ate an actual texture on the surface of a pot or plate . In collages, assemblages, or masks, artists may use yarn, rope, shiny paper, shells, and other natural or manufac-tured materials to create actual textural effects . Artists who work in three-dimensional media exploit the textural qualities of their chosen material whether it is stone, wood, metal, or some other substance .

Artists who work in two-dimensional media create visual texture––an illusion of a textured surface––in their artwork . For example, an artist may wish to simu-late the actual texture of a straw hat, a glass vase, or an orange . Textures may be created by using patterns of lines or shapes that suggest texture . An artist can use the contrast of light and dark on a surface to create a texture that appears rough . Conversely, the absence of such a contrast will evoke a smooth texture . Shiny surfaces appear to reflect light while matte surfaces appear soft and dull . In addition to using the aforemen-tioned techniques to create visual texture, painters can create actual texture with their brushstrokes .

Composition

Composition refers to the artist’s organization of the elements of art, whether in two- or three-dimensional

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works . When speaking of a painting, the composition refers to the arrangement of these elements on the picture plane . In the case of architecture, composition is a word used to describe the organization of these elements in space .

Rhythm is the principle that we associate with movement or pattern . Artists create a sense of move-ment or rhythm in their artwork through the repetition of elements such as line, shape, color, and texture . The rhythm of a composition can cause the viewer’s eye to move rhythmically across and around the composition . Some rhythms flow smoothly, while others are more jarring . The artist directs the movement of our eye through the use of repeated elements .

Motif and pattern are two aspects of repetition . A motif is a single element of a pattern . For example, in a quilt design, one or more motifs are repeated to cre-ate an overall pattern . A pattern involves the repetition of certain elements—color or line—or motifs within a work of art . Many patterns feature regular repetition . Shapes or motifs may be repeated in a number of ways to create regular patterns . Some kind of grid system will underlie a regular pattern . Checkerboards offer an example of a regular pattern .

Balance refers to the equal distribution of visual weight in a work of art . There are a number of techniques that artists use to create balance . The easiest to comprehend is symmetrical balance––a bal-ance achieved when elements of the composition are repeated exactly on both sides of the central axis . If you fold a paper in half vertically and one side of the centerfold is a mirror image of the other side of the centerfold, then you have an example of symmetrical balance . Many formal styles of architecture make use of symmetry with columns, wings, and windows arrayed equally on either side of the central entrance . Artworks in which the central axis is horizontal and equal visual weight is placed above and below that axis also exhibit symmetrical balance . To avoid the rigidity and monot-ony that may accompany a symmetrical composition, many artists employ approximate symmetry . In this kind of balance, shapes or objects are slightly varied on either side of the central axis . The artist may also include variations in the color, detail, or position of the shapes to achieve this effect .

Asymmetrical balance is a visual balance that is achieved through the organization of unlike objects . Even though asymmetrical balance may appear to be more informal than symmetrical balance, it is actually a more complex compositional task . There are several ways that asymmetrical balance can be achieved . The first is by the position of objects . Think of two people of unequal weight on a seesaw . To maintain a balance, the lighter person must sit far out on the end of the seesaw while the heavier person must sit close to the fulcrum . Similarly, an artist may create balance by plac-ing the heavier, more solid object close to the center of

the artwork while placing smaller objects farther away from the center .

Contrast of color, value, shape, size, line, or texture creates interest to the eye . An element that contrasts with the rest of a composition will create a focal point where the eye tends to rest . This focal point appears more dominant, more important than other parts of the composition . In this way, the artist may guide the viewer to an understanding of meaning .

Proportion refers to the size relationships among the parts of a composition . Our sense of proportion is based upon our human scale . Scale refers to the dimensional relation of the parts of a work to the work in its entirety, and can refer to the overall size of an artwork . Size attracts our interest . The vast scale of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel creates a sense of awe . The detail of a tiny painting or of illuminations in medieval manuscripts intrigues us . Artists consider the purpose and place of their art when determining the appropriate scale for the work .

Scale also refers to the relative size of elements within the artwork . In a naturalistic work, we expect that the relative sizes of the objects depicted will appear as they actually are in life . In some cases, artists intention-ally make one person or object in their composition larger to draw our attention to that person or object .

When representing the human face and figure realistically, artists strive to use accurate proportions . The standards for the relationship of the various parts of the human face and body were established nearly 2500 years ago during the Classical Period of Greek sculpture . The Greeks believed that the human figure was the measure of all things . As a consequence, all structures were designed in proportions relative to human proportions, and specific rules were estab-lished . For example, the human figure was determined to be seven and one-half heads high . The features of the human face could be correctly placed according to these rules: the corners of the eyes fall on a line halfway between chin and the top of the head, the bottom of the nose falls halfway between the chin and the corners of the eyes, and the bottom of the lips falls halfway between the chin and the bottom of the nose . However, many artists at different times have altered these proportions to reflect changing ideals of beauty . At other times, artists have exaggerated or distorted proportions for an expressive effect .

To truly understand how artists manipulate the ele-ments of art and the principles of composition, it is necessary to examine a great many artworks and to analyze how artists create meaning in their artwork through skillful choices and the application of these artistic concepts . Students should keep in mind that many of the elements discussed in the principles of composition section of this guide are more often found in traditional works than in modern artworks . The rejec-tion of notions such as unity, balance, and so on is often the very essence of much modern art .

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Processes and TechniquesTwo-dimensional art processes and techniques are

those that are created on a flat plane . They have height and width, but not significant depth . These include drawing, printmaking, painting, photography, and some mixed media . Artworks that have depth as well as height and width, and that exist in space are three-dimensional . This category includes sculpture, other works in mixed media, and environmental art .

Drawing

Drawing is arguably the most basic of art processes . Most of us have been drawing since we could hold some tool and make marks on a surface . The most com-mon drawing media are pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, crayon, and felt-tip pens . Artists can choose from a vari-ety of surfaces upon which to draw . Early artists used walls of rock, and though some artists today continue to draw on walls, most use some kind of paper––from the white paper of common sketchbooks to a wide variety of manufactured and handmade papers . Papers may be smooth or rough, white or in a wide range of colors . Drawing tools may be black, colored, or white .

Drawing is primarily based on the use of line . Lines created by drawing media can vary dramatically in quality . Hard pencils will make thin, light lines while soft pencils will make thicker lines that may vary consider-ably in value from lighter to very dark . Charcoal is so soft that the color of the paper used will show through in places where the strokes are applied lightly . Each drawing tool or medium has its own unique qualities, and experimenting with a variety of drawing media is a good way to gain an understanding of their similarities and differences .

With drawing pencils or charcoals, a change in pres-sure will cause a change in value . More pressure creates darker values; lighter pressure creates lighter values . Shading can also be used to change values . Artists use the techniques of hatching and crosshatching to shade objects and create an illusion of three-dimensionality . Hatching consists of placing lines closely side by side . Crosshatching is a process in which lines are criss-crossed to create shading . Many drawing media can be blended to change their value and enhance shading . Another technique for shading is stippling . With this technique, the artist creates different values by making a pattern of dots . The distance between dots deter-mines how dark the shading will be––the more densely clustered the dots, the darker the shading .

When an artist uses ink as a drawing medium, the ink can be thinned to create a wash of lighter value in which the paper shows through to lighten the effect . Undiluted ink is opaque; it is not transparent, and it completely covers the underlying paper . But water can be added to make the ink translucent .

Color may be introduced into a drawing with the use of pastels or colored pencils . The same techniques used with black media are used with colored media . The artist using color must consider the effects of color and line in an artwork . Colored pastels became popular in the 1700s . These soft sticks of color can be readily blended to create delicate tints and shades, and they are particularly popular for portraiture . The major draw-back of pastels is that they are very fragile, and pastel drawings must be cared for quite gently . Often, the surface of a pastel drawing is sprayed with a fixative to reduce the risk of smearing . Colored pencils are more durable than pastels, but like pastels, they may be lay-ered to create blended colors .

Printmaking

Printmaking refers to a group of mechanically aided two-dimensional processes that permit the production of multiple original artworks . The principal printmaking processes include relief prints, intaglio prints, litho-graphs, and screen prints . All of these processes use some sort of printing plate (a “matrix”) on which an image is created . Ink is applied to the plate, and the image is transferred to paper or another material .

In relief printmaking, the artist cuts away parts from the surface of the plate . The matrix may be made of wood, linoleum, or a synthetic material, and a number of tools, including woodcarving or linoleum knives and gouges, can be used for cutting its surface . Once the plate has been cut, the remaining parts will stand out in relief . The relief sections may range from thin lines to broad fields, and it is these areas, when they are inked, that will produce the image . Wherever part of the plate is removed, the original color of the paper being printed upon remains . Ink is rolled over the surface of the plate with a brayer, and paper is placed over the inked plate . The plate and paper are then put into a

This engraving, titled Veronica, by Albrecht Dürer features hatching

(e.g., background) and cross-hatching in many darker areas.

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press or rubbed with a burnisher to force the ink onto the paper .

Intaglio printmaking works in the opposite manner from relief printmaking . In the intaglio process, lines are incised on the wood or soft metal plate . Line is an essential element in the intaglio process . Carving tools are used to cut lines into the surface of the plate in a process called engraving . Another intaglio process is etching . In this process, the design is incised through a layer of wax or varnish applied to the surface of a metal plate . After the incising, the plate is immersed in acid, which etches, or eats away, the exposed metal . Leaving the plate in the acid for a shorter time will make faint lines in the plate, while leaving the plate in for a lon-ger time will make deeper grooves . After the plate is etched, the remaining wax or varnish is removed, and ink is forced into the etched areas of the warmed plate . Then, the ink on the surface of the plate is wiped off, and finally, paper is placed on the plate, and it is passed through a heavy press . The paper is forced into the etched, inked areas, and the ink transfers to the paper . In an etching, the printing process causes the printed areas to actually rise above the surface of the paper, giving a degree of dimension to the print .

Lithography is a process in which the image is drawn with a waxy pencil or crayon directly on a plate, which can be made of stone, zinc, or aluminum . The greasy image is hardened, and the plate is saturated with water . Then, ink is applied . The ink adheres only to the greasy image since oil resists water . The image is picked up on the paper when the plate is moved through a press . Lithography can be a complex and demanding process, but in contrast to woodcut and engraving, it does not require special professional training; anyone who can draw can make a lithograph .

Screen prints are familiar to most of us since this is the process used to print most T-shirts . In the silk-screening process, a photograph or other image is transferred or adhered to a silk or synthetic fabric that has been stretched onto a frame . The image serves as a sort of stencil, blocking out areas of the permeable fabric . When ink is forced through the fabric using a squeegee, at those areas not blocked by the stencil-ing, the image is transferred to the paper or fabric beneath .

Because multiple originals can be made through printmaking processes, the cost of an individual print is considerably less than that of a painting . During the Mexican Revolution, printmaking became a medium for distributing images of social protest that could be produced cheaply and in great numbers . Printmaking techniques have been used in the print industry for illustrating newspapers and books since the develop-ment of the printing press in the fifteenth century .

Painting

Painting encompasses a wide variety of media and techniques . Paint is composed of three different mate-

rials: pigments, binders, and solvents . Pigments are finely ground materials that may be natural or synthetic . Natural pigments include clays, gemstones, and miner-als, as well as plant and insect materials that make color when powdered . These powdered pigments are mixed with a binder that holds the grains of pigment together and allows the paint to adhere to a surface . Egg yolks, linseed oil, and wax can all be used as binders . A sol-vent such as water or oil can be added to change the consistency of the paint or alter its drying time .

As with drawing, painters can apply the media to a variety of surfaces such as boards, paper, canvas, and plaster walls . Paint can be applied to a surface with many different tools . We usually think of paintbrushes as the tools used to apply paint, but fingers, sticks, palette knives, and anything else that an artist imagines will make the desired kind of applicator may be used .

One specialized technique of painting that has a long history is the fresco . The fresco technique is usually used to paint on walls or ceilings . In creating a fresco, the artist mixes pure powdered pigments with water and applies them to a wet plaster ground . The paint is permanently bound in the plaster, so the artist must plan carefully because he or she will not be able to make changes after the fact . This kind of fresco is termed buon fresco (“true” fresco) . If an artist uses the technique called fresco secco, he or she will apply paints to dry rather than wet plaster . Frescoes have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and in many medieval and Renaissance churches . Diego Rivera, the famous Mexican muralist of the early twentieth century, used this technique for his murals in Mexico and the United States .

When we think of painting, oil painting usually comes to mind first . Oil paints were not widely used until the 1400s, and prior to that time, tempera was the most commonly used paint . Tempera is a water-based paint . Many of us remember using tempera paint in elementary school . Traditional tempera paint, which uses egg as a binder, has been used by fine artists throughout history . Tempera painting requires great skill, and there are limitations to this medium . Tempera colors dry quickly, and so they cannot be blended once they are applied to a surface . Tempera also has a nar-row tonal range––colors are either light or dark––and it cannot achieve the close imitation of natural effects that oil paints can . Nonetheless, the positive qualities of tempera are evidenced by the many ancient tem-pera paintings that still retain their clear and brilliant colors .

Oil paints are much more versatile than tempera paints . Oil paints can be easily mixed, and they may be thinned to build up layers of delicate glazes––thin transparent or semi-transparent layers that are applied over another color to alter it slightly . The translucency of glazes permits, for instance, a crimson layer under-neath to shine through a yellow layer on top and can thus create brilliant, luminous effects that are impos-

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sible to achieve with tempera . Oils can be applied thickly or in heavy lumps to make an impasto surface . Since oils dry slowly, it is possible for an artist to work on an oil painting over a long period of time––days or even weeks .

In ancient Egypt, grave markers were painted with wax-based paints called encaustic . With encaustic, colored molten wax is fused with the surface via the application of hot irons . The fact that Egyptian markers have survived through the ages indicates the durability of the encaustic medium . Some painters today have returned to this ancient and traditional process .

Gouache is a water-based opaque paint that is similar to school-quality tempera, but of higher quality . Gouache has more body and dries more slowly than watercolor . It is a good medium for creating bright col-ors and meticulous details and is often used for design and fine artwork .

The most common water-based paint is watercolor . Watercolors are transparent, a quality that dictates the manner in which they are used . The white of the paper upon which the artist paints is a major factor in water-color . White paint is rarely used in watercolors . Instead, to make tints, the artist adds more water to the paint . The lightest colors are applied first, and then the darker colors, working from background to foreground, from broad areas to areas of detail . Watercolor is not forgiv-ing of mistakes, so watercolor artists must plan carefully and practice diligently .

A recent development in paint is acrylic paint . Made from synthetic materials, plastics, and polymers, acryl-ics were developed after World War II . Acrylics are very versatile . They do not require the slow, careful build-ing-up of successive layers with long drying periods in between as do oils . Acrylics are, however, unable to achieve some of the subtleties of which oil paints are capable . For artists who have developed allergies to oil paint and turpentine, acrylics offer a valuable alternative .

Photography

Photography was developed during the mid-nine-teenth century, and it soon became a very popular way to document likenesses of people and scenes . The development of photography had a decided impact on other genres of art . As the use of photography grew, painters at first felt pressured to compete with the camera by achieving a higher degree of realism . Ultimately, however, artists felt less of a need to confine themselves to naturalistic styles of painting and were encouraged to explore various forms of art that were entirely beyond the reach of photography . Although not originally considered an art form, photography has gradually assumed a legitimacy within the art world that has only grown in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries . The medium of photography is in constant flux as new technology becomes available . In addition

to still photography, film and video art are also used as art forms .

Sculpture

Sculpture is created in four basic ways: carving, modeling, casting, and construction . We usually think of sculpture as being freestanding, like the Venus de Milo or Michelangelo’s Pieta, but some sculptures are attached to surfaces such as doors, sarcophagi, altars, or church walls . Such reliefs may be carved into the stone or wood of the structure itself, or they may be cast of metal and fixed to the surface of the structure . High-relief sculpture projects significantly from the carrier surface, while low-relief sculpture projects only slightly . Reliefs can only be seen from a limited range, whereas a freestanding sculpture can be seen from every angle .

Carving is a subtractive process in which some of the original material is removed . For example, a stone or wood sculpture can be made by chiseling and goug-ing away with chisels, hammers, and files to bring the artist’s imagined form into physical existence . The scale of carved sculptures can range considerably, from min-iature figures that rest on the tip of a finger to monu-mental forms carved of living rock .

Modeling is an additive process . A soft, workable material like clay, wax, plaster, or papier-mâché is formed by hand . Amounts of these materials can be

Michelangelo’s Pieta is a freestanding sculpture.

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added to the surface, and the surface can be shaped and decorated by hand or with simple tools .

Sometimes an unfired clay or wax sculpture can become the basis for a cast form . In this process, the original form is encased in plaster . When the plaster hardens, it is removed from the original form and retained for use as a mold . The mold can then be filled and thus used to create one or more casts of the origi-nal object . Sculptures may be cast in plaster, metal, and more recently, synthetic materials like plastic or polyester resins .

Some sculpture is constructed using a variety of methods . Metal sculpture can be welded from sheet metal or bent from wire . Some artists use paper, board, or wood that is cut and glued, nailed, or joined togeth-er by some other means and then possibly painted . Sometimes found objects are combined to create a new sculpture .

Some sculptures can move or can have moving parts . For example, Alexander Calder (1898–1976) cre-ated mobiles with forms suspended by wire which can be moved by wind or air currents . Other artists have used a wide variety of motors, pulleys, ropes, pumps, or other mechanical means to introduce movement to their sculptures .

Environmental art, also called Earthworks, is a newer category of art form that first emerged in the 1960s, and many works that fit in this category could be classified as sculpture . Environmental art is usually large in scale, is constructed on-site, and is usually not permanent . Environmental art occupies space that may be outside in the natural world or inside a gallery or museum . In either case, the artwork redefines the space in which it is installed . Sometimes, performance may be coupled with the actual installation, and often the viewer is, to some degree, drawn into and involved with the artwork . Often, an essential part of the work of environmental artists is the process of collaborating with the community and governmental agencies to gain approval for their proposed works . Environmental art is often designed to be impermanent or to change over time . Photographs provide us with a more long-lasting documentation of these projects that are often designed to be fleeting in nature .

Mixed Media

Mixed media is the name given to a category of artworks in which the artist uses several art media, sometimes in conjunction with found materials such as fabric, rope, broken dishes, newspaper, or children’s toys . Mixed media works can be either two- or three-dimensional . Collage is a kind of mixed media in which artists combine various materials such as photographs, unusual papers, theater tickets, and virtually any other materials that can be adhered to a surface . Artists will select materials for their texture, color, or other aesthetic properties or for their symbolic meaning . Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque are credited with

introducing this medium to the high-art sphere around 1912 .

The artist Robert Rauschenberg (1925–2008) is well known for his mixed media pieces that com-bine silkscreen images with paint . Some artists create assemblages using all found objects, both two- and three-dimensional, in their compositions . Joseph Cornell (1903–72) is a twentieth-century artist who filled open boxes with a variety of objects that visually cre-ated symbolic and metaphoric statements .

Among traditional and nonwestern cultural groups, masks, ceremonial costumes, and other objects often employ mixed media . Masks may be carved of wood and embellished with grasses, beads, and paint .

Performance

Performance art is art in which the artist engages in some kind of performance, sometimes involving the viewers . Like environmental art, performance art lacks the permanence of more traditional genres of art . Videos or photographs of the performance may be the only remaining documentation of the event . In our world of canned, sterile, and constantly repeated media spectacles, performance art offers a means for recovering unique, unrepeatable human experiences . Since performances cannot be sold as objects, this art form has also been viewed by many as an escape from the increasing commercialization of art . True to the inventiveness of the artistic spirit, artists continue to explore new ideas, new materials, and new processes to express their unique perspectives and ideas . Such creative works continually challenge us to reconsider our own conceptions and definitions of the term “art .”

Craft and Folk Art

Craft, folk art, and popular art are all debated terms applied to a variety of art forms across cultures . In many cases, these terms are used to discuss art forms that are largely utilitarian . Through time and across cultures, people have often sought to make the objects they use more distinctive or beautiful . Consequently, pottery, jewelry, fibers, and glass and wooden objects have come to be recognized as art forms even though they may have a utilitarian purpose . A discussion of craft or folk art raises many questions about the nature of art and the aesthetic pursuit .

Pottery is a medium based upon the use of natural materials . Clay, dug from the ground, is the essential material . Many types of pots can be built using hands and simple tools . A basic pot can be formed from a ball of clay by punching the thumb into the center of the ball and pinching the clay between the thumb and fingers . Clay can also be rolled out into coils with the palm of the hand, and these coils can then be stacked up to form a clay vessel . Depending on the diameter of the coils, pots built in this way can be of enormous size or made on a tiny, dainty scale . Slab-built pots are made by rolling out clay and cutting carefully measured

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pieces, which are then assembled by applying liquid clay, called slip, to the edges that are to be joined .

The potter’s wheel was used in many ancient cul-tures and continues to be used by artists today . Using the potter’s wheel, the potter forms the basic shapes of the pot by manipulating the ball of clay as it turns on the wheel . When a potter uses a potter’s wheel to cre-ate pots, these pots are described as being “thrown .” Throwing allows for particularly thin-walled pots in a wide variety of shapes . Many potters combine hand-built and thrown forms to create beautiful objects that may or may not be functional .

Once the clay form has air-dried, the kiln, a special-ized oven, is loaded and fired . In the kiln, all remain-ing moisture is driven out of the clay, and a chemical change takes place . The pots harden permanently . Then, glazes made of clay and minerals that provide color may be applied to the surface of the pots, and the pots are fired once again . The glazes melt, forming a glassy, waterproof surface on the pots that is both decorative and useful . The surface of a ceramic piece

can also be decorated with applied clay designs or with decorations incised or carved into the surface of the piece .

Fiber arts include both woven and nonwoven mate-rials . Weaving has a long history in the production of materials for clothing and other household needs . Some weaving techniques use a loom while others rely on simple braiding, knitting, or crochet . Quilting is another important craft form that is practiced by popu-lar as well as fine artists .

Archaeological evidence indicates that glass was first made in the Middle East in the third millennium b.c.e. Glass is most often made of silica, which is derived from sand, flint, or quartz, combined with other raw materials . The introduction of additional minerals adds color . The development of glassblowing enabled the formation of glass vessels such as vases, drinking glasses, and perfume bottles . Stained glass became a dominant art form in the medieval period and was used to create the dramatic windows of cathedrals . By the end of the nineteenth century, stained glass had

Flying buttresses at Bath Abbey, Bath, England.

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also become popular for lampshades and windows in residential homes .

Wood has been used to make functional objects such as furniture, boxes, boats, and homes . Northwest Coast Indians carve boxes and house boards with tra-ditional designs . People all over the world have made wooden boats in varying practical and aesthetic forms . Today, artists make all kinds of objects from wood . Such objects may be functional, but first and foremost, they aim to be aesthetically pleasing . Functional objects like tables and chairs assume the status of art when the design is unique, the craftsmanship superb, and the visual effect beautiful . Sometimes these objects may no longer be functional, but become art for art’s sake .

Architecture

Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings . People in every culture and geographic area have designed shelters that meet their needs for protection . As people have imagined structures for a variety of communal and personal uses, they have developed various methods of construction to realize their ideas . Specialists in designing structures have become known as architects .

In early times, materials that could be found locally were used for building . Sticks, mud, grass, animal skins, ice, and wood were used in different climatic areas . Later, brick and stone were also used . An important architectural development was the use of the post-and-lintel construction technique in which a long stone or wooden beam is placed horizontally across upright posts . The famous Greek Parthenon is an example of post-and-lintel construction . This method is still commonly used today, with steel and wood being the favored materials .

Other key developments in architecture include the arch, the vault, and the dome . Each of these is a variation of the same concept that allowed for greater height and more interior open space inside a building . The Romans were great engineers, and the Colosseum in Rome provides a fine example of vaulted construc-tion . The Romans developed concrete as a building material, which they used in building aqueducts, great baths, and other public works projects .

In the medieval period, a skeletal building style developed that alternated between strong buttress-es and thin walls with stained-glass windows, which admitted more light and color into the building . Many medieval cathedrals provide classic examples of this method . The addition of flying buttresses––external arches that counterbalanced the outward thrust of the high, vaulted ceilings––allowed for even more height and window openings .

During the Industrial Revolution, many new mate-rials and processes for building were developed . In 1851 the Crystal Palace, so named because it con-sisted mainly of glass walls that were held in place by a framework of slim, iron rods, was built for the world’s

fair in London . The Eiffel Tower in Paris, an amazing and beautiful monument, is primarily a framework of wrought iron .

Antonio Gaudi (1852–1926) created ingenious build-ings of cut stone in Spain in the late 1800s and early 1900s . Without any flat surfaces or straight lines, Gaudi’s buildings are very organic in appearance . While we usually think of buildings as being more modular, having a regular and geometric shape, many architects have challenged this notion and have searched for aesthetically interesting designs and new materials to move beyond the idea of a building as merely being a box-shaped construction .

Steel and concrete have become the favored mate-rials for large public, commercial, and multi-family housing while wood and brick continue to be com-monly used for residential homes . While many build-ings are designed by builders using more standardized plans, leading architects continue to explore new and exciting designs and materials .

Section I Summarym Art history is an academic discipline that seeks

to reconstruct the social, cultural, and economic contexts in which an artwork was created . The basic goal of this work is to arrive at an under-standing of art and its meaning in its original historical context . Art historians rely on a variety of documents and sources in order to conduct formal and contextual analyses .

m The history of Western art is often studied chronologically . This study begins with early cave paintings in southeastern France and takes us to contemporary art all over the world .

m Early civilizations arose in Mesopotamia . Other ancient Western cultures important for their art traditions include Egypt and Nubia, and the civilizations of the Aegean Islands, Greece, and Rome . The artworks that have survived from ancient civilizations are those made of durable materials . Often these artworks were preserved in places that were relatively inaccessible .

m Tremendous shifts occurred in the art of the medi-eval period with the emergence of Christianity as a major religion and the Church as a powerful patron of the arts .

m The Church remained an important patron of art during the Renaissance and Baroque periods; at the same time, there was also a rise in secular artworks during these periods, in light of the Protestant Reformation and general societal and economic shifts throughout Europe .

m Major innovations of the Renaissance include the use of linear perspective and a move toward

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greater naturalism . Baroque art is generally dis-tinct from Renaissance art because of its greater sense of movement and drama .

m The Rococo style of art was closely tied to the power of the French aristocracy prior to the Revolution of 1789 . The Neoclassical movement may in part be seen as a reaction to the Rococo and a response to the political and social revo-lution . Romanticism, in turn, was a reaction to the classicizing tendencies of Neoclassical art . Romanticism sought to appeal to the emotions and the senses .

m Realism and Impressionism both emerged in the second half of the nineteenth century . Both move-ments were focused on everyday life as a subject matter, although Impressionism became increas-ingly concerned with ideas of visual perception .

m Other late nineteenth-century developments includ-ed Post-Impressionism and the Pre-Raphaelites .

m Modernism emerged in the early twentieth cen-tury . Important movements include Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, Surrealism, and Abstract Expressionism .

m The Armory Show in New York (1913) marked a shift in the art world, as the United States became a new center of progressive artistic activity .

m Pop Art, Minimalism, and Photorealism respond-ed to a post-WWII industrial culture . Installations, performance, and Environmental Art all sought to challenge conventional ideas of art and its limitations .

m In the past, areas of nonwestern art were not incorporated in the chronological study of Western art; distinct regions of the world have often been studied separately . Today, though, many art historians are challenging this based on the realization that art throughout the world is interconnected, especially in terms of contempo-rary art . Art historians sometimes rely on different methods to understand nonwestern art .

m China, India, and Japan are among the major cultures of Asia . All three countries have ancient traditions and have produced art that relates to political power and religious practice .

m Ancient traditions can also be found in Africa . Often the arts of Africa and Oceania were cre-ated for very different functions from art in the Western traditions; consequently, there are tre-mendous formal differences as well .

m Islam is a major world religion that has produced much art . Most Islamic art is non-figurative .

m Ancient civilizations existed in the Americas as well . Archaeology is often used to learn about these civilizations and their art .

m In addition to understanding context, art his-torians seek to describe the formal qualities of artworks . Important terms used to discuss the formal qualities of an artwork include: line, shape and form, perspective, color, texture, and composition .

m Artists throughout time have worked in a variety of media, including drawing, printmaking, paint-ing, photography, sculpture, mixed media, per-formance, craft and folk art, and architecture .

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S E C T I O N I I :

Art and the New Deal (Painting and Sculpture)

Introduction and Historical Context“I used to picket Mayor La Guardia to organize

some kind of art project. We had a very strong group demonstrating for some art projects because unem-ployment was fantastic. It was fantastic. Most of the galleries closed, you know, nobody was buying anything.”1

—Ben Shahn, artist

The unprecedented financial crisis that struck the United States following the 1929 stock market crash had a devastating impact throughout the

country, ultimately affecting the economy all over the world . The collapse of financial institutions resulted in widespread fear about the future . The industrial sector faced severe losses as consumer spending fell radically . Wages dropped, and unemployment soared to unprec-edented levels . Millions of people found themselves desperate to meet their most basic needs, let alone maintain their previous lifestyles .

While uncertainty about the future and desperation to regain stability were widespread throughout the 1930s, not all Americans felt the impact of the Great Depression to the same degree . Factors such as one’s social and financial status prior to the crisis, education and job training, race, gender, age, and geographi-cal location had an impact on individual experiences of the Depression . In urban areas, some white-collar workers were relatively insulated from the effects of the Great Depression in comparison to those who labored in factories, for example . Wealthy and middle-class Americans who owned their own homes and who had limited debt fared better than those who were left without stable housing . Homelessness became a widespread problem in urban areas, and demands on housing and social services were stretched thin by migration to the cities as those fleeing rural areas arrived in search of work . Unemployment was espe-cially staggering in the industrial sector, as the demand for durable goods dropped quite suddenly and only rose very slowly throughout the 1930s . This had the most negative impact on cities such as Detroit, which

had thrived in the previous decades as the result of industrialization .

Midwestern farmers hit with an enduring cycle of drought suffered tremendously and found that their entire way of life was challenged . Millions of acres of farmland lay fallow; farmers were forced to migrate far from home in search for work, and many were ultimate-ly left unemployed and homeless . African-American agricultural workers in the southern United States, who faced discrimination and the constant threat of racial violence as well as the widespread poverty of the era, saw already poor conditions worsen . Many African Americans from the rural South migrated to northern cities in search of better living conditions and work in the industrial sector . Some new arrivals in urban centers in the North were indeed able to improve their lives; others found themselves struggling more than ever .

The visual arts, theater, and literature thrived in the 1930s, though, and with the support of government patronage, artists and writers often sought to docu-ment the experiences of the Great Depression . John Steinbeck’s famous novel The Grapes of Wrath was a fictionalized account of the experiences of a fam-ily of sharecroppers who migrated from Oklahoma to California . Steinbeck won a Nobel Prize for his vivid storytelling and his harrowing account of the trials the Joad family faced in their quest for survival . Although Steinbeck’s account was fictionalized, people who had many different experiences during the Great Depression could relate to the hopes and dreams of the protagonists, admiring them for their humanity, while also understanding their sense of disappoint-ment, fear, and desperation in the face of tremendous difficulties . Likewise, many visual artists active in the 1930s rooted their work in real-life experiences, often turning away from abstraction and more esoteric sub-ject matter to depict the grittiness and the joys of life in contemporary urban and rural America . We will see that the work of these artists is tremendously varied, in part because experiences were quite diverse .

In the quotation that opens this section, the artist Ben Shahn recalls the bewildering position in which artists found themselves during the Depression era .

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Although our society often clings to a romanticized image of the artist who is driven by passion and vision to create his or her work, in reality artists must make a living like everyone else . For that they are dependent on patrons who can support them financially . The Great Depression resulted in a loss of patronage for profes-sional artists, and competition for patrons who could support substantial projects was tremendous .

In addition to his reference to the lack of patronage, Shahn refers to the sense of unity that artists felt during this period; although artists often competed with one another for commissions, Shahn’s quote tells us that they joined together to take an activist stance demand-ing more work opportunities for all . Shahn’s reference to the demands made on Fiorello LaGuardia, the mayor of New York City from 1934–45 and a supporter of New Deal policies, is indicative of the sincere belief of many Americans that the government was obliged to resolve the problems of the era .

Prior to the Great Depression, the U .S . government had not established institutions or policies that sup-ported the arts in any systematic manner . However, during the 1930s the federal government intervened in many sectors of the economy, and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal policies did much to support the visual and performing arts and literature . During this period artists were defined as workers, and they generally received set wages for specific periods of labor . While artists competed for commissions by submitting samples of their work, their wages were largely determined by a unified standard rather than being based on a qualitative assessment of their work . This was a significant change for artists who were accustomed to working for private patrons or selling their work on the private market through galleries .

Government and PoliticsThe election of Franklin D . Roosevelt (1882–1945) as

the thirty-second President of the United States is an important moment to consider as we begin to investi-gate the art of the 1930s . Roosevelt served in this posi-tion from 1933–45, and therefore he had to address the most difficult period of the Great Depression, in addi-tion to World War II . From the onset of his presidency, Roosevelt enacted what he referred to in his 1932 acceptance speech as a “new deal” for the American people, representing a shift away from the policies of his predecessor, Herbert Hoover .

The New Deal was intended to offer immediate relief to ordinary Americans who faced the financial pressures of the Great Depression and to provide the means for recovery . The New Deal also involved a number of government interventions into the private sector, such as bank reforms, that were intended to aid in recovery and prevent future catastrophic economic decline . Historians often distinguish between the “First New Deal,” the policies enacted in 1933, some of which were quickly challenged and repealed, and the

“Second New Deal,” referring to policies put in place in 1935 and later . As we examine the New Deal agen-cies and policies that related to the visual arts, we will see that new agencies were created during these dif-ferent stages as well .

The New Deal was, then, a way of responding to the Great Depression through political means, and its successes and failures are still the subject of great debate today . Some of the agencies put in place by the New Deal are still in existence, such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Company (FDIC), the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), and the Social Security system . Most of the New Deal agencies eventually ceased to exist, either because they were no longer necessary or because they faced resistance .

Roosevelt faced opposition from both liberals and conservatives who resisted his policies, some of which were found to be unconstitutional . Many people felt threatened by political action based on government spending and the support of social welfare services because they feared that it signaled a move toward communism . Fear of communism, often referred to as the Red Scare (red was a color associated with commu-nist parties internationally), first emerged in about 1917 when the United States, having entered into World War I, confronted the success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia . During this time period, the ideology of communism spread internationally, and conservatives feared that the social order in the United States would

Photograph of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, president from 1933–45.

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be challenged . Although the intensity of this first Red Scare began to dissipate by about 1920, fears of anti-government activity lingered through the 1930s . These fears were in fact intensified by the anxiety and insta-bility that dominated during the Great Depression, as some dissenters questioned the validity of a capital-ist system and doubted its future in America . Labor unions, for example, were sometimes understood as a direct challenge to the structure of American society, even though the vast majority of the individuals who participated in unions were not actually involved in anti-government activities .

This fear of communism had an impact on art from the 1930s because it led to the direct censorship of artworks as well as self-censorship on the part of artists themselves . A famous example of direct censorship is Diego Rivera’s mural painting at New York City’s Rockefeller Center in 1933 . The Rockefellers, a very wealthy New York family, provided enormous sup-port to artists during the Depression through private commissions, and Rivera’s painting, titled Man at the Crossroads Looking with Hope and High Vision to the Choosing of a New and Better Future, was to be a showcase in the lobby of their new office building at 30 Rockefeller Center . However, Rivera’s work on the project was halted when the patrons determined that a portrait of Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin was inappropriate for a capitalist office building . Rivera, a known communist, refused to alter the painting and was forced to abandon his work . The painting was ultimately destroyed in the wake of tremendous contro-versy . While this kind of intervention in the work of an artist was relatively rare, it was probably not uncommon for artists to censor their own works, carefully stearing clear of subject matter that might be perceived as “too communist” and therefore threatening . Artists, then, often had to straddle a fine line . They wanted to show real experiences, anxieties, and possible solutions, but also needed to avoid creating works that seemed to reflect radical, anti-government attitudes .

Federal Support for the ArtsIn this context, we can see that federal support of

the arts was motivated by the Great Depression with the goal of creating new jobs during a period of high unemployment . It was also believed that public art projects made visible throughout the country could raise morale and help build a strong sense of pride in America in the face of the ongoing crisis .

In part, the move toward government support of the visual arts was inspired by the example of the mural movement in Mexico, which emerged in the 1920s and was fully developed by the 1930s . In the wake of the Mexican Revolution, Mexico’s federal government instituted a monumental program to bring art to the people by way of murals located in public institutions such as government office buildings and schools . Many of the murals treated the country’s history through

a new interpretive lens, particularly focusing on the experiences of everyday people during the events of the Mexican Revolution .

New Deal art projects were administered under several programs in the 1930s through the mid-1940s . These projects, some of which were short-lived, were largely shaped by two men: Edward Bruce and Holger Cahill . Bruce was a professional artist as well as a lawyer and a businessman . Cahill was a museum curator and a writer . Both men were passionate about the arts and savvy administrators .

Many of the New Deal agencies were referred to by their acronyms, and therefore they are sometimes called Roosevelt’s “alphabet agencies .” The first exper-imental art agency was the Public Works of Art Project (PWAP), which was led by Bruce in his capacity as an

“Shall the artist survive?” Color silkscreen poster for the Federal Art Project announcing a forum at the Daly Theatre, 22 West 63 St., New York, featuring Holger Cahill among other speakers.

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employee of the Treasury Department . This program was put in place quickly and operated for only a short period of time (December 1933–June 1934) . Bruce then developed the Section of Painting and Sculpture, later renamed the Section of Fine Arts . Known more popularly as simply the Section, this agency operated through the Treasury Department as well and was in place from 1934 to 1943 . Bruce also organized the Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP), which was in opera-tion from 1935 to 1938 . Finally, the Works Progress Administration Federal Arts Project (WPA/FAP) was directed by Holger Cahill and operated from 1935 to 1943 . The Works Progress Administration was a large government agency that also funded the Federal Writers’ Project, the Federal Theater Project, and the Federal Music Project . In addition, the Farm Security Administration (FSA) oversaw a number of documen-tary photography projects that we will discuss in a later section of this guide .

According to art historian Erika Doss, the federal programs resulted in about 3,500 murals, 18,000 sculp-tures, 108,000 easel paintings, 250,000 prints, and 500,000 photographs, all produced between 1933 and 1945 .2 Mural paintings and sculptures were placed in locations that were readily accessible to the American public . Some of the earliest projects were located in large government buildings, such as the Justice Department Building in Washington, D .C . Post offices and schools in small towns and large cities throughout the nation were sites for mural projects as well . In some cases, various WPA projects were integrated—visual artists created posters to promote the work of play-wrights working for the Federal Theater Project, for example . In addition to all of these works, the govern-ment supported many architectural projects ranging from apartment buildings to schools, hospitals, air-ports, bridges, and dams .

Artistic styles and the content of the works varied widely . Many artists, like Grant Wood and Ben Shahn, worked in a representational mode, depicting the world around them in a naturalistic manner . Others, such as Stuart Davis and Arshile Gorky, experimented with non-representational art . Images of ordinary, work-ing-class experiences were popular, as were landscapes and what was called the American Scene, a topic we will discuss at great length in the final section of this guide . Some artists, who we can call social realists, were politically engaged and sought to use art to promote change in society . Others attempted to steer clear of political topics, sometimes creating idealistic views of American life . In general, artists were expected to create artworks that would appeal to a broad pubic, but public taste and experiences were, of course, plu-ralistic, and so was the resulting art .

The success of the New Deal programs in general is the topic of some debate, and it is very difficult to quantify the long-term success of federal art programs . It is particularly difficult to determine the degree to

which these programs helped bring an end to the Depression . Certainly, though, the arts programs did provide relief to the unemployed . Furthermore, one can assert that the New Deal programs provided access to careers in the visual arts to many talented individuals who would not otherwise have been in a position to professionalize their artistic work . According to a 1935 survey, for example, 41 percent of the artists working on WPA projects were female, and a large proportion of the artists hired by the federal government were working-class people .3

Some critics thought that the projects were a waste of government resources and did not see the value in art . Opponents of New Deal projects particularly objected to the political content of some of the works . The New Deal art projects, though, generally made art relevant to everyday people throughout the coun-try . Many millions of viewers of New Deal art projects would not have been able to see art otherwise, as it was often exhibited in galleries and museums in cosmopoli-tan centers, but not in small towns . Public art projects made art part of everyday life . Many of the projects have endured over time and today stand as icons of American culture . In addition, the focus on everyday experiences and landscapes in a great deal of the pub-lic art projects spoke to viewers in the 1930s and con-tinues to provide us with new insights into American experiences as we view these works today .

Selected WorksSELECTED WORK :Diego Rivera, South Wall of a Mural depicting Detroit Industry, 1932–33

One of the most influential figures in the devel-opment of public art in the United States during this period was Diego Rivera (1886–1957). Rivera, a Mexican painter, spent only a short period of time in the United States in the early 1930s, but during this time he completed monumental works on both coasts and in the Midwest. Not only were his works highly visible, but he also hired numerous artists from the United States. These artists learned the fresco technique from Rivera and saw firsthand how mural paintings could be used to bring a political message to a broad public.

Rivera was born in Guanajuato, Mexico, in 1886 to a family whose liberal political views were at odds with the country’s conservative government. Rivera received a sound education as a child, and his inter-est in the arts as well as his special artistic abilities emerged when he was young. In 1896 he began to attend courses at the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City, the country’s most important art acad-emy. He continued his studies at San Carlos until

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1905, training with the academy’s most progressive teachers and excelling under their guidance.

In early 1907 Rivera traveled to Europe, where he spent several years on and off living and working in Spain, France, and Italy before returning to settle in Mexico. While in Europe, Rivera associated with many of Europe’s most influential artists and mastered avant-garde styles. Interestingly enough, he was away from Mexico during the political revolution that began in 1910. This revolution was a tumultuous uprising and led to a series of political shifts that would ultimately change the face of Mexico through the overthrow of its conservative government.

Upon Rivera’s return to Mexico in 1921, he was enlisted to work on the large government-sponsored art project that would initiate Mexico’s muralist move-ment. In his capacity as Secretary of Public Education, José Vasconcelos (1882–1959) envisioned public art’s potential to reach the masses and communicate his progressive philosophy. Hired by Vasconcelos, Rivera executed his first major mural project, titled Creation, in Mexico City’s National Preparatory School in 1922. In the following years, Rivera earned even greater commissions from the government, eventually com-ing to dominate the mural movement in Mexico City. Major works from this period include mural paintings covering approximately 1600 square meters in the Secretary of Public Education building (1923–28) and a monumental depiction of the history of Mexico in the stairwell of the National Palace (1929–30, 1935).

In 1929, Rivera received a commission from Dwight Morrow, U.S. ambassador to Mexico from 1927–30. Morrow hired Rivera to paint a mural cycle at the Cortés Palace in Cuernavaca from 1929–30. At this time, Mexico and the United States were involved in ongoing negotiations regarding access to Mexico’s natural resources by corporations from the United States. Prior to the revolution, Mexico’s govern-ment had been very supportive of U.S. investment in Mexico, but this was all called into question in the decades following the change in government. The communist party, of which Rivera was an active mem-ber, argued for public ownership of Mexico’s resourc-es and opposed foreign investment. Ambassador Morrow, who was a former partner at J. P. Morgan and Company, was understood to represent the inter-ests of capitalists in the United States, and many of Rivera’s communist colleagues in Mexico thought that the artist had compromised his position in accepting the commission. Ultimately Rivera was expelled from the communist party, although his membership was later reinstated.

Rivera’s relationship with Morrow opened the door to more commissions from patrons in the United States in the early 1930s. In 1930, Rivera traveled to San Francisco, along with his wife, the painter Frida Kahlo. He completed several works in San Francisco and began negotiating a contract to execute a mural

cycle for the Detroit Institute of Arts (1932–33). After completing the Detroit murals, Rivera traveled to New York where he spent March through May of 1933 working on a mural titled Man at the Crossroads Looking with Hope and High Vision to the Choosing of a New and Better Future for the RCA Building at Rockefeller Plaza. A tremendous controversy emerged surrounding the subject matter of this mural, which was deemed to be too communist in its interests and therefore not suitable for an office building in a capi-talist nation. As we have discussed, Rivera was forced to abandon the mural in an unfinished state, and it was later destroyed. Rivera did complete another work at New York’s New Worker’s School (1933) before returning to Mexico later that year. In spite of the many controversies surrounding his work and his politics in the following decades, Rivera remained a major force in Mexico’s mural movement until his death in 1957.

Rivera had a tremendous impact on the develop-ment of mural art in the United States, both through public exposure to his work and the involvement of artists from the United States in the creation of Rivera’s murals. Here we will focus on the monumental mural cycle at the Detroit Institute of Arts, painted between May 1932 and March 1933. It is worth not-

Diego Rivera, 1932. Photograph by Carl van Vechten.

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Van Vechten Collection.

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ing that Rivera painted this work just months prior to the creation of the Public Works of Art Project, which was initiated in December of 1933. The Detroit Industry mural is the largest and most complex work that Rivera completed in the United States, and its theme is especially interesting in the context of New Deal art, given its focus on labor and industry during a time of economic depression.

Rivera’s Detroit Industry mural is located in the Garden Court of the Detroit Institute of Arts. The entire work consists of twenty-one separate mural panels covering four walls. For this project, Rivera had to ensure that his paintings would harmonize with the architecture, complementing columns, archways, and other architectural divisions of the space. The main entrances to the courtyard are located on the east and west walls, and consequently these walls contain rela-tively few painted panels. The panels on these walls are also small in size compared to the north and south walls. The cycle begins on the east wall, which depicts the origins of human life, shown as an infant tucked inside a plant bulb buried deep within Michigan’s landscape. On either side of the plant bulb, Rivera depicted plowshares penetrating the earth, symbolic of the technology of agriculture. This horizontally ori-ented panel is flanked by small images of the agricul-tural products of Michigan—apples, corn, pumpkins, and grapes, for example—above which appear two monumental female nudes, allegorical symbols of the harvest. Similarly, the west wall focuses on intersec-tions of technology, natural resources, and human life, exploring the technologies that allow humans access to water and the air.

The north and south walls are much larger, and the themes established in the east and west walls become more complex here. The images on both walls are placed in three distinct horizontal fields. From top to bottom, these include allegorical repre-sentations of the races, shown as monumental nude women with various skin tones. These images are flanked by scenes illustrating the major industries of Detroit beyond automobile production, including the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Below this are representations of the raw materials of Michigan, shown through a cross-section of the geological stra-ta. The largest panels move beyond allegory to depict in great detail the daily lives of workers in the Detroit automobile industry.

The south wall, included in the USAD Art Reproductions Booklet, depicts the production of an automobile’s exterior in the largest panel. Rivera sought to make his depictions of the factory interior, which were based on his meticulous first-hand study of the Ford Motor plant, as accurate as possible. A tremendous stamping press dominates the far right quarter of the composition. This machine was used to make steel fenders. A portion of another stamping press is also illustrated in the upper left portion of

the panel. In the lower left, we see workers working on the body panels of the automobile, supervised by a foreman who can be identified as Charles E. Sorenson, head of production at Ford’s River Rouge factory at the time. The upper center portion of the panel depicts a welding buck, where major pieces of the automobile are welded together. Right below this we see an impressive assembly line in the factory.

In the foreground, an engine, the heart of the automobile, is lowered to the line. At the far end of the assembly a finished car is visible. Other smaller details include a group of female workers testing spark plugs and ignition systems (in the upper right corner) and painters at work on the auto body (in the upper left corner). Below the central panel, Rivera included six smaller panels painted in grisaille (black, white, and shades of grey), reminiscent of a technique used on some Renaissance altarpieces. These small panels show other aspects of automobile production, such as the manufacture of glass. The third panel from the left shows a trade school class led by Henry Ford, the patriarch of the Ford family and founder of the company, depicted in a recognizable portrait.4

Rivera also included portraits of his patrons and supporters in the central panel, hearkening back to the donor portraits that were often included in Renaissance altarpieces. Edsel Ford and William Valentiner are shown in the lower right, on the far side of the largest stamping press. William Valentiner was the director of the Detroit Institute of Arts from 1924–45. He met Rivera in San Francisco and began to plan the commission for the Detroit Institute of Arts mural at that time. Edsel Ford (son of Henry) was not only the president of the Ford Motor Company, he was also a great supporter of the arts and served as president of the Detroit Arts Commission. He pro-vided a gift to the museum that made the payment for Rivera’s work possible, and he also supported Rivera by commissioning a private portrait.

The central panel of the wall is extremely detailed with its meticulous investigation of factory produc-tion. Moving toward the top of the wall, the panels become increasingly simple in their composition, making it possible for the viewer to see the imag-ery from the ground. Immediately above the central panel we see a horizontally oriented image showing the geological strata of limestone and sand. The figures above this panel, representing the Caucasian and Asian races, hold these materials in their hands. Gigantic hands reach up from deep within the earth, grasping as if seeking raw materials. The small panel in the upper left depicts work in the pharmaceuti-cal industry, showing a male chemist surrounded by female workers who are sorting pills. And, the small panel in the upper right shows the chemical industry, with an image illustrating the production of commer-cial chemicals.

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The mural was painted using the fresco technique in which pigments are applied directly to wet plaster. Rivera was responsible for introducing this difficult medium to the many artists from the United States he hired as assistants. For example, George Biddle, whom we will discuss next, learned the fresco tech-nique from Rivera. This acquisition of technical exper-tise was one important factor in the creation of a fully-developed mural movement in the United States in the years following Rivera’s time in the U.S.

Detroit, with its dependence on the automobile industry and the sale of durable goods, was hit hard by the Great Depression. William Valentiner him-self had taken a voluntary unpaid leave of absence from his position at the Detroit Institute of Arts for eight months in 1932; during this period, he did not receive a salary, although he continued to carry out his administrative duties as director. In addition, many members of the staff at the museum had been laid off during this period due to the museum’s financial dif-ficulties. Automobile production had fallen from over five million vehicles in 1929 to just over one million in 1931.5 By 1932, there had been massive layoffs at the Ford Motor Company, and in March of that year, a local communist leader led a march from Detroit to Dearborn, home of the Ford Motor Company, to demand better wages and working conditions. The march resulted in a violent confrontation with police, a riot, four deaths, and a number of injuries.6

Rivera’s image is idealistic in that he does not show the labor conflicts and effects of unemployment that were an aspect of everyday life in Detroit during this period. Instead, he shows a factory at full produc-tion. For Rivera, a productive industrial society was something to strive for in the construction of a fair and equitable future for people of all social classes. Although he sought to show auto production with a great deal of specificity, he also tried to make his image somewhat timeless, rising above the difficulties of the years in which he was painting to show factory work as an ideal. This tendency toward timelessness and idealization would have an impact on public art projects throughout the United States in the 1930s.

The mural was at the center of some controversy at the time of its completion. Some religious groups objected to a scene showing the vaccination of a small child. This scene, located in the upper right panel of the north wall, shows a blond boy surrounded by a male doctor, a female nurse, and a number of animals. It was interpreted by some viewers as a blasphemous mockery of a Christian nativity scene. Some view-ers thought that the monumental nude figures were pornographic and inappropriate for a public space. Moreover, some of Detroit’s wealthy elite, longtime supporters of the DIA and the arts, objected to being surrounded by images of heroic workers, whom they considered to be crass and unrefined. By this time Rivera was well aware that negotiating the expecta-

tions of viewers from various religious persuasions, social classes, and cultural backgrounds was one of the great challenges of the public artist. His contem-poraries in the United States would learn from his example. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :Aaron Douglas, Aspects of Negro Life: Song of the Towers, 1934

Aaron Douglas (1899–1979) was an African-American painter and illustrator associated with the Harlem Renaissance. The Harlem Renaissance was a major literary, theatrical, and artistic movement in the 1920s and 1930s that was largely centered in Harlem, a predominantly African-American section of New York City. Referred to more generally at the time as the New Negro Movement, this energetic surge in cultural energy was spurred by intellectual figures such as W. E. B. DuBois and Alain Locke. DuBois and Locke argued that African Americans, decades after the abolition of slavery, continued to be limited and constrained by the dominant white culture. They actively promoted the development of arts, poetry, music, and theater that were more truthful expres-sions of the unique African-American experience. Other important figures associated with this move-ment are the poets Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen, both of whom befriended Douglas when he moved to Harlem. The Harlem Renaissance was also supported by white patrons such as Albert C. Barnes, a wealthy art collector from Philadelphia whose collec-tion of African art had a particularly strong influence on Douglas.

Douglas, who was born in Topeka, Kansas, and received his college education in Lincoln, Nebraska, moved to Harlem, already a thriving cultural center, in 1925. Douglas had developed an interest in art at a young age, and so he began working as an illustrator as soon as he settled in New York. Through Locke, Douglas met Wineld Reiss, a German illustrator who had illustrated a famous issue of the magazine Survey Graphic dedicated to the celebration of the New Negro Movement in Harlem in 1925. Working with Reiss, Douglas developed a new graphic style based on simplified, somewhat abstracted figures, often seen in profile. Douglas frequently used silhouette to focus on essential form. Douglas referred to this as “Egyptian form” since his visual concept was loosely inspired by the depiction of the human figure in Egyptian art. This reference to Egypt was important because during the Harlem Renaissance, intellectuals began to emphasize the importance of taking pride in Africa as a homeland. This also involved claiming the great civilizations of ancient Africa as the root of

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African-American culture. Douglas’s new style was distinctly modern, but it was also unique and was not a mere emulation of European modernism.

In these early years in Harlem, Douglas completed illustrations for Crisis and Opportunity, two maga-zines that were important in the Harlem Renaissance, especially given their inclusion of African-American literature, art, and essays. He was also commissioned to illustrate books written by important Harlem Renaissance writers, among them his friends Countee Cullen and Langston Hughes, but also, and perhaps most importantly, James Weldon Johnson (God’s Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse, 1927). Douglas’s elegant and powerful illustrations of biblical scenes were praised by critics.

Although it was important to Douglas to establish a unique style that could be understood as distinctly African-American, he did not reject European art. He traveled to Paris in 1931 to study European modern-ism, and he was exposed to European as well as African art during a period of study at the Barnes Foundation in Philadelphia from 1928–29. Douglas also applied these ideas to mural painting. In 1930 he was invited to Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, a historically black university, to paint a mural cycle in the university’s library. Then, in 1934, Douglas was commissioned by the Public Works of Art Project to execute a mural cycle at the 135th Street Branch of the New York Public Library, located in Harlem.

Douglas ultimately left New York to develop the new art department at Fisk University in the late 1930s. He continued to serve as a professor on the faculty at Fisk until he retired in 1966. Throughout his tenure as a professor, he continued his studies and traveled widely through the United States, Europe, and West Africa. He also devoted time in his later life to the restoration and preservation of his earlier murals at Fisk University. Douglas died in Nashville in 1979.

Douglas painted four panels for the 135th Street Branch of the New York Public Library, now known as the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. The panels, which all share the primary title Aspects of Negro Life, were intended to show the African-American experience in a generalized manner and as experienced over time. The series moves from West Africa to the southern United States by way of the transatlantic slave trade, and then shifts to illustrate the migration of southern African Americans to the northern U.S. in search of a better way of life. Douglas depicts this as a historical narrative, beginning with a panel that shows life in an African village prior to slavery, then portraying slavery and the difficulties of racial repression during the post-abolition period, and finally presenting contemporary life in New York City.

The first panel, The Negro in an African Setting, depicts two central figures dancing with great exu-berance before a figurative sculpture that appears

to float in the center background. In the foreground, drummers and singers encourage the dance. Men with spears, hunters and warriors, watch on from the background. Two horizontally oriented panels, titled Idyll of the Deep South and From Slavery to Reconstruction illustrate scenes of joy and unity among an African-American community, side by side with vignettes focusing on the brutality of slavery and the pain and fear of race-based violence during the Jim Crow era. A group of figures play music and dance together, but this image of harmony is con-trasted with a scene on the left showing a lynching, a shockingly common sight that many of Douglas’s viewers probably witnessed personally during their lifetimes. The final panel, Song of the Towers, con-cludes the cycle and echoes The Negro in an African Setting in its format and scale.

Douglas used a familiar icon, the Statue of Liberty, to situate Song of the Towers in New York City. The position of the Statue of Liberty in this image echoes that of the ritual sculpture depicted in The Negro in an African Setting, indicating that like a sculpture intend-ed for ritual practice, the Statue of Liberty is invested with meaning that guides the lives of the figures in the

Portrait of Aaron Douglas painted by Betsy Graves Reyneau.

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scene. In the center of the composition we see a large male figure gazing at the New York skyline and the Statue of Liberty in the distance. He holds one hand above his head and lifts a saxophone, a reference to the vibrancy of jazz culture, high in the air with his other hand. The space in which this man is positioned is abstract; rather than standing on the ground, he has surmounted an enormous cog. Behind him, another man struggles against an ominous force—represent-ed by an eerie green, disembodied hand—in an effort to rise to the summit. Another figure, situated on the ground with his head resting on his hand in the lower left corner, appears to have given up the struggle and is about to fall into the grasp of the ominous hand. The New York skyline towers above, representing the hope and possibilities of the big city as well as the potential for oppression.

This final panel is distinguished from the others in its focus on industrialism and an urban setting. Whereas natural forms—trees and foliage—are pres-ent in all three of the other panels, this scene is dominated by the constructed landscape, particularly through Douglas’s presentation of skyscrapers and industrial details such as smoke and machine parts. Like Rivera in his Detroit Industry series, Douglas seems to be contemplating the potential for urban industrialism to become a force leading to greater social equity. Douglas’s final message, though, is ambivalent, as he shows struggle, failure, and success all within this one scene.

Throughout the series, Douglas used a limited range of colors—mostly shades of gray, black, white, and rusty earth tones—and restricted the depiction of figures to silhouettes. Landscape and architectural elements are simplified to strong, geometric forms. Rings of light in concentric circles create the illusion of a theatrical production on a stage and add another level of abstraction.

In many ways, Douglas’s depiction of life in an African village, focusing on drumming, dancing, and ritual practice, calls upon stereotypes about life in Africa that were prevalent during this period. Throughout the series, his tendency to focus on generalized, unidentifiable figures shown as dark silhouettes serves to distance the viewer from the scenes he depicts, allowing us to view African and African-American cultures as “primitive” and “exotic.” However, it is important to keep in mind that Douglas’s sincere interest in depicting African-American life and experiences, his attempt to find a unique style suitable to expressing this experience, and his response to the intellectual framework of the Harlem Renaissance as established by Alain Locke set him apart from the majority of artists working during his lifetime.

Aspects of Negro Life was commissioned by the WPA/FAP. One notable aspect of the federal arts programs of the 1930s was the focus on depicting a diversity of experiences and viewpoints. At this point

in American history, legalized segregation provided the institutional means to deny African Americans the same access to resources and protection given to white members of American society. In a segregated country, the majority of white American citizens were blind to the experiences of African Americans, whose voices were literally silenced. Although over a million African Americans migrated from southern states to the North during the Great Migration of the early twentieth century, most lived in segregated sections of large cities, and their experiences were separate from mainstream society. Douglas’s mural, then, pro-vided a view into these experiences, and although his imagery seems to draw upon simplified, sometimes even stereotypical forms, he scrutinizes these experi-ences with great sophistication. The Aspects of Negro Life cycle is a complex view of historical experiences that takes into account accomplishments as well as failures and depicts moments of unity amidst terrible tragedy. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :George Biddle, Tenement, Mural Study, Department of Justice Building, Washington, D.C., 1935

George Biddle (1885–1973) had a tremendous influence on the development of federal programs supporting the visual arts. He was a prolific printmak-er as well as a painter and a sculptor. Today, however, he is more often recognized as an advocate for public art projects than for his artistic output. Biddle was born to a wealthy Philadelphia family. Unlike some of the artists we will study in this unit who apprenticed in art at an early age, Biddle’s early aspirations lay else-where. Following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather, he attended elite schools and trained to be a lawyer. In 1911, though, having just gradu-ated from Harvard, the young Biddle abandoned his path toward a law career and traveled to Paris, where he studied briefly at the Académie Julian. Upon his return to the United States, he enrolled in the Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts, where he received solid academic training. He traveled to Europe again in 1914, and like Rivera he sought to familiarize him-self with the progressive artistic styles of European painters. In 1917, Biddle’s artistic explorations were cut short when he enlisted in the United States Army during World War I. After completing his duties in the military, he returned to art, traveling again to Europe, and then to Tahiti before establishing himself as a printmaker in the United States.

In 1928–29, Biddle, who had already traveled extensively, went to Mexico, which was a popular des-tination for a number of American artists at the time.

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He struck up a friendship with Diego Rivera, learned about fresco painting techniques, and became con-vinced that government-sponsored art could play an important role in achieving social justice. Biddle and Rivera remained connected during Rivera’s time in the United States, and in 1940 Biddle was commissioned by the Mexican government—upon the recommenda-tion of Rivera—to paint a mural at the Supreme Court building in Mexico City.

Biddle’s opportunity to influence the development of a public art program in the United States came when his former classmate Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected president. By this time Biddle had developed sound ideas about the potential for public art in a time of economic and social crisis, and he correspond-ed with Roosevelt in 1933, conveying his sentiments convincingly. Specifically, he suggested to Roosevelt that a team of artists be charged with a series of mural paintings at the Justice Department Building in Washington, D.C. The project was ultimately super-vised by Edward Bruce, a staff member at the Treasury Department who established the Public Works of Art Project and other agencies.

Biddle, along with some very prestigious artists of the day, submitted designs for the walls of the Justice Department building as part of a competition. Biddle’s mural consists of five interconnected panels, and it is located in the fifth floor lobby of the Justice Department. The panels compare the life of working people in just and unjust societies.

Biddle continued to produce art throughout his life, and in particular he became prolific as a print-maker. He also authored books featuring his artworks and continued to be involved in government-spon-sored art projects. Perhaps most notably, in 1943 he was appointed as the Chairman of the U.S. War Artists Committee. He spent several months with American troops in northern Africa recording his impressions, which he published in a book called George Biddle’s War Drawings in 1944. Biddle died in 1973 in Croton-on-Hudson, New York.

Tenement is the fifth and last mural panel in Biddle’s Justice Department cycle. The murals all show working-class Americans in a variety of settings. In one panel, a farming couple in a lush agricultural landscape cares for their animals. In this harmonious scene, the husband milks the cows inside the barn while the wife feeds ducks and chickens outside. In another panel, a cut-away image of a house reveals a family sitting down at a table to share a meal together inside. Other images are less harmonious, though, and Tenement was certainly intended to illustrate the dif-ficult lives of millions of Americans living in poverty.

Biddle divided Tenement into three separate fields. One long vertical field fills the left third of the com-position. This section of the panel features an elderly woman in the foreground. She holds an axe in one hand and a small bundle of wood under her arm. We

see a few implements for cooking and storing food scattered around her: a barrel, a pot, and a small cup. The woman is dressed quite simply, and her face looks tired and worn as she gazes out at the viewer. She stands next to a two-story apartment building. Laundry is hung out to dry outside the second-story window, and the lines of laundry stretch far into the background, indicating that this apartment building is one of many in a crowded landscape.

The remaining two-thirds of the composition is divided horizontally, revealing a cut-away view of the apartment house. In the foreground, an old woman and a younger man are bent over as they saw wood. Inside the house on the first floor we see five adults crowded into a small room. Three men sit at a table and play chess as a woman and an African-American man, the only non-white figure in the composition, look on. The space around them is filled with cook-ing implements and laundry that has been hung up to dry. The upper level of the house is also packed with figures. Here we see four adult women, a small child, and a baby, perhaps representing three genera-

Photograph of George Biddle working on a panel of his mural, Society Freed

Through Justice, during the 1930s. The mural is located in the fifth floor lobby

of the Justice Department building. Photograph courtesy of the Smithsonian.

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tions of women in one family. One woman faces the viewer, gazing lifelessly off into space as she cradles her baby in her arms. The young woman next to her is engaged in a sewing project while another young woman, perhaps her sister, irons clothing. The elderly woman in the painting faces the right, seated facing the young child.

The overall feeling of Tenement is one of individual isolation, even as the figures are brought together in tight quarters. Although in close physical proximity to one another, there is little communication between any of the figures. Their facial expressions are all very glum, and a sense of hopelessness prevails.

Text in the lower right corner reads “Brandeis if we would guide by the light of reason we must let our minds be bold,” a reference to a quotation by Supreme Court Justice Louis D. Brandeis (1856–1941), who served on the court from 1916–39. Brandeis was an influential figure during the New Deal era, and many looked to him for his sound advice on new poli-cies. This quote appears at the very end of the series of five panels, and it is balanced by an opening quota-tion on the left side of the first mural, reading “The life of the law has not been logic; it has been experi-ence.” This quotation is attributed to Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. (1841–1935; Supreme Court Justice 1902–32). Biddle used these textual references to encour-age his viewers to see his panels as more than genre paintings depicting scenes of everyday life. Rather, he hoped that his mural would help viewers reflect on the relationship between the imagery and the work carried out at the Justice Department. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :Ben Shahn, The Riveter, Mural Study for the Bronx, New York Central Postal Station, 1938

Like his contemporary, Diego Rivera, Ben Shahn (1898–1969) was heavily invested in leftist politics and used his art to express his political views. Working as a painter, printmaker, and photographer, Shahn believed that art could play an important role in achieving social justice in society. Shahn was born in Kovno, Lithuania, in 1898. His father, who was accused of participating in socialist political activi-ties and was persecuted by the government, fled Lithuania when Shahn was a young child. In 1906 the family was reunited in the United States, where they settled in Brooklyn.

Shahn gravitated toward the arts when he was a young child, and he later recalled simply that “I could draw better than the kids around me.”7 He was introduced to lithography through an apprenticeship as a teenager, and in his early years as an artist he

worked as a commercial sign painter. In addition to a brief period of study in the field of biology at New York University and the City College of New York, he also received academic art training at the National Academy of Design and the Art Students League. Shahn married for the first time in his early twenties, and, together with his wife, he traveled extensively in Europe and North Africa between 1924 and 1928. At this time, Shahn was introduced to European modern-ism; he experimented with many modernist artistic styles that he later rejected in favor of the social real-ist style he developed in the 1930s.

Early in his career, Shahn demonstrated his com-mitment to art for social justice with a series of twen-ty-three gouache paintings completed between 1931 and 1932 titled The Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were Italian immigrants with anarchist political leanings. In 1920 the two men were arrested and accused of robbery and murder. The court proceedings stretched on for years and gained international attention. Ultimately, the two men were found guilty and executed, but the ruling was controversial because it was thought to be biased by the court’s judgment of the men’s immi-grant status and political beliefs. This series of works, sympathetic to the two condemned men, brought Shahn attention in the art world.

In 1933, Shahn was invited to work with Diego Rivera on what would become the Mexican artist’s most controversial mural in the United States: the painting for the new Rockefeller Center complex that would ultimately be rejected and destroyed by its patron. Certainly this time working side by side on the scaffold with Rivera strengthened Shahn’s desire to create art for the people and in the service of social justice. In addition, this experience helped Shahn gain technical expertise in fresco painting, setting the stage for his development as a mural painter.

In 1934 Shahn met Bernarda Bryson, who was also an artist and a social activist. He soon abandoned his wife and children to pursue a new life with Bryson. The two eventually married and worked together in politics and art. In 1935 Shahn began working for the Farm Security Administration (FSA), making posters and photographs. With early guidance from the photographer Walker Evans, Shahn’s friend and studio partner, Shahn traveled through parts of the South and the Midwest between 1935 and 1938, producing images of workers for the Farm Security Administration. These photographs were works of art in their own right; in addition, they became sources that Shahn returned to later in his paintings.

In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Shahn com-pleted three significant mural cycles that were New Deal initiatives. The most famous of these is the series of murals he painted for a government-created housing project in Roosevelt, New Jersey (originally called Jersey Homesteads). He was also commis-

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sioned to complete a mural cycle in the Bronx Central Postal Station and the Social Security Building in Washington, D.C.

World War II had a profound impact on Shahn’s art. In the early war years, he worked for the Office of War Information, creating posters and graphic images. In the years following the war, he returned to themes relating to the sense of loss and desolation common in times of chaos. In his later career, Shahn worked as a commercial artist while continuing to dedicate himself to his political beliefs. One of his most famous images from later in his career is a portrait of Martin Luther King, Jr. for Time magazine, which appeared in 1965.

Shahn was also a teacher and an intellectual, espe-cially in his later years. He was very articulate and wrote and spoke extensively about his own work and his ideas about the role of art in society. He is par-ticularly recognized for a series of talks he gave in his role as the Charles Eliot Norton Professor at Harvard University, beginning in 1956. These lectures were later published under the title The Shape of Content and offer Shahn’s illuminating reflections on the visual arts. Shahn died in 1969 at the age of seventy.

The Riveter, painted with tempera paint on paper-board, was a study for the mural cycle at the Bronx, New York, Central Postal Station. The composition is strongly vertical, and our view of the figure, seen from mid-thigh up, is tightly cropped. The piece represents a young, white industrial worker concentrating on the task at hand. He is dressed in dark khaki worker’s clothing with a cap and white worker’s gloves. He is seen in profile with his body turned slightly away from the viewer, and he is depicted as if he is not aware of being observed.

The worker is shown in an industrial setting and working with the tools appropriate for his title. However, unlike Rivera’s images of industrial work in Detroit, the kind of factory and the specific work he is doing are much more ambiguous. This allows us to universalize the work of the riveter; the fact that he is not positioned in a specific place and time allows him to represent industrial work in a much broader sense. In keeping with this, the figure’s face is rela-tively obscured. Although his features are visible, they are quite generic and his skin tone nearly blends with his clothing, moving the focus away from his face. Greater emphasis is placed on the worker’s powerful and radically foreshortened arm, his strong hands, and the tool he uses to accomplish his task. The use of bright white for the worker’s gloves, in contrast with the relatively drab colors of his clothing, serves to further emphasize the work the riveter does with his hands.

Shahn’s representation of the worker is quite natu-ralistic, as is typical in the work of social realist artists. Although Shahn was quite familiar with new trends in European modernism and the tendency toward

abstraction, he wanted to root his art in reality so that it would be familiar and recognizable to his view-ers. His work as a photographer probably influenced his style to a degree, as the tightly cropped framing and the emphasis on human action is in keeping with Shahn’s own photographic work for the FSA.

Shahn’s medium—here tempera paint on paper-board—had an impact on the aesthetics of the work. Tempera paints were very inexpensive and therefore desirable during a period of economic depression. This was particularly true when it came to execut-ing a study for another, more formal work of art. At the same time, there are limitations associated with tempera paint. The range of colors available in tem-pera is relatively limited, which explains Shahn’s very simple palette here, which is dominated by browns and grays punctuated with flashes of red and white. Tempera paint also dries quickly and is difficult to blend, restricting the artist to simple, bold shapes. Shahn’s painting also has a very matte surface, as is typical with tempera paint. Shahn truly mastered this difficult medium and used its limitations to his great advantage, creating an image of the worker that has a strong, powerful impact.

A painting of Sacco and Vanzetti by Ben Shahn.

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The Riveter was a study that Shahn submitted to a competition for the mural commission at the Bronx Central Postal Station, and although Shahn ultimately completed the work, his initial sketches were designed jointly with Bernarda Bryson, his wife. The competition was sponsored by the Treasury Department Section of Painting and Sculpture, and 189 proposals were submitted.8 The final mural cycle, titled Resources of America, consists of thirteen panels on four walls. The images show workers of all types from across America. These include urban and rural workers; throughout the series Shahn sought to depict the impact of industrialization on more tradi-tional modes of work. For example, he balanced an image of a man with a pitchfork laboring by hand and a worker with a mechanical thresher. Most of Shahn’s workers in this series are men, although one woman, working in the textile industry, was included. Although our example of the riveter is a white man, some of the panels depict African-American workers, as is the case with a man shown engaged in the back-breaking task of picking cotton.

Shahn’s images of workers in this series, in keeping with the study for the riveter, are all tightly cropped, focusing on tools and the act of completing a job. He consistently showed the physical strength and concentration required for work. He did not, how-ever, show any hints of worker unrest. The images of work in this series were inspired by Walt Whitman’s (1819–92) poem “I Hear America Singing”:

I hear America singing, the varied carols I hear,

Those of mechanics, each one singing his as it should be blithe and strong,

The carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam,

The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work,

The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat, the deckhand singing on the steam-boat deck,

The shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench, the hatter singing as he stands,

The woodcutter’s song, the ploughboy’s on his way in the morning or at noon intermission or at sundown,

The delicious singing of the mother, or of the young wife at work, or of the girl sewing or washing,

Each singing what belongs to him or her and to none else,

The day what belongs to the day—at night the party of young fellows, robust, friendly,

Singing with open mouths their strong melodi-ous songs.9

Shahn was inspired by Whitman’s way of defining America by its people and their varied work, which he envisioned as the beating heart of the country. Like Whitman’s poem, Shahn sought to celebrate American work and transform the worker, whose presence was often invisible in American life, into a modern-day hero by monumentalizing him or her. This focus on the worker as the heart of America took on new implications in the context of Shahn’s left-leaning politics.

Shahn did not make a direct textual reference to “I Hear America Singing” in the mural panels, but he did include an image of Whitman, who is shown in the central panel as a man with long white hair. The original version of the panel also included text from another poem by Whitman, which proved to be quite controversial. The selected poem, “Thou Mother with Thy Equal Brood” (1872), was understood by some viewers as an attack on the Christian church and its position in American society. In response, Shahn defended the position of Whitman as a cultural icon and argued that no single group should have the power to determine public taste through censorship. Nevertheless, Shahn ultimately thought it was best to lay the controversy to rest, and so he substituted another poem by Whitman in the inscription.10 In this controversy, one can find parallels to similar questions raised about Rivera’s work at the Detroit Institute of Arts and Rockefeller Center; this is indicative of the degree to which the public was engaged with mural art and the delicate position of the public artist in cre-ating works that spoke to a diverse audience. Shahn wanted to create a work that was true to his own values and political ideas, but it also had to be accept-able to viewers with divergent views and interests.

In his reference to Whitman’s poem “I Hear America Singing,” we can see that Shahn sought to illustrate the diversity of American experiences by showing work in industrial and traditional settings across vari-ous regions of the nation. His work departs from that of the regionalist painters, whom we will discuss later, in that he did not seek to focus on the unique experi-ences of one particular part of the country. Instead, he sought to create an expansive, composite view. Unlike Rivera’s workers, who are engaged in work at a very specific location, and in some cases can even be identified as portraits, Shahn’s figures are intention-ally anonymous, lacking in individuality. Although the style and approach to the figure is very concrete, we might describe Shahn’s treatment of work as abstract in that he encourages us as the viewer to think about work and social justice applied quite broadly, perhaps even universally. Ultimately, his pieces celebrate the heroic labor of every time and place. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

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SELECTED WORK :George Stanley, Muse of Music, Dance, Drama, 1938–1940

George Stanley (1903–73) was born in Acadia Parish, Louisiana, in 1903. He moved to California as a child, and he spent his youth in Watsonville, California, north of Los Angeles. Stanley studied sculpture at the Otis Art Institute in Los Angeles from 1923–26, and he went on to teach at his alma mater from 1926–42. He also taught for a brief period at the School of Arts in Santa Barbara, California. Stanley was active as a sculptor, and throughout his life he completed a number of commissions in and around the city of Los Angeles, including public works for schools such as the Long Beach Polytechnic High School and works for private and commercial patrons.

One of Stanley’s most notable public artworks in the city of Los Angeles is the sculpture of Sir Isaac Newton at Griffith Observatory, completed in 1934. Stanley’s representation of Newton is part of a larger collaborative sculpture titled Astronomers Monument. Like Muse of Music, Dance, Drama, this work was a New Deal initiative, and it was paid for by the feder-ally funded Public Works of Art Project, along with local funding from the Los Angeles Parks Commission. This combination of federal funding with local support was quite typical of New Deal art projects.

In keeping with the concept of the artist as a worker, Astronomers Monument was a collaborative work completed by five individual artists under the oversight of Archibald Garner, another Los Angeles artist. As is typical of the period, the identities of the individual artists were considered to be less important than the commissioning body. Therefore, this work is signed “PWAP” rather than with the individual artists’ names. This reflects an attitude toward the arts and artists during this period that should be noted—a career in art in the context of the New Deal was con-sidered a laborer’s job, not a path toward individual fame and glory.

As a result of the tendency toward anonymity that was part of many New Deal era art projects, George Stanley’s name is probably not instantly recognizable to the average reader today; in addition, although his public sculptures in Los Angeles are local landmarks, they are not thought of as famous icons of art in a larger context. However, one of Stanley’s works is actually quite well known to an audience around the world. Early in his career, Stanley was charged with the task of sculpting a figure based on a sketch by Cedric Gibbons, the art director of the Hollywood film studio MGM. The stylized depiction of a standing male figure, originally cast in bronze, depicts a knight on top of a reel of film, his hand gripping a sword. The sculpture, standing 13.5 inches tall, was intended as a trophy for “The Academy Award of Merit” although it

is more often known by its nickname, Oscar. The first Oscar statuette was awarded in 1929. In its stream-lined form we can see the approach to the figure that Stanley continued to develop in Muse of Music, Dance, Drama.

At two hundred feet wide and twenty-two feet high, Muse of Music, Dance, Drama is a monumen-tal, multi-tiered sculpture, and its shape echoes the natural curves of the hillside. The piece, completed between 1938 and 1940, is constructed of concrete with light gray granite facing. The three figures repre-senting music, dance, and drama were all carved from granite quarried near Victorville, California. The sculp-ture was also designed to incorporate a fountain, with water splashing through pools situated on tiers. With its clean, simple lines and focus on essential details, the style of this work is best described as Art Deco.

The fifteen-foot-high central figure, seated and playing the harp, represents the muse of music. Niches to either side contain representations of dance and drama, each standing ten feet tall. The forms of all three figures are angular, with all detail minimized. Each figure is clothed in stylized drapery with deep ridges, referencing folds of cloth and hinting at the abstracted body underneath. The stylized contrap-posto poses of both standing figures recall early Greek statuary, and the abstraction of the drapery shows Stanley’s interest in medieval sculpture.

The figure representing the muse of drama stands in a contorted position on the viewer’s left. The figure’s knee juts out, radically breaking the body free of an otherwise static column. One arm is stretched across the figure’s chest, supporting a smiling dramat-ic mask representing comedy. The other arm crosses above the comedy mask, passing just under the

Photograph taken at the Hollywood Bowl, c. 1930s.

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figure’s chin. Bending at the elbow, this arm reaches around the face with its hand resting on the figure’s forehead. The figure’s face is itself frozen in the form of a dramatic mask, this one playing the role of sad-ness or tragedy.

The figure of dance, situated to the viewer’s right of the monument, is similarly stylized. (Note, this fig-ure is not visible in the photo in the Art Reproductions Booklet.) Thin and sinuous, she raises her arms above her head as if caught in a frozen moment of dance. Her face, with its deeply cut features, is calm and serene.

The muse of music rests at the very top of the monument. Like the other figures, she is clothed in simple, stylized drapery. Her head is covered by a scarf, but her face is framed by wavy hair that echoes the flowing water of the fountain. Her eyes are closed and the lines of her face are strong and solid. Her facial expression is one of calm concentration as she plays her harp.

In addition to reflecting the influence of early Greek and medieval statuary, the representations of the muses also recall an early mural by Diego Rivera from the National Preparatory School in Mexico City. In his Creation mural (1922–23), Rivera included representations of the muses of dance, drama, and music among others, and here too they are situated in stylized poses. Given Rivera’s infamy in the United States in the 1930s and his influence on New Deal art projects, Stanley might very well have been aware of this work.

The Hollywood Bowl is the largest natural amphi-theater in the United States. It is situated in the Hollywood Hills in Los Angeles, California, with its main entrance on Highland Avenue, and it has served as a popular entertainment venue since 1922. Stanley’s Muse sculpture has been a notable landmark at the top of Highland Avenue since its completion in 1940. In addition to its decorative role, the sculp-ture serves as a retaining wall to support the Bowl’s entranceway.

The Hollywood Bowl functions primarily as a venue for musical performances, and for this reason the muse of music rests at the pinnacle of the monument. It is the home of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, and the Los Angeles Philharmonic performs onstage at the Hollywood Bowl in the summer months. Musical offerings at the Hollywood Bowl today are very diverse, and in addition to classical music, a variety of genres, from jazz to legendary acts to very con-temporary popular music, can be heard there. The Hollywood Bowl is also a venue for dance and theatri-cal performances, although these are less frequent than the musical bookings. This explains the second-ary position of the muses of dance and theatre on the sculpture.

At the time that Stanley’s monument was commis-sioned, the Hollywood Bowl was already a landmark

in Los Angeles, and it maintained its position as a popular venue for entertainment even in the lean years of the Great Depression. In fact, the all-time highest attendance for an event at the Hollywood Bowl took place in the 1930s, and this event has yet to be topped! In 1936, 26,410 people paid admission to hear Lily Pons, a famous French opera star.

Stanley’s monument was designed in 1938 and was commissioned by the Hollywood Bowl Association and the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors with the financial support of the Works Projects Administration as part of the Public Works of Art Project. The federal program paid for most of the costs of this project, while Los Angeles County contributed a much smaller amount. The Hollywood Bowl monument was one of the more ambitious works among thousands of public art projects installed in Southern California during this period.

In recent decades, the sculpture had fallen into disrepair. The fountain and lighting systems no lon-ger operated properly, and the stone was suffering from damage caused by pollution and the substantial bird population in the overhanging trees. Sadly, this type of disrepair is quite common with New Deal-era art projects, many of which have been destroyed, neglected, and damaged, or at best simply not docu-mented properly. The work was restored in 2006, and although some minor changes were made, it is thought to be a true reflection of Stanley’s original design. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

Section II Summarym In the 1930s, many artists suffered as a result of

unemployment and a decline in their patronage base during the Great Depression .

m The United States government provided sup-port for artists through a number of programs that were part of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal policies .

m New Deal agencies that were designed to sup-port the visual arts included the Public Works of Art Project; the Section of Painting and Sculpture (known as the Section); the Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP; Works Progress Administration Federal Arts Project, 1935–1943) . The main administrators of these programs were Edward Bruce and Holger Cahill .

m Resulting projects included murals, easel paint-ings, sculptures, works of architecture, prints, posters, and photographs . In addition to provid-ing employment to artists, the visual arts projects were intended to raise morale at a time of crisis .

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m The New Deal art projects were very diverse, as were the artists who contributed their work .

m New Deal art projects were intended to be very accessible to a broad public; the programs were generally very popular, although some works were controversial . Critics argued that the proj-ects were a waste of money and that some proj-ects reflected anti-government sentiments .

m Diego Rivera, South Wall of a Mural Depicting Detroit Industry, 1932–33

m Rivera was a Mexican muralist who worked in the United States in the early 1930s .

m Rivera’s work had a strong impact on the development of the mural movement in the United States by introducing artists to the fresco painting technique and to new ideas about the role of art in the public sphere .

m The Detroit Industry murals depict industry in Michigan, with a particular focus on the automobile industry . The central imagery was based on Rivera’s observations at the Ford Motor Company .

m Aaron Douglas, Aspects of Negro Life: Song of the Towers, 1934

m Douglas was an African-American painter and illustrator associated with the Harlem Renaissance, a literary and artistic movement that thrived in the 1920s–1930s .

m Douglas used a strong, graphic visual vocabu-lary that his contemporaries thought of as distinct from European modernism .

m Song of the Towers is the concluding panel in a larger mural cycle; it focuses on the complex experiences of African Americans during the Great Migration .

m George Biddle, Tenement, Mural Study, Department of Justice Building, Washington, D .C ., 1935

m In addition to his work as a painter, Biddle played an important role in the founding of a federal program supporting public art .

m Tenement, painted for the Justice Department building, was among the earliest federally supported public murals .

m The subject reveals Biddle’s engagement with the economic challenges of countless ordi-nary Americans during the 1930s .

m Ben Shahn, The Riveter, mural study for the Bronx, New York, Central Postal Station, 1938

m Shahn was a painter and a photographer who sought to use art to promote social justice .

m The Riveter is a study for a mural . The final work of art was one in a larger series of murals (Resources of America) celebrating the diverse contributions of American workers .

m Shahn’s theme was inspired by a poem by Walt Whitman .

m George Stanley, Muse of Music, Dance, Drama, 1938–40

m Stanley was a prolific sculptor working in Southern California .

m Muse of Music, Dance, Drama was a mon-umental sculptural work created for the Hollywood Bowl, a natural amphitheater in Los Angeles and an important landmark by the 1930s .

m The sculpture was commissioned by the WPA with additional local support .

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S E C T I O N I I I :

Documentary Photography of the 1930s

Introduction and Historical ContextThe History of Documentary Photography in the United States

In the twenty-first century, we are accustomed to consuming a plethora of images on a daily basis, and we often have an ambiguous relationship with

these visual materials . Viewers today do not feel con-sciously conflicted when it comes to distinguishing between photographs that are presented as “art,” usu-ally appearing in the context of a museum or gallery, and photographs that are presented as “documenta-tion,” which often appear in the context of journalism; at the same time, we recognize that many photographs do in fact blur these boundaries . In addition, we gener-ally accept photography as a truthful representation of reality, often demanding a photograph as evidence of something; at the same time we recognize that photo-graphs can be manipulated and do not always reveal the “truth .” In the 1930s, viewers most often thought of photography as a documentary tool although many photographers conceived of their work as an artistic and creative activity .

In the 1930s, photography was still a relatively new technology, and the tools and materials of the photographer were evolving quickly . While some pho-tographers continued to use large-format cameras in appreciation of the high-quality images they produced, many others were moving toward lightweight, hand-held cameras . Although smaller cameras, and with them smaller format film, led to sacrifices in image clarity, many photographers took advantage of the fact that new technology allowed for greater portability, quicker set-up of the photograph, and a less intrusive presence on the part of the photographer .

During the 1930s, photographers worked across many genres, with portraiture and landscape being the most popular . Photography was beginning to be accepted as an art form, and some museums and gal-leries hosted exhibitions dedicated exclusively to the work of photographers . At the same time, the gen-eral public tended to view photography as a form of

documentation rather than as art . Relatively few people viewed photographs in the fine arts context, while virtu-ally everyone consumed such imagery through journal-istic print media .

Photography first arrived in the United States in 1839 when Samuel Morse introduced the daguerreo-type . Over the next several decades, portrait photog-raphers opened studios in cities and towns, and some even had traveling studios and worked on an itinerant basis in rural areas . Daguerreotypes, which were much less expensive than painted portraits, were wildly pop-ular and were especially admired because they were believed to capture a true likeness of an individual . It is interesting to note that many of the documentary photographers we will discuss worked as portraitists at some point in their careers .

Photography was put to work for documentary purposes during the Civil War . Audiences throughout the country were eager for news about the war in the early 1860s, and they were active consumers of imagery revealing scenes such as the life of soldiers in the camps and the devastating aftermath of battles . Mathew Brady (1822–96), a photographer based in Washington, D .C ., sent a number of talented photog-raphers into the field with portable darkrooms in order to collect imagery from the war . These images, which were reproduced as stereographs, prints, and in book format, were relatively inexpensive and widely dissemi-nated .

While similar scenes of the war were also illustrated through lithographs and other prints, during the 1860s the public had a strong belief in the veracity of pho-tography . While today’s more cynical viewers, familiar with photo editing software, might readily question the “truth” of a photograph, nineteenth-century view-ers generally accepted a photograph as an accurate representation of reality . However, photography at this time did have its limitations; in particular, long expo-sure times meant that photographers simply could not capture live action . The resulting photographs often seem static and posed . Rather than showing the heat of a battle, photographers were limited to showing battlefields littered with the bodies of the deceased .

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The equipment that photographers of this period used, involving large, glass plate negatives and heavy cam-eras, was also quite cumbersome and the set-up for each image required a great deal of effort .

Following the Civil War, the U .S . government and private patrons, usually representing corporate inter-ests, hired photographers to travel to the western territories . Survey photographers such as Timothy O’Sullivan (1840–82) traveled with exploratory teams of scientists who sought to document the western ter-ritories and determine ideal locations for settlement and the construction of railroads . O’Sullivan, who had worked for Brady as a Civil War photographer, contin-ued to travel with a large, cumbersome camera and a portable darkroom . His fragile, glass-plate negatives had to be transported back to Washington, D .C ., where they were printed and sold as stereographs, individual prints, and folio books . Audiences in the eastern United States were awed by images of the dramatic geysers at Yellowstone and the vastness of the Rocky Mountains, especially since this was the first visual evidence of these seemingly fantastic landscapes that defied the

imagination . In addition to their entertainment value, these images served as documents of a landscape that was quickly being altered by settlement . Some of the images were used to petition the U .S . Congress to cre-ate the earliest National Parks .

Jacob Riis (1849–1914) and Lewis Hine (1874–1940) sought to use photography to garner support for social reform . Riis focused his camera on the growing popu-lation of impoverished people in New York City at the turn of the century . He photographed tenement hous-ing and life in the streets in order to expose poverty to a middle-class audience that he hoped would help resolve such socio-economic problems . Working a few decades after Riis, Hine was especially concerned with labor conditions . He produced a series of images that served as a condemnation of child labor, and his photo-graphs of the men building the Empire State Building provided an intimate look at the working lives of those who constructed New York’s celebrated skyscrapers . Many of his works were used to support sociological studies and served a role in social reform efforts .

“Glassworks. Midnight. Location: Indiana.” From a series of photographs of child labor at glass and bottle factories in the United

States by Lewis W. Hine, for the National Child Labor Committee, New York.

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We can see that whether a photograph depicts war, the landscape, or experiences of everyday life, imagery is not necessarily neutral . To varying degrees, all of these documentary photographers realized that their work could be used to meet a specific political agen-da . The potential for photographic imagery to serve political purposes became a key issue in the 1930s . How could photography expose the general public to important issues, especially when these issues were not readily visible? What was the relationship between visual imagery and the printed word? How could the two—text and image—function jointly to accomplish a goal? These are important questions for us to ask in relation to photography of the 1930s .

New Deal Photography Our examination of photography and the New Deal

in the 1930s must begin with Roy Stryker (1893–1975) because his role as the director of the Farm Security Administration photographic projects was monumen-tal . In 1921, Stryker, who had recently served in the infantry in World War I, moved from his home state of Colorado to New York City . In New York, Stryker stud-ied economics, and both he and his wife Alice became involved in social issues . His mentor at Columbia University, the agricultural economist Rexford Tugwell, introduced Stryker to the idea of using visual imagery to help students understand economics at a deeper level . Tugwell eventually invited Stryker to work with him on a book project titled American Economic Life . Stryker’s role in this project was to gather and select the most appropriate imagery to accompany the text .

In 1924, as a graduate student at Columbia, Stryker was appointed to a teaching assistantship in eco-nomics . Stryker was a very innovative teacher, and he developed a course that sent students out into the city, directly involving them in the labor movement . These two core concepts—using visual imagery to help understand and find solutions for a problem and direct engagement with social issues—would inform Stryker’s work with photography in the 1930s .

Tugwell, who was appointed to work in the Roosevelt administration in 1933, eventually became the head of the Resettlement Administration (RA), which func-tioned from 1935–36 . The RA was a body of the federal government that relocated impoverished people from overburdened urban and rural areas in order to help them find work and improved living conditions . It was later renamed the Farm Security Administration (FSA), and it began to place a greater emphasis on resolving the difficulties faced by rural workers .

Lower prices for agricultural products during the Great Depression caused many farmers to lose their land, especially in the Great Plains . In addition, several years of severe drought, in concert with poor farming practices, resulted in the Dust Bowl . The poor condi-tions led to radically decreased agricultural productiv-ity . Midwestern farm lands that had been overworked

by tenant farmers lay fallow . As a result, thousands of agricultural workers from the Dust Bowl were displaced and migrated to the West, where their dreams of find-ing work were often unfulfilled . The FSA intended to address these difficulties by helping tenant farmers and sharecroppers purchase land, providing education on land use, and giving assistance that would allow for the purchase of better equipment, thereby increasing productivity .

In 1935, Stryker was appointed to direct the Historical Section of the FSA . From 1935–43 he was responsible for overseeing the photographic documentation of the agency’s work . Stryker’s goal was to increase public awareness of the work of the FSA and to garner sup-port . While many of the murals and sculptures commis-sioned by the WPA/FAP were upbeat in their content, the FSA photographs were intended to capture the difficult situations faced by America’s impoverished rural workers . Stryker was skilled in guiding the pho-tographers to bring these stories to life . In this way, the FSA used photographs to transform the numbers and statistics of the Great Depression and its impact on agriculture into compelling narratives .

Roy Stryker, head of the Information Division of the Farm Security

Administration, or FSA, during the Great Depression.

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Stryker employed a number of photographers to work for the FSA over the years, and he carefully directed their work . He often provided the photogra-phers with readings so that they could be educated on the social issues at play . In some cases he provided photographers with “shooting scripts,” indicating to them exactly what kinds of subjects and poses he thought would best meet the needs of the agency at any particular time . In many cases, photographers sent their negatives to Stryker, and he made final decisions about how the images would be used . Some photogra-phers, however, retained more control over their artistic output .11

Some of the photographers who worked under Stryker eventually became quite famous—they includ-ed Dorothea Lange, Gordon Parks, Walker Evans, Jack Delano, Russell Lee, and Ben Shahn . Many of the Resettlement Agency and Farm Security Administration photographers traveled through the rural South and the Great Plains, areas that were hit particularly hard by the Great Depression . Dorothea Lange worked in California, where she lived at that time, and as a result of her geographic distance, she was relatively isolated from the other photographers of the FSA .

Stryker never intended for the photographs created for the FSA to simply sit in archives; rather, his inten-tion was to gain visibility for the causes they illustrated as quickly as possible . Stryker had strong connections in the media, which allowed him to promote stories in nationwide magazines such as Life and in many news-papers as well . The images were also exhibited in gal-leries and museums, where they met a ready audience . Just as those at home during the Civil War learned from documentary photographs taken far away, viewers throughout the country were exposed to new experi-ences during the Great Depression through the imag-ery produced by the FSA photographers .

Selected WorksSELECTED WORK :Walker Evans, Negro Barber Shop Interior, Atlanta, 1936

Walker Evans (1903–75) was born in Saint Louis, Missouri. His father worked in an advertising agency and relocated to Chicago and Toledo, Ohio, during Evans’s childhood. Evans’s family was prosperous, and he was educated at private schools when he was young. He attended Williams College briefly before dropping out to travel and pursue a career as a writer. Having experimented with an inexpensive Kodak Brownie camera when he was young, Evans turned to photography in earnest when he was in his early twen-ties. He traveled to Europe in 1926 and spent time photographing people on the streets of Paris and tak-ing candid shots of his friends with a small, hand-held

camera. He eventually tried out many different cam-eras throughout his career, working in radically dif-ferent formats with varied results. During the 1930s, the period in which he worked for the FSA, he was particularly adept with a large 8 x 10 camera. Images produced with a large-format camera like this are very crisp and extremely clear in detail because they are printed from a large negative. Evans also later shot with a small 35mm camera, which he concealed in his coat to capture very spontaneous images of people in the streets and subways of New York City.

When he returned to the United States in 1927, Evans practiced photography on the side as he worked day jobs to support himself. During this time, he photographed street scenes of the vibrant city life in New York and began to develop his own documen-tary style. He then received a series of short-term contracts that allowed him to finally pursue his pho-tography full-time. In 1933 he was sent on assignment to Cuba to produce photographic illustrations for a book by Carleton Beals called The Crime of Cuba, which was about the political movement against that country’s dictator. In these early years, Evans took photographs of subjects as diverse as the Brooklyn Bridge, New England’s Victorian homes, and scenes in Tahiti.

In 1935 Evans met Roy Stryker, who hired him to work for the Farm Security Administration. In his work for the FSA, Evans traveled for over a year, mostly through the southern states. While Stryker had a clear political and social agenda for FSA pho-tographs, Evans made it known that he did not wish his photographs to be used as propaganda.12 And while Stryker was known for his tight control over FSA photographers, providing them with shooting scripts and retaining their negatives, Evans claimed to have worked with great freedom, determining who and what to photograph without outside guidance. Although Evans probably exaggerated the degree of control he maintained under Stryker’s supervision, he did seem to have more artistic independence than some of his colleagues, even retaining some of his negatives at the conclusion of his projects.13

In 1936, Evans began to collaborate with the writer James Agee on an essay for Fortune magazine. The essay was to treat the lives of white sharecroppers in Hale County, Alabama. Over a period of several weeks, the two men worked closely with three fami-lies whose lives they documented in detail. Ultimately, Fortune decided not to publish the essay, but Agee and Evans continued to seek an audience for their project. It was published in book format in September 1941 under the title Let Us Now Praise Famous Men. This first edition, which contained thirty-one pho-tographs juxtaposed with Agee’s impassioned text, received little attention at the time of its publication because it was overshadowed by the U.S. entry into World War II. However, the book was reprinted many

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times, with the addition of more photographs by Evans. In the end, Let Us Now Praise Famous Men virtually defined the photographic essay for decades. Evans’s photographs are distinct in style from Agee’s text, and they do much more than simply illustrate the written word. Indeed, the photographs provide a very different perspective that cannot easily be expressed through text. This speaks to the visual strength of Evans’s work.

By the time Let Us Now Praise Famous Men was published, Evans was already a well-known and accomplished artist. While still just in his late twenties and early thirties, Evans was already being hailed by critics for his unique vision and was given an exhibi-tion at the prestigious Museum of Modern Art (1938), the first at the museum to be dedicated to the work of a single photographer. He was also awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1940.

Beginning in 1938, Evans explored the possibili-ties of using a 35-mm camera concealed in his coat. He shot photographs on the subways of New York City, which were eventually published in his 1965 book Many Are Called. In 1945, Fortune magazine hired Evans as a staff photographer, and he worked in this capacity until 1965. After leaving Fortune, Evans joined the faculty at Yale University as a professor of photography. In his later years, Evans continued to experiment with new photographic techniques, including large-format Polaroid images in color. His active life as a photographer ended when he broke his collarbone in 1974; he died in the following year in New Haven, Connecticut.

Negro Barber Shop Interior, Atlanta is one of the photographs that Evans produced while working for

the Farm Security Administration in 1936. The image shows a tightly cropped interior space, conspicuously void of human figures. Two worn barber’s chairs are swiveled toward the viewer, and vacant mirrors are positioned on the two walls behind them. The chairs have towels draped on the arms and headrests, and this preparation for the next customer serves to imply human presence, even in this quiet moment. The bar-bershop is neat and tidy, with everything in its place, and at the same time the scene is cluttered. The walls around the mirror on the left side of the composition are covered with newspapers which, while filling the visual space with pictures and text, serve as a decora-tive cover for the wall with its chipping paint. A shelf running on the wall below the mirror holds a variety of tools for cutting and styling hair. A wooden shelving unit in the center of the composition holds neat stacks of towels and is topped with oil lamps in a variety of sizes. A decorative metal cut-out appears above the mirror on the right-hand side of the composition, and its random position seems in opposition to the delib-erate posing of the barber shop chairs, which have been carefully turned toward the viewer.

Produced with a large-format camera, the photo-graph is incredibly rich in its details and the depic-tion of textures. Evans seems to relish the contrast between the smooth texture of the worn leather chairs and the roughness of the wall, as well as that between the crispness of the neatly folded newspapers and the soft flexibility of the piles of towels. The mirrors, positioned at a ninety degree angle to one another, appear on the right and left margins of the composi-tion, and Evans uses them to augment our view of the textures visible in this space. The cumbersome large-format camera that Walker preferred at this stage in his career also required careful set-up using a tripod. The working method with this kind of camera was far from spontaneous. This is made evident in the very deliberate composition we see here.

In Negro Barber Shop Interior, Atlanta, the absence of any human figure is evident, especially because human activity is implicit in every detail. There is a feeling of solitude as we view this quiet space, taking in all of its details, yet we are called upon to imagine that the barbershop interior is like a stage that is often filled with activity. This is especially true since the bar-bershop is an iconic representation of an exclusively male social space in which men come together to talk more freely than they might in other social spaces, such as at work, in the street, or in the home. The power of this social space would have seemed par-ticularly poignant during a time of legalized racial seg-regation, in which African Americans were repressed by the dominant white culture in many other arenas of social life. The African-American barbershop, though, represents a real social space that few white viewers would have penetrated outside of this photograph. The empty chairs, worn in spots from constant use

Photograph of Walker Evans, February 1937, by Edwin Locke.

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over the years, provide an invitation for human pres-ence. The hat, placed casually on a storage shelf in the middle of the composition, makes us wonder about its owner—has he just stepped out? When will he return?14

Whereas some photographers specialize in a par-ticular genre, focusing their work on portraits, land-scapes, or still-life compositions, Evans crossed many categories. He is equally recognized for intimate, posed portraits in which the subject gazes directly at the photographer (and viewer), and spontaneous shots in which the subject does not seem aware of the photographer’s (and therefore, the viewer’s) pres-ence at all. He produced masterfully detailed interior scenes that seem to echo the genre of portraiture in their intimacy, as well as photographs of architecture seen in exterior views. Examining his body of work, one may come to the conclusion that Evans intended these photographs in multiple genres to be seen in juxtaposition with one another. It is as if Evans recog-nized that no single photograph creates a complete picture, but instead a series of images capturing peo-ple and places from multiple perspectives is necessary to arrive at an understanding of a situation. Perhaps this is why the format of a collection of photographs compiled in a book was so appropriate for Evans’s work. When seen together, a group of photographs can tell a story in a way that goes beyond even the power of language.15

Evans did not go about this construction of a story in an obvious manner; that is to say, he did not seek to juxtapose an image of the empty, silent barbershop with a photograph of the same barbershop filled with people. Instead he compiled images of all aspects of life in a place—interior views and exterior images of vernacular architecture, portraits of people living their everyday lives, seemingly random moments of time—in order to capture a more complete set of experiences.

Evans sought to distinguish his work from “pure” documentary, referring to it in a 1964 lecture as “lyric documentary.”16 Certainly, Evans had complex ideas about the meaning of his photography, but one key element seems to be a desire to create photographs that reflect on the breadth of human experience. Although one of the goals of the FSA photography project was to capture the specificity of experienc-es—the difficulties of economic depression in differ-ent parts of the country, for example—Evans sought to go beyond this to capture a sense of universality. This is probably what made it difficult for Evans and Stryker to work together, given their different goals, but it is also part of what has made Evans’s work so enduring. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, 1936

Dorothea Lange’s (1895–1965) photograph Migrant Mother is perhaps one of the most recognized images representing the Great Depression today. Lange, who produced this photograph during her tenure as a photographer for the FSA, was born in Hoboken, New Jersey. During her childhood, Lange faced some unusual difficulties. She developed polio when she was seven years old, which left her with a limp and symptoms that followed her late into life. Her father abandoned the family a few years later. When she got older, Lange dropped her father’s surname (Nutzhorn) and began to identify herself by her mother’s maiden name (Lange).

In 1913, Lange moved to New York City to study to be a teacher; her aspirations shifted when she took a photography class with Clarence White, a famous photographer and a masterful teacher. She continued her studies as she apprenticed for another well-known photographer, Arnold Genthe. Genthe, who was originally from Prussia, had previously lived in San Francisco. San Francisco, in fact, was Lange’s next destination: she established a portrait studio there in 1919.

During the 1920s, Lange married, had two chil-dren, and continued to work as a studio photogra-pher. Her life changed during the Great Depression. In 1932 she left the studio behind and began to shoot photographs of life in the streets. In 1934 she met Paul Taylor, an economics professor at the University of California. The next year, Lange divorced her first husband and married Taylor. The photographer and the economist began to collaborate on projects that addressed poverty in rural California, focusing specifi-cally on the conditions of migrant workers and share-croppers. While Taylor gathered data, Lange captured the images that would bring his analysis to life and make it accessible to a broader public. Lange and Taylor eventually published their work under the title An American Exodus (1939), although they produced shorter reports prior to that time. One report that the two produced jointly came to the attention of Roy Stryker in 1935. Impressed by her work, Stryker hired Lange as a field photographer.

While most of the FSA photographers worked in the rural South, Lange continued to capture condi-tions in rural California. Migrant Mother was part of a shoot she did in 1936. In contrast with Evans, who vehemently opposed the use of his photographs for political purposes, Lange sought to promote and sup-port migrant camps by way of her images. Regarding a later group of images treating migrant camps in Imperial Valley, California (1937), Lange wrote a letter

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to Stryker stating that the “negatives are loaded with ammunition.”17

Lange continued to produce photographs that addressed political issues through the 1940s and beyond. In 1942 she worked together with Ansel Adams to photograph the camps in which Japanese Americans had been interred following the bombing of Pearl Harbor. These photographs were quite criti-cal of the treatment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Other projects addressed agriculture, the Mormons in Utah, and life in Ireland. While Lange continued to produce photographs, she also turned to teaching later in life. Lange died of cancer in 1965.

Migrant Mother is truly an iconic photograph of the Great Depression. The image was even repro-duced on a United States postage stamp in 1998. This stamp was actually quite unusual, as two of the sub-jects in the photograph were still alive. U.S. postage stamps generally only show people who have been deceased for some time.

The image is a closely cropped view of a mother with three of her children. The mother’s face is clearly visible to us. She gazes off to her right with a worried expression on her face, her hand held to her cheek. Her long straight hair is pulled back behind her ears, and her lined face and hands show signs of difficult physical work in the sun. She holds a baby in her lap, wrapped loosely in a blanket. Her two older children

fill the remaining space in the frame, both hiding their faces behind their mother. All of the figures in the photograph appear dirty, especially the children, and their clothing is tattered and soiled as well.

The contrast between light and dark in this photo-graph is subtle, allowing the artist to capture details such as the textures of the clothing and the lines on the mother’s face. Lange was evidently positioned quite near to her subject, yet the mother appears to be unaware of her presence as she gazes off, lost in thought.

Lange produced this photograph in March of 1936 while she was working on a project related to migratory labor in California for the Resettlement Administration/Farm Security Administration. Migrant Mother was one of five images in the FSA archives that Lange produced that day, all of the same mother with her children.18 This is the most tightly cropped image, focusing intensely on the mother’s facial expression, while the others provide a more general view of the camp and the tent.

In 1960, Lange provided this account of the pro-duction of this photograph:

I saw and approached the hungry and desperate mother, as if drawn by a magnet. I do not remember how I explained my pres-ence or my camera to her, but I do remem-ber she asked me no questions. I made five exposures, working closer and closer from the same direction. I did not ask her name or her history. She told me her age, that she was thirty-two. She said that they had been living on frozen vegetables from the surrounding fields, and birds that the children killed. She had just sold the tires from her car to buy food. There she sat in that lean-to tent with her children huddled around her, and seemed to know that my pictures might help her, and so she helped me. There was a sort of equality about it.19

Migrant Mother is actually a portrait of Florence Owens Thompson, who was thirty-two years old at the time of this photograph. She is pictured with three of her seven children. On the left side of the photo-graph is her daughter Katherine, age four. The baby in her lap is Norma, who was one year old at the time of the photograph; on the right side of the photo is Ruby, who was five years old. Although Lange was not concerned with collecting her subject’s name at the time of the photograph, later journalists interviewed Thompson and her children, and they have gathered more information about her life and her experiences in relation to the photograph.

We now know that Thompson was originally from Oklahoma, and that she had migrated to California with her first husband, Cleo Owens, in search of work. After her husband died at a young age, Florence was left on her own with her children. She moved back

Resettlement Administration photographer Dorothea Lange

in California, 1936.

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to Oklahoma briefly and then returned to California. In 1936 she was traveling with a companion and her children by car when their timing belt broke near the pea pickers camp in Nipomo. Florence set up a camp and began cooking while her companion left to get help. When Lange approached her, the photogra-pher assumed that her subject was a pea picker who lived in the camp, although this was actually not the case.20

It is significant that although Lange kept writ-ten accounts documenting her photographs, she recorded such little information about the subject of Migrant Mother. The records she did create are problematic due to inherent contradictions. Her writ-ten records that accompanied the images in the FSA archives contain information indicating that the pho-tograph was taken in Nipomo, and that the subject was a thirty-two-year-old destitute pea picker with seven children. Lange’s captions also indicate that the woman’s husband was a native Californian and that she had just sold her tent to pay for food.21 The gen-eralized information that Lange gathered was crucial demographic data relevant for an economic analysis of labor in the region: age, family size, and place of origin (and here the fact that the subject’s husband was a native of the region, making it implicit that the subject herself is not). Narrative details were not important for the analysis of the situation from an aca-demic standpoint, and so Lange did not bother asking the kinds of questions in which contemporary viewers might be interested. You may also notice a difference between the captions Lange recorded in 1932 and the account she provided in 1960—in the earlier account she stated that the subject had sold her tent to pay for food, while her later memory made reference to the sale of the car tires.

Although Lange was apparently not interested in the narrative details of the scene, these are all implicit in the photograph. The image focuses on the human experience of poverty, and the great strength of the image is that it encourages the viewer to ask ques-tions about the subject. Who is she? How did she get in this situation? How will she care for her children? What will become of the family? One can see that a novel such as Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath provided the kind of detailed narrative of real experi-ences that audiences of Lange’s photographs could have only imagined.

The image had an immediate impact on Lange’s intended audience. It was published immediately in the San Francisco News, in articles whose titles pro-vide us with an indication of the content: “Ragged, Hungry, Broke, Harvest Workers Live in Squalor” (March 10, 1936), and “What Does the New Deal Mean to This Mother and Her Children?” (March 11, 1936). Awareness of the crisis among migrant pea pickers in California spread quickly. Within a short period of time, the government sent a special shipment of food

relief to the workers in Nipomo; Florence Owens Thompson and her family had moved on by that time, however, and did not benefit from this. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :Berenice Abbott, Contrasting No. 331 East 39th Street with Chrysler Building and Daily News Building, Manhattan, November 8, 1938

Berenice Abbott (1898–1991), who was born in Springfield, Ohio, left her home state to move to New York City in 1918. There, in her early twenties, as a young woman in a vibrant, growing city, she began to study journalism and became immersed in life in the literary and artistic world of Greenwich Village. Abbott soon found herself drawn to the visual arts rather than to journalism, and she began to focus on her interest in sculpture. Like many artists of her generation, she thought Europe would be the most appropriate place for a young, aspiring artist to travel. In 1921, she left for Paris, where she found her artis-tic sensibilities attracted her not to sculpture, but to photography.

Abbott’s career as a photographer began in 1923 when she was hired to work as a darkroom assistant to the famous artist Man Ray (1890–1976). Man Ray was a popular portrait photographer as well as an avant-garde painter. He intentionally hired a dark-room assistant who had no previous experience work-ing with negatives because he hoped he could train an assistant to print his work exactly as he saw fit. Even given her lack of experience, Abbott quickly gained a solid mastery of darkroom techniques and, having observed Man Ray at work in his portrait studio, she became interested in working behind the camera as well. Man Ray taught her to use a camera, and pro-vided her with space to experiment with shooting portraits.

In 1926 Abbott had her first solo exhibition in Paris. Soon Abbott had established her own studio, where she produced insightful portraits of such famous art-ists and literary figures as James Joyce, Jean Cocteau, and Coco Chanel. While the focus of her own photo-graphic production in Paris was on portraits, during this stage in her career she was also introduced to the work of a photographer who would exert a tremen-dous influence on her work and open her eyes to the possibilities of photographing the urban cityscape: Eugene Atget (1857–1927).

Atget’s influence on Abbott was profound, and his work ultimately inspired her shift away from portrai-ture and toward meticulous and artistic documenta-tion of the city, which in Abbott’s work takes on a

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personality of its own. Atget’s subject was the city of Paris, and his work documented the city’s changing face over three decades. Abbott came to know Atget personally in Paris, and after his death she acquired a large number of his works. Abbott, moved by the power of Atget’s photographs as documents of the life force of a city, sought to promote his work out-side of France, through exhibitions and publications. Interestingly enough, Walker Evans, who resided in Paris at the same time as Abbott, would later come to draw inspiration from Atget’s work as well. Abbott and Evans did not know each other in Paris, but they developed a friendship later in New York. Evans came to know Atget’s work after Abbott began promoting the French photographer’s work in the United States.

Abbott made a trip back to New York in 1929, driv-en to find a venue to promote Atget’s documentary photographs of Paris. Upon her return, Abbott saw New York with new eyes. Time away had revealed to her the tremendous changes the city was undergoing in the 1920s, with the construction of new skyscrapers and rapid population growth. She decided to close her studio in Paris and return to the United States to photograph the vibrant metropolis. Initially this meant

reestablishing a name for herself as a photographer in a new setting, by producing portraits to support her-self. At the same time, she began to venture out into the city with her camera, fascinated in particular with the boom in construction that began in the 1920s and continued even through the Great Depression. During this period, projects such as the George Washington Bridge (1927–31), the Chrysler Building (1928–30), and Rockefeller Center (1930–39) emerged as new icons of New York City.

Abbott found an eager audience for her photo-graphs of New York City in the 1930s. The Museum of the City of New York exhibited forty-one of her works in 1934. On the heels of the exhibition, she was offered a job as a photography instructor at the New School for Social Research in 1935. Recognizing the impor-tance of her photographs as documents of a city in flux, Abbott proposed a documentary survey project to the Works Progress Administration/Federal Arts Project. In her proposal’s summary, she argued that it was essential to gather photographic documenta-tion of the changing city because “tomorrow may see many of these exciting and important mementos of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century New York swept away to make room for new colossi….”22 Her project, titled “Changing New York,” was given funding, and she was awarded the new title “Superintendent of the Photographic Division—FAP/New York City.”

The work that Abbott sought to do involved walk-ing all through the city of New York with cameras of various sizes and other photographic equipment. This seemed to defy what was considered to be appropri-ate behavior for a woman in the 1930s. Abbott spoke of being taunted and harassed on the city streets, perhaps in part because during this time of intense competition for paying jobs, a woman at work in the public realm was seen as taking away employment from a man.23

A constant issue for photographers who worked for the government was that of control: over the production of negatives and prints, ownership of negatives, and the use of their images. The degree of control maintained by the artist varied widely, and much depended on negotiation between the artist and government workers. Abbott had a great deal of freedom in determining the subjects of her work. She was also deeply committed to printing from her own negatives. During her most active phase of work with the WPA/FAP, she was able to maintain a great deal of control over her negatives and the printing of her images as compared to other photographers working at the same time, particularly those working under Stryker for the FSA.24

In 1939 Abbott left her position with the WPA/FAP so that she could take on private work photographing the World’s Fair in New York. At this time, the feder-ally sponsored project was undergoing transforma-tions that placed greater restrictions on the artists.

Berenice Abbott, photograph by Carl van Vechten.

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Photographic work for the government in this capac-ity would be eliminated soon thereafter.

Later on Abbott moved to Maine, where she set about documenting the architecture and landscape as a way of capturing the character of the location. Always dedicated to straight, unmanipulated docu-mentary photography that was capable of capturing factual information, she also made photographic illus-trations for a physics textbook.

Contrasting No. 331 East 39th Street with Chrysler Building and Daily News Building, Manhattan is a photograph that Abbott took in 1938 when she was working on the Changing New York project. A charac-teristic element of Abbott’s photographs of New York City is the juxtaposition of new skyscrapers with older, historical buildings, as can be seen in this image. In the foreground we see the unnamed building identi-fied by its address on East 39th Street in Manhattan. Compared to the city’s new skyscrapers, this was a relatively low, solid, brick building, which probably housed a storefront on the lower level and residences on the upper levels. The lower windows are blocked by signs; the windows on the upper stories are cov-ered with boards, with the exception of one window in which the boards are broken out. The building appears to be abandoned, and may have been slated for demolition at the time of the photograph. Most of the building is in shadow, with a strip of sunlight appearing at the top. That the roofline of the building is cropped out of the image reinforces our sense that it is heavy and solid. The shadow accentuates the dark color of the brick, and the hulking form of 331 East 39th Street fills the entire right half of the composi-tion from top to bottom.

In contrast, the left side of the composition is very bright, and the buildings seen in the distance are bathed in sunlight. Here we see two icons of the Manhattan landscape: the Chrysler Building, seen to the left, and the Daily News Building, seen to the right and partially blocked by 331 East 39th Street. By 1938, the Daily News Building, built from 1929–30 and located on East 42nd Street, was a landmark in Manhattan. This thirty-seven-story art deco skyscrap-er was designed by Raymond Hood, who would take its profile as inspiration for another iconic landmark, the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. The Chrysler Building is also an art deco skyscraper. It was built in 1928–30 and designed by William Van Alan to house the Chrysler Corporation. It stands out in the Manhattan skyline with its distinctive crown ornamen-tation. In the early 1930s, the Chrysler Building was the tallest building in New York although the Empire State Building had taken that title by the time of this photograph. The Chrysler Building and the Daily News Building are in close proximity to one another, although as space is compressed in this photograph, they seem to be direct neighbors.

This photograph is typical of Abbott’s work and is in keeping with the goals of the Changing New York project because it sets up a dramatic contrast between the old and quickly disappearing New York, embodied by the heavy brick building in the fore-ground, and the new, lighter skyscrapers, visible in the background. Many of the photographers working for the FSA were charged with the task of photographing rural experiences. Abbott’s work for the WPA/FAP is different, in that it did not express the same political agenda as many of the FSA photographs. She sought to document the changing city in order to preserve memory, but this documentation is largely completed without judgment. One does not get a sense that Abbott mourns the destruction of old New York, nor are the images particularly celebratory of the new construction taking place. We can situate these pho-tographs of this tremendous urban center in the con-text of an intense search for national identity in which landscape—whether urban or rural—played a part. The work of Ansel Adams may also be understood in this context. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :Ansel Adams, Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico, 1941

Unlike Evans and Lange, Ansel Adams (1902–84) is not known for imagery that relates directly to the Great Depression. While the 1930s were very produc-tive for Adams, he worked primarily as a commercial photographer at this time, and he was not on the FSA or WPA payrolls, as the other photographers discussed in this section were. His most famous works are majestic, black-and-white landscape photographs, many of which were shot in Yosemite National Park, where Adams lived and worked for much of his life. Nevertheless, Adams’s photographs were equally engaged with political issues, specifically in relation to land development and environmental protection. And like the other photographers discussed in this section, Adams was intensely aware of the role of photogra-phy in the construction of a new national identity in the face of crisis, both during the Depression in the 1930s and during WWII and its aftermath in the 1940s and 1950s.

Adams was born and reared in San Francisco. Although he passed through several private schools, Adams never thrived in an academic setting, and he eventually dropped out without completing his formal education. However, he did show an early aptitude for music, and at one point he considered a career as a concert pianist.

Adams’s first visit to Yosemite National Park in 1916 opened his eyes to nature in ways he had never

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anticipated. His father had given him an inexpensive Kodak Brownie camera, and Adams, awed by the overwhelming landscape of the park, began to pho-tograph the locations he would return to countless times over the years. Adams also became involved in environmental preservation when he was quite young. When he was seventeen, Adams joined the Sierra Club, a group founded in the late nineteenth century with the goal of preserving and protecting natural lands and making nature accessible to an apprecia-tive public. Adams began to work as a guide for Sierra Club outings, and he made many of his famous photographs while leading groups of hikers through the park. Later in life, Adams served as director of the organization, and much of his artistic output was related to the causes supported by the Sierra Club.

In 1928, Adams married Virginia Best, whose family owned a photographic studio in Yosemite. Ownership of concessions within the park was a privilege that

was often passed down through families. Indeed, after her father’s death, the Best family studio was passed down to Virginia, who ran it with Adams until 1971. The studio remains in the Adams family today. By way of the Best family studio, Adams was able to sell his own work within the park, and this provided him with valuable exposure, especially early in his career.

By the late 1920s, Adams was working with a vari-ety of cameras and lenses, and he tried out techniques that allowed him to create special effects with his pho-tographs; however, he soon developed a strong pref-erence for the use of a large-format camera, a large depth of field, sharp focus, and careful balance of contrast accomplished by way of masterful darkroom techniques. As his career progressed, Adams became increasingly interested in the technical aspects of pho-tography. He developed a system of balancing lights and darks in a photograph, called the “zone system,” and he wrote a number of books that described the making of his photographs in detail, from the deci-sions he made before he clicked the shutter to his working methods in the darkroom.

Adams was very prolific in the 1930s, with his most significant work being produced within Yosemite. It was also during this period that Adams joined Group f/64; their name made reference to the smallest aperture opening of a lens, which allows for a very large depth of field and range of focus. The group was dedicated to the promotion of straight photog-raphy without manipulation, or the use of what were thought of as artistic effects, such as soft focus or textured papers emulating painting. In his interest in straight photography, Adams’s work was in keeping with that of the documentary photographers of the 1930s such as Evans, Lange, and Abbott, among many others.

Adams’s primary concern during the 1930s was the preservation of natural spaces, and he sought to use his photography to support the protection of the land from encroaching development. To this end, he worked with the Sierra Club to produce portfolios of prints which were submitted to the U.S. Congress to promote the development of additional parks and protected areas. At the same time, Adams worked as a commercial photographer for the Yosemite park concessions, as well as for corporations such as Kodak and Standard Oil. At times it is difficult to reconcile his work devoted to protecting the environment and his role as a commercial photographer promoting prod-ucts that might now seem to promote tourism, and therefore potential damage to the environment.25

Although he had not worked on government-sponsored photographic projects in the 1930s, Adams was contracted by the United States Department of the Interior in 1941 to produce images of landscapes throughout the country, including National Parks and Native American reservations. A few years later, he received a Guggenheim Fellowship to continue his

Ansel Adams, full length portrait taken along cliffs of Big Sur, Calif., 1980.

UCLA Charles E. Young Research Library Department of Special Collections, Los Angeles Times photographic archives.

Copyright © Regents of the University of California, UCLA Library.

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work recording imagery in National Parks. In these images, Adams often focused on spectacular and majestic landscapes photographed from dramatic vantage points. For the most part, he carefully edited out traces of human presence in the landscape to cre-ate idyllic images of pristine, untouched nature. As his involvement in environmental protection intensi-fied, so did his faith in the power of photographs to convince the American public to protect the beautiful landscapes he photographed.

Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico is one of Adams’s most famous photographs. A print of this work sold at auction for over $600,000, making it one of the most expensive photographs ever sold.26 Adams described the way he captured this pho-tograph in his book Examples: The Making of 40 Photographs and in other writings.27 As he was driving back to Santa Fe after an unsuccessful day of work in New Mexico’s Chama Valley, he witnessed spectacular light effects caused by a sunset over a moonlit land-scape. Light played off the houses, small church, and cemetery crosses in the small village of Hernandez, located just off US Highway 84. In his description of the photograph Adams said that he was struck by the beauty of the light on the architecture, and so he quickly stopped the car and set up his camera. Unable to locate his light meter, he used his knowledge of the luminescence of the moon to calculate quickly the proper exposure. He captured his image just in time; moments later the light had passed, and the magical moment he sought to capture was gone.

Adams made many prints from this single nega-tive, and given his interest in manipulating the image in the darkroom, it is not surprising that the prints vary widely in their intensity. In some cases, the con-trast between light and dark is quite strong, although in the version that is part of the collections of the Art Institute of Chicago (shown in the USAD Art Reproductions Booklet), the sky and land both appear very dark, and the areas of whiteness are not as light as they are in other versions. The upper half of the landscape is dominated by the richness of the evening sky, with the gibbous moon a bright spot in the field of darkness. Light streaks of clouds contrast with the smooth, dark sky and set the stage for the snow-cov-ered mountains in the far distance. In the foreground, seeming to emerge in the middle of a vast, empty land, we see a small gathering of houses, an adobe church, and a cemetery. The light of the setting sun highlights the houses and the crosses, creating a dra-matic effect.

With the exception of some of his commercial work, Adams worked almost exclusively in black and white. He sought to create dramatic contrasts to intensify mood, as he has done in this image. This photograph shows his great technical skill in capturing quickly changing light conditions, using both the light

from the sunset and the moon to create an image with emotional intensity.

Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico was created during the time period that Adams was working for the Department of the Interior. However, he did not bill the government for the work he did on the par-ticular day that he shot Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico. This is significant only because it means that Adams, and later the Adams Trust, retained repro-duction rights to this image, which eventually proved to be very valuable. Ownership of images Adams produced for the Department of the Interior belongs to the United States government. Like his colleagues working for the FSA and the WPA in the previous decade, Adams often relinquished the rights to his negatives as part of his contract, whether with a pri-vate corporation or the government. By the 1940s, he had established his own signature mode of cap-turing the landscape, and his approach varied very little whether he was working for the government, a private patron, or no specific patron at all. In all cases, his commitment to capturing the majesty of the land-scape remained in the forefront.

During the later part of his career, Adams also began teaching. He enjoyed sharing his insights into the technical aspects of photography and taught countless workshops and courses between the 1940s and the 1980s, up until his death in 1984. By the 1950s, Adams was becoming less active behind the camera although he continuously returned to his older negatives and produced more prints. Toward the end of his life, Adams had achieved a great deal of fame, and prints of his iconic photographs were in high demand. His work was exhibited in major retro-spectives, and his prints brought very high prices at auction. This fact demonstrates a tremendous change that occurred during the course of Adams’s career. While in the 1920s–30s, many photographers strug-gled to have their work considered as “art,” by the 1980s photography was considered a creative activity that was celebrated in the world of museums and gal-leries and strongly supported by art collectors. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

Section III Summarym Documentary photography in the United States

began to flourish during the Civil War . Prior to the 1930s, photography was also used to document landscapes in the western territories and to pres-ent social problems to the public .

m Roy Stryker directed the photographic work of the Farm Security Administration from 1935–43 . The goal was to make the agency’s work visible and to garner support for poor, rural Americans .

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m Stryker hired a number of photographers to work on FSA projects . He sent these photographers on assignment, mostly to rural areas . The imag-ery they produced was quite often disseminated through print media .

m Walker Evans, Negro Barber Shop Interior, Atlanta, 1936

m Stryker hired Evans to work for the FSA . In 1935 Evans traveled through the South for over a year .

m Evans did not want his photographs to be used as propaganda; to a certain degree, this was at odds with the goals of the FSA pho-tography program, which sought to promote a greater understanding of social problems .

m Evans claimed that he maintained a great deal of independence as a photographer on FSA projects; Stryker was generally known for keeping the photographers and their projects under tight control .

m Evans worked with a large-format camera for the FSA project, and he carefully composed each image .

m Negro Barber Shop Interior is a quiet, con-templative scene that implies human pres-ence even in the absence of any figures . It is a universalizing reflection on the human experience .

m Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, 1936

m Prior to the Great Depression, Lange worked as a portrait photographer, first in New York and then in San Francisco .

m After 1934, Lange began to collaborate with Paul Taylor, an economist, to document social problems in California’s agricultural sector . In contrast with Evans, Lange intended for her images to serve a political role, helping to address social problems .

m Stryker hired Lange to work for the FSA in 1935 . Migrant Mother was one of a series of images she produced in a single day in March 1936 .

m Lange did not ask for or record the name or life story of her subject, probably because this information was not important, given her goals; the image, though, is a portrait of a woman named Florence Owens Thompson .

m This photograph was printed in the news media almost immediately and resulted in

more government aid being sent to the camps of migrant workers in this part of California .

m Berenice Abbott, Contrasting No . 331 East 39th Street with Chrysler Building and Daily News Building, Manhattan, November 8, 1938

m Abbott began her career as a portrait photog-rapher in Paris . There, she became interested in the work of Eugene Atget, whose images of the changing city inspired her tremendously . She returned to New York to promote his work in the United States .

m Abbott found that New York City was undergo-ing a rapid transformation due to new migra-tion and the construction of skyscrapers .

m Abbott received support for her project Changing New York from the WPA/FAP .

m Typical of Abbott’s work, this photograph sets up a contrast between older buildings on the verge of destruction and the new, iconic sky-scrapers . However, Abbott does not seem to pass judgment on the changes taking place in New York .

m Ansel Adams, Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico, 1941

m Ansel Adams worked primarily as a commercial photographer during the 1930s, and his work as a landscape photographer is not directly associated with the Great Depression .

m Like FSA photography, Adams’s work was political by nature; he was concerned with environmental protection and preservation and sought to use his work to promote this cause . To this end, Adams worked with the Sierra Club and photographed landscapes for the U .S . government .

m Adams was concerned with the technical aspects of photography; he was devoted to a “straight” documentary style, although he did manipulate his negatives in the darkroom to achieve particular effects in his prints .

m Adams began to work for the Department of the Interior in 1941, photographing natu-ral lands throughout the country; Moonrise, Hernandez, New Mexico was shot during this period, although apparently not on a day that he was officially working for the government .

m Adams specialized in photographing the majestic, pristine landscape . His style varied little, whether he was working for a commer-cial patron, for the government, or shooting without a patron in mind .

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S E C T I O N I V :

Architecture of the 1930s

Urban Architecture: The Skyscraper in the 1930s

The skylines of cities across the United States were transformed in the 1930s by newly constructed sky-scrapers that towered over the streets below . This

transformation was nowhere more evident than in New York City, where the race was on to create the world’s highest building . Architects and engineers sought to construct buildings that reached greater and greater heights while still maintaining a focus on aesthetic originality . In Manhattan, some of the great icons of skyscraper architecture—the Chrysler Building, the Empire State Building, and Rockefeller Center—were built in rapid succession in the late 1920s–30s; all three were considered to be great engineering feats as well as beautiful buildings . Other growing urban centers such as Chicago and Philadelphia were also changed by the creation of new skyscrapers . During the Great Depression, skyscraper construction provided needed jobs . The quest to build taller and more impressive buildings also gave a boost to morale during difficult times, serving as a symbolic illustration of the great-ness of America and the possibility for growth in spite of economic hardship .

The initial surge in the development of the urban office building and the quest for increasing height began in the 1880s . The evidence of this is especially strong in Chicago and New York . With the growth of a stronger economy based on industrial development, real estate in urban centers became increasingly valu-able in the late nineteenth century . Patrons and archi-tects came to see the benefit of tall office buildings that could maximize the use of limited acreage, creat-ing even greater profit . In addition, the development of new technologies, such as the safety elevator and steel construction, made taller buildings more feasible and stable and provided greater design opportunities as well .

Architect William Le Baron Jenney, working in Chicago, experimented with the use of a load-bear-ing structural framework in the 1880s . His use of a

metal framework for the Home Insurance Building in Chicago (1884) was revolutionary, and as a result this building is often considered to be the first skyscraper . The Wainwright Building in Saint Louis, designed by Louis Sullivan (1890–91), is another notable example of an early skyscraper relying on a steel frame . The Schlesinger and Mayer Building, later the Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building, another design by Sullivan (1899) in Chicago, also relied on steel beams for its structural frame, allowing for a building that appeared relatively light and airy in spite of its massive scale . The illusion of lightness and clarity of function through form were often goals of the earliest architects of skyscrapers .

Architectural historian Leland Roth defines two peri-ods of skyscraper development in the United States: one following World War I and the other through the 1930s . He refers to these as the “traditional” and the “modern” skyscraper phases . These categories are useful as we seek to understand a transition that took place at the beginning of the 1930s, setting the stage for the Empire State Building, which we will discuss in detail .28

The “traditional” skyscrapers, built in the years immediately following the First World War, were dis-tinguished from their predecessors by new profiles . Building ordinances in a number of cities during this period began to demand setbacks, or step-like recessions at the upper levels of the buildings, which allowed greater amounts of light and air to reach street level . As a result, skyscraper designers began to adjust the profiles of their buildings to incorporate crowns and other decorative features on top that would let in light while still reaching to great heights . Buildings in the traditional category generally stand out for their historical references to past architectural styles, which are most clearly seen in their detailing .

A key example of the traditional style is the Chicago Tribune Tower, built from 1922–25 . The building was based on a design by the architectural firm Howells and Hood . The architects distinguished their work from that of their competitors through references to Gothic cathedrals, with a series of towers and steeple forms

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at the crown of the building . The emphasis on Gothic details increased the sense of lightness and verticality of the building, typical of traditional skyscrapers .

In response to this skyscraper form, other architects began to promote a new, so-called “modern” style of building that purposefully rejected such historical references . According to Roth, this style reached its full development in the 1930s . Instead of relying on histori-cal sources, architects working in this mode sought to discover an architectural aesthetic that they believed would be appropriate for the modern age . By the early 1930s, progressive modernist architecture, seen in Bauhaus and International Style designs, rejected superficial decoration, promoting instead a style of architecture that focused on the unification of form and function . At the same time, ornamentation in archi-tecture remained popular, especially in the context of public spaces .

Art Deco, which had its origins in European Art Nouveau, was a decorative style that emerged in the mid-1920s . Art Nouveau decoration had drawn upon stylized imagery of plants, flowers, and other organic forms . This style had been popular in art, architecture, and design around the turn of the century, both in Europe

and the United States . Art Deco, on the other hand, emerged in Paris at the 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes . In Europe, the style was called style moderne; in the United States, where it was especially popular in the 1930s, Art Deco was the preferred term .

While Art Nouveau gave primacy to organic forms, Art Deco emphasized stream-lined, hard-edged abstracted forms, sometimes inspired by the shapes of modern machines . The Chrysler Building, with its dis-tinctive crown decoration recalling the lines of automo-bile parts, is an example of an Art Deco skyscraper . Art Deco was especially popular in hotels, diners, movie houses, and skyscrapers throughout the country . Art Deco is purely ornamental, and this stylistic term can be used to describe a building’s abstract and geomet-ricizing decoration, regardless of its function .

Archival photograph of the Carson Pirie Scott building, Chicago,

Illinois. Louis Sullivan, architect.

The Chicago Tribune Tower is an example of the traditional style

of skyscraper architecture.

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SELECTED WORK :Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Empire State Building, New York City, 1931

The Empire State Building, located at 350 5th Avenue in Manhattan, was designed by Gregory Johnson of the architectural firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, with the support of the structural engineer Homer Gage Balcom. Harold Shreve, William Lamb, and Arthur Loomis Harmon based their firm, estab-lished in 1929, in New York, where most of their projects were completed. One of their most famous ventures prior to the Empire State Building was the Reynolds Building in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. The Reynolds Building, completed in 1929, was a twenty-one-floor office building. The Empire State Building was loosely based on designs for this earlier project.

The Empire State Building was constructed in a busy urban center, located on a site that had previ-

ously been occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. With 102 floors, the building relied on a steel frame construction to reach its monumental height of 1,239 feet (not including the pinnacle, which adds 203 more feet to its overall elevation). Upon its completion in 1931, the Empire State Building surpassed the Chrysler Building as the tallest building in the world. It held this record until the completion of the north tower of the World Trade Center in 1972. Today, there are several buildings throughout the world that reach heights greater than the Empire State Building, but it is currently the tallest building in New York City.29

The exterior of the building is faced with Indiana limestone and granite trimmed with aluminum and chrome-nickel steel detailing. The building’s essential form is massive and blocky. Although the architects used setbacks as required by city ordinance, they moved away from historical features such as the Gothic details that characterized the Chicago Tribune Tower and other traditional skyscrapers. Instead, the

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Photograph of a workman on the framework of the Empire State Building taken by Lewis Hine in 1930.

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form is streamlined, which was conceived of as mod-ern at the time.

While the profile of the building is hefty, the use of steel frame construction allowed for an abundance of windows, giving the overall structure a sense of light-ness. In addition, the setbacks begin relatively close to street level, visually lowering the building’s center of gravity and creating the illusion of even greater height. Further setbacks occur on the crown, and the building is topped by a distinctive Art Deco spire.

Construction of the Empire State Building began on March 17, 1930, with the frame raised at a pace of about four and a half stories a week. The building was constructed in record time: it was completed in just one year and forty-five days of work, about five months ahead of schedule. The Empire State Building was recognized as a great technological feat at the time of its completion, and it continues to be cel-ebrated in this way today.

The construction project was documented by Lewis Hine in 1930.30 Rather than focusing on the details of the building itself, Hine concentrated on close-up shots of the men working on the building, often from dramatic angles. Hine put himself in pre-carious positions to capture his images, just as the workers themselves did, and in this way he allowed his audience to see the city and the construction of this iconic building from a unique perspective. From these photographs, Hine created the book called Men at Work. All together, about 3,400 people worked on the building during its peak period of construction. The majority of these workers were immigrants to New York, and so Hine’s photographs are especially important for revealing to us the lives of workers who were in many ways invisible to mainstream American society during this time period.

The building was financed by John Jacob Faskob for a total cost of about twenty-five million dollars. Like most office buildings from the 1880s on, financ-ing was speculative. The building was constructed in the hopes of renting out its office space upon comple-tion. However, due to the declining economy at the onset of the Great Depression, it was very difficult to find tenants for the building’s many offices. The site was also an issue because its distance from the city’s public transportation lines made its location less than ideal. Although the observation deck, with its views of New York City, was immediately popular and remains so today, the building did not become profitable as a rental property until after World War II.

The building was officially unveiled in a very dra-matic fashion. On May 1, 1931, President Herbert Hoover, at home at the White House, pressed a but-ton to turn on the building’s lights, thus signaling its opening. The lighting of the building has continued to be important, especially since the addition of flood-lights in the 1960s. Today, the colors of these flood-

lights are often changed in recognition of particular events and holidays.

The symbolism of the construction of massive architectural projects such as the Empire State Building during the Great Depression cannot be underestimated. While many ordinary Americans were hurting financially and felt that the future was bleak, these soaring skyscrapers seemed to represent great optimism about the possibility of a return to prosper-ity in America. Another significant example of this is Rockefeller Center, a group of buildings in central Manhattan that similarly were built at the height of the Great Depression using private financing. Rockefeller Center and the Empire State Building not only fueled the economy through their construc-tion, but they also stood as symbols of the continued power of the United States in the face of great eco-nomic difficulties. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

Public Architecture in the 1930sPrivately financed monumental construction proj-

ects were important because they provided employ-ment, albeit temporary, during the economic crisis . On a much larger scale, the government sought to help the public and reverse the economic downturn by funding many additional building projects throughout the country . Soon after assuming his position as presi-dent in 1933, Franklin Delano Roosevelt created agen-cies that provided employment on a large scale and allowed for the improvement of existing infrastructure as well as the creation of a better built environment in many parts of the country .

In 1933, Roosevelt founded the Civilian Conservation Corps . This agency, which operated from 1933–42, was responsible for construction projects in public parks in every state in the country . Workers, who were mostly young men, created new bridges, trails, and roads or improved the existing infrastructure, did landscaping in parks, and developed playground and picnic areas, among other tasks . These programs, which improved the enjoyment of outdoor spaces, were very popular with the public .

The Tennessee Valley Authority, established in 1933 and still in existence today, is another example of a fed-erally sponsored program that provided construction jobs for major projects . The Tennessee Valley Authority was intended to provide employment and new sources of energy in the rural South, an area that was hit especially hard by the Depression . In order to provide electricity to homes in affected areas, the Tennessee Valley Authority oversaw the construction of bridges and dams to control waterways and harness their power . These large projects required the creation of new towns to house the many workers they employed, thus ensuring an even greater number of construc-

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tion jobs . In addition to these immediate employment opportunities, the increased availability of inexpensive electricity provided by these projects allowed for great-er industrial development in the region, even further stimulating the local economy .

Perhaps the most important agency was the Works Progress Administration, founded in 1935 . The largest of the New Deal agencies, the WPA was responsible for providing employment to millions of people until it was dissolved in 1943 . In addition to programs such as the Federal Arts Project, the WPA sponsored build-ing construction all around the country . The WPA was responsible for constructing and improving roads and bridges, schools, hospitals, post offices, airports, librar-ies, and other buildings for public use in American cit-ies and small towns .

Many federally funded architectural projects were designed for practical use, but a focus on function did not mean that aesthetics were neglected . Progressive design helped architects make a mark on the American built environment; in addition, thousands of artists supported by the Works Progress Administration were sponsored to execute paintings and sculptures to embellish the interiors and exteriors of new and old buildings at this time .

SELECTED WORK :Gordon Kaufmann, et al., Hoover Dam, Nevada-Arizona Border, 1931–36

Hoover Dam, which was officially dedicated in 1935, in the midst of the Great Depression, is located on the Colorado River between Arizona and Nevada. The dam was the largest in the world at the time of its completion; the total height from its base to the crest of the dam is 726.4 feet; the ornamentation at the top adds an additional forty feet to its height. It is remark-able both as a tremendously successful engineering project and for its aesthetic appeal.

Hoover Dam is an arch-gravity structure built of concrete. It was constructed of enormous concrete blocks placed in vertical towers. The first concrete was placed in position in June 1933, and the last concrete was poured in May 1935. One of the greatest engi-neering challenges was getting the concrete to cool properly, thus allowing it to set properly. This required the use of iced water, which was circulated through steel pipes embedded in the concrete. Overall, the dam required over four million cubic yards of concrete for its construction.

Looking at the dam from downstream, one notes its dramatic, broad and curving shape. Naturally the dam is massive and solid in order to serve its function. But most interesting from an art historical perspective is the architectural design of the dam and its Art Deco ornamentation.

Gordon Kaufmann (1888–1949), an English archi-tect working in Southern California, was responsible for the aesthetic design of the dam. Kauffman arrived on the job after engineers working for the Bureau of Reclamation had already completed basic plans for the structure. While engineers had created an effec-tive design from a functional standpoint, the overall look was not balanced, and the decorative features did not project the feeling of modernity that was deemed to be most appropriate for such a daring structure.31

Kauffman’s design is minimalistic and streamlined. Each of the features he incorporated into the dam’s structure creates a strong impact. The four water intake towers are best described as Art Deco because of their simple, stylized forms. Kauffman integrated the towers into the overall design in order to increase the sense of verticality in the monumental concrete façade. Overall, the clean lines of the dam’s face were meant to appear modern, stylistically appropriate for the greatest engineering achievement of modern America.

Hoover Dam was one of the most substantial pub-lic projects completed under the Roosevelt adminis-tration, but it was actually initiated prior to the Great Depression. Planning for the dam began in 1922, with future president Herbert Hoover playing a central

Works Progress Administration road project.

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role in its early development. At that time, Hoover was Secretary of Commerce under President Warren Harding. He was appointed federal representative to the multi-state commission charged with finding an equitable way to share water resources among the Basin states (Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming). Ultimately, a pro-posal for what was then known as the Boulder Canyon Project was approved by President Calvin Coolidge in December 1928. The name was selected because the dam was initially set to be positioned in Boulder Canyon; however, the site was later moved to Black Canyon, about eight miles downstream. Construction on the dam was initially scheduled to begin in 1930, with Hoover now president, although work was delayed in this early stage.

In 1931, the contract to construct the dam was given to Six Companies, Inc. Initially, the company

was also charged with building a new town called Boulder City, which would house the project’s work-ers. However, work accelerated more quickly than expected, as the need to provide employment at the onset of the Great Depression was dire. As a conse-quence, the city was not ready at the onset of the building phase, and workers found temporary hous-ing at camps until Boulder City was ready for its first residents in 1932. The fact that large projects such as this required the construction of new towns gave an added boost to the economy during this period; not only did this additional construction provide jobs, it also required the production of more building materials, providing still more employment. Also, the existence of housing for workers meant fewer home-less people in the cities and small towns around the region.

Photograph of the Hoover Dam taken by Ansel Adams in 1941.

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The dam was finally completed in 1936 during Roosevelt’s presidency. It was overseen and oper-ated by the Bureau of Reclamation, a government agency founded in 1902 and important during the New Deal. By the time of its dedication, the name of the dam had changed several times. Initially called the Boulder Canyon Project, and then the Boulder Dam, it was given the name Hoover Dam in 1930 in honor of then president Hoover. However, the Roosevelt administration did not wish to acknowledge Hoover by naming the dam after him, and so during the 1930s the dam was known officially as the Boulder Dam. Congressional approval to restore the name Hoover Dam was given in 1947, after Roosevelt’s death. This controversy over the naming of the dam may seem trivial, but it is an important illustration of the political nature of the construction of public architecture. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

Domestic Architecture in the 1930sEarly Twentieth-Century Domestic Architecture and Urban Planning

Libraries, civic buildings, bridges, and dams were built with the support of government-sponsored pro-grams during the 1930s, as we have discussed . Yet it is easy to see that domestic housing was also a major concern during the Great Depression . During this peri-od, economic hardship led to a sharp decline in new housing construction, and homelessness rose steeply in response to soaring rates of unemployment .

Following the stock market crash in 1929, many renters were unable to pay for housing and were evict-ed; previously stable homeowners who could not pay the mortgages on their houses were suddenly facing a crisis as well . Whether the situation of homelessness was temporary or long term, people in urban centers clustered together in informal shantytowns . In the early 1930s, many people thought that President Hoover was to blame for the Great Depression and the resulting homelessness crisis . As a result, these communities, sometimes set up in parks or on privately owned land, were named “Hoovervilles .” Large Hoovervilles were found coast to coast in cities such as New York, Saint Louis, and Portland, Oregon . A tremendously large Hooverville was even set up in New York’s Central Park . Some Hooverville residents built temporary tent structures or cardboard shelters and moved on quickly in search of better housing and work . Other residents built more permanent housing of wood or stone and settled in for a longer period .32

The establishment of Hoovervilles led to public health problems, as sanitation was generally poor, and disease spread easily among the vulnerable population who suffered from poor nutrition and lacked access to

health care . The informally constructed housing was also unsafe, prone to disasters caused by collapse and fire . Although Hoovervilles were technically illegal, the government could do little to control them because these communities were so densely populated, and residents frequently had nowhere else to go . Although soup kitchens and shelters could be found in urban centers, they lacked the funding and space to support the growing homeless population .

The Roosevelt administration sought to create public programs to resolve the housing problems that plagued the country in the 1930s . For example, the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) was created in 1934 to assist in this endeavor . The goal of this pro-gram when it was established was to stimulate new construction and to help alleviate the compounding problems of homelessness . In the 1960s, it became part of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and today it continues to provide low-interest loans to homebuy-ers, as it has since its inception .

Another of President Roosevelt’s goals was the cre-ation of model communities outside large metropolitan centers . The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was responsible for the Division of Subsistence Homesteads, which was charged with designing such communities . It was hoped that they would provide necessary shelter and jobs as well as farms that could supply nearby cities with fresh fruits and vegetables .33 The Resettlement Administration, directed by Rexford Tugwell, whose name you will recall from our discussion of New Deal photography, was also charged with creat-ing suburban communities that would serve to expe-dite economic recovery . The most famous example is Greenbelt, Maryland, a planned community that was initiated in 1935 and settled in 1937 .

Photograph of a Hooverville during the Great Depression.

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Urban public housing as we know it today has its origins in the New Deal . The first federally sponsored public housing project in Chicago was built in 1938 with the support of the Works Progress Administration . Known as the Jane Addams Homes, this project pro-vided housing and social services for struggling resi-dents until 2002 .34 Public housing projects in densely populated areas had to provide basic shelter for the maximum number of people within a limited space . The focus was on providing basic, solid construction with few frills . Examples similar to the Jane Addams Homes can be found in cities and towns all over the United States .

Neither of the two examples of domestic architec-ture that we will explore in detail here was funded by the government . The first home, Fallingwater, was designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, and it was in fact intended as a weekend get-away for a very prosperous family . It rep-resents the height of luxury in the 1930s, and its design can serve to highlight the great economic disparities of the period . While over a million Americans were homeless, Fallingwater was a vacation home, and so it was not occupied continuously . The second example presents a house of the sort that would have been built during the 1930s by middle-income Americans to serve as a primary residence . This house, sold as a kit through the Sears and Roebuck catalogue, was designed to be practical and accessible to the average American . The creation of affordable housing through kit homes was an important part of the movement toward economic recovery during this period .

SELECTED WORK :Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania, Designed 1935, Built 1936–39

Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959) was a prolific architect who made a profound mark on the develop-ment of modern architecture in America. Throughout his long career he designed approximately four hun-dred structures, including houses, office buildings, schools, museums, and churches. Wright was also an interior designer, often customizing furnishings to suit his architectural designs. In his early career, he was most often associated with the Prairie School of architecture. His later works are often described as “organic,” both because of his belief in creating a built environment in harmony with the natural world, and also for his habit of opening up spaces within his buildings, so that rooms naturally flow into one another. In his quest for harmony with nature, Wright was influenced by traditional Japanese architecture.

Wright was born in Wisconsin and spent much of his childhood there, though he briefly lived in Massachusetts where the family moved for his father’s work. Wright’s parents were both very interested in

the visual arts and music; his mother in particular is said to have done much to encourage her son’s inter-est in architecture, providing him with special toys that she thought would encourage his early creativity.35

Wright enrolled at the University of Wisconsin at Madison in 1886, although he left just a year later without completing a degree. Instead, he moved to Chicago where he began to work as an architectural apprentice, eventually finding a position in the firm of the famous architect Louis Sullivan. In 1889, Wright married Catherine Tobin and purchased land in Oak Park, just outside of Chicago, where he built his home. Although Wright was a successful young architect in Sullivan’s firm, he was eventually forced to leave after Sullivan learned that Wright had been taking indepen-dent commissions on the side, effectively stealing cli-ents from the firm. Wright then set up his own studio in Oak Park.

Much of Wright’s work from the first decade of the twentieth century is best categorized as Prairie School architecture. The Prairie School was not a formal institution of learning, but rather an informal group of architects working in and around Chicago. These architects shared a similar style, especially when it came to designing residential architecture. The Prairie School style is characterized by its low, sweeping pro-files, echoing the forms of the Midwestern landscape. Prairie School architects also favored open inte-rior plans. Rather than dividing interior spaces into a series of small, boxy rooms, they preferred an open flow from one room to another, especially in the com-munal living areas. Prairie School architecture often relied on local, natural materials selected for their aesthetic appeal as well as their practical function. Exposed wood beams, for example, were preferable to a concealed structural support. Wright completed many homes throughout the country during this peri-od, but the majority of his commissions were in Oak Park. One of Wright’s best works in this style is the Robie House, located in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago (1908–10).

During this period of his career, Wright’s marriage and family life were in turmoil. He had been married for many years, with six children, when he became romantically involved with Mamah Cheney, the wife of an important Oak Park client. In 1909 Wright and Cheney left their spouses behind and traveled to Europe together. This caused a great scandal and severely damaged Wright’s ability to secure patrons in his hometown. However, Wright used his time in Europe to his best advantage. While there, he pub-lished many of his designs in a collection called the Wasmuth Portfolio (1910–11), which exposed a new, European audience to his work.

Wright returned to the United States in late 1910. Now separated from his wife, he decided to build a new home for himself, Cheney, and her two children in Spring Green, Wisconsin, near his mother’s family

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home. This house, called Taliesin, was originally built in 1911, but Wright continued to work on it throughout his life. Tragedy struck Taliesin in 1914, when a family servant set an area of the house on fire and murdered Cheney, her two children, and several others with an ax. Wright eventually rebuilt Taliesin and continued to use it as a summer home. Wright was married two more times in the 1920s, to Miriam Noel in 1923, and Olga Ivanovna Lazovich in 1928. Lazovich, a ballet dancer, and Wright remained together until his death in 1959.

One of Wright’s most important works from later in his career was Fallingwater (1934–37) in Bear Run, Pennsylvania. Wright’s innovative design became so famous that it was featured on the cover of Time magazine in 1938. Fallingwater was a vacation home for the Kaufmann family. Edgar Kaufmann Sr. and his wife Liliane had one child, Edgar Jr., born in 1910. The Kaufmanns owned the profitable, upscale Kaufmann’s Department Store in Pittsburgh (now part of the Macy’s chain). In addition to his business activities, Kaufmann, a philanthropist and art collector, was quite active in the civic realm; he was involved in New Deal projects and was especially interested in civic planning issues.

Kaufmann’s son forged the connection between his father and Wright. Edgar Jr. became interested in the visual arts while traveling in Europe. He returned to the United States in 1933 with the intention of becom-ing a painter. He was soon drawn to the circle of young architects around Wright, however, and instead of moving to New York as he originally intended, he traveled to Wisconsin to study with Wright at Taliesin. His parents met Wright in person when they came to visit Edgar Jr., and the commission for Fallingwater evolved from that contact. After a brief stay of about six months at Taliesin, Edgar Jr. returned to Pittsburg to assume his leadership role in the family’s depart-ment store. He also continued to pursue his interests in art and design through a curatorial position at the Museum of Modern Art and as a researcher.

The Kaufmanns lived in Pittsburgh. Fallingwater was built as their vacation home outside the city, along a mountain stream called Bear Run in the Laurel Highlands. The family enjoyed outdoor activities such as hiking and fishing, and they had established a sum-mer camp home for employees of the department store at this location. The camp home, a simple cabin, was not as popular during the Great Depression as it had been previously because many of the employees could not get away for vacation. The Kaufmanns, who continued to visit the site, eventually decided to build a summer home for themselves there.36

Fallingwater is characteristic of Wright’s organic style in that the structure is truly integrated into its natural environment. One of the most innovative features of Fallingwater is its placement directly over the top of a thirty-foot waterfall. The Kaufmanns had

shared with Wright their love for the waterfall, and they expected that he would design their home with a view of the falls. Instead, the house was placed direct-ly on top of the water. In implementing this design Wright actually ignored the advice of structural engi-neers who thought the plan was unsound. Inside the house, one can hear but not see the waterfall. Wright told the Kaufmanns that this design allowed them to not simply see the waterfall, but to live with it.37

Also in keeping with his concept of organic archi-tecture, Wright used locally quarried rock and other indigenous materials to construct the house. The hearth of the fireplace incorporates living rock from the site, which juts up through the floor. The house relies on extensive use of glass and several expansive, open terraces that bring views of nature indoors. The ceilings are low, especially in the upstairs bedrooms, providing a cave-like sheltering effect that contrasts with the openness of the outdoors. The outdoor plunge pool is fed with fresh water and in turn feeds back into the stream.

Photograph of architect Frank Lloyd Wright.

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

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The main house is designed with an open plan. On the main floor, the living room and dining areas are integrated with one another. Bedrooms and a study on the second floor are more compartmentalized for privacy, but each room leads to an open terrace, providing integration with nature. A sleeping alcove and terraces on the third floor were also intended to provide the residents with opportunities for closeness with nature. As was typical of Wright’s work, interior furnishings were carefully designed to be integrated with the structure of the house, and they also rely on many local materials.

The most famous view of the house is from across the falls looking up. This view allows us to see the breathtaking position of the structure over the top of the water. From this view we see the dramatic con-trast of the horizontal lines of the concrete cantilevers and the strong vertical lines of the stone mullions, echoing the intersection of the earth and the trees in this forested area. The effectiveness of Wright’s use of local materials is also especially evident in this image, as it appears as if the structure rises organically from the boulders of the falls.

The complex also contains a guesthouse and servants’ quarters located up the hill from the main house. The Kaufmanns used the house for a number of years although it required work to correct struc-tural problems from very early on. In 1963, Edgar Kaufmann Jr. donated the property to the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy, which oversees its conser-vation and operates tours for the public.

Fallingwater is especially significant when we examine the architecture of the 1930s because it reveals an innovative design by one of America’s most progressive modernist architects. However, as Wright was planning Fallingwater, he came to recognize the limitations of his career up to that point. He realized that unique homes such as Fallingwater were largely available only to the elite. Wright was also dedicated to civic planning, and he wanted to build structures that were accessible to a broader public as well. To this end, he developed a concept for a model city called Broadacre City. He published his ideas on this commu-nity for the first time in 1932. The city was designed to provide affordable housing to average Americans. The ideal city Wright envisioned did not come to frui-tion, but he continued to develop this concept until his death. In addition, throughout the late 1930s, he designed what he referred to as Usonian houses. Usonian houses were small, inexpensively constructed single-family homes intended for the American middle class. As with his other residential work, Wright relied on natural materials, open, integrated plans, and the elimination of unnecessary elements. However, creat-ing an economical house was the driving force behind the Usonian house designs.

While Wright is perhaps most famous for his residential work, he also designed museums, office

buildings, and churches. Some of the most famous examples are Unity Temple in Oak Park, Illinois (1904), the Johnson Wax Research Tower in Racine, Wisconsin (1936–39), and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City (1943–59). Wright continued to work actively until his death at age ninety-one. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :Winona, Sears Honor-Bilt Home, Available 1913–40, 1930s Catalogue Version

In his concept for the smaller and more economical Usonian houses, Wright was in part inspired by kits such as those offered by Sears Modern Homes. These kit homes, available through the Sears, Roebuck and Company catalogue from 1908–40, were intended as affordable housing for the average American family. Customers could look through the Sears and Roebuck catalogue, select the home that was most appropriate to their needs and budget, customize it, and place an order. All of the pieces necessary to construct the home—including lumber, nails, varnish, doorknobs, and other fixtures—came included, along with a detailed instruction book. The kit was delivered by rail; the customer was responsible for transporting all of the materials from the railroad station to the building site. Generally, homeowners constructed the homes themselves, as this was one important way to save money. For a period of time Sears did offer the services of professionals who assembled the kits, but this came at a cost that most families purchasing the low-cost homes could not afford.

One key selling point of the Sears kit homes was that construction was relatively easy and did not involve advanced carpentry skills. All of the lumber came pre-cut and clearly labeled, so there was little room for error. Sears homes used balloon-framing, a simple method of construction that came into favor in the nineteenth century and remained common through the 1950s. Whereas older framing styles such as timber-framing required technical experience and left much possibility for error in the hand cutting of elements such as mortise-and-tenon joints, bal-loon-framing was easily accomplished by an amateur builder. Standardized wooden studs and factory-pro-duced nails made construction by an individual with only basic carpentry skills possible. Sears homes also often employed prefabricated drywall, which replaced older construction methods using plaster and lathe. Roofing consisted of asphalt shingles, which were similarly easy to install and had the added advantage over earlier materials of being fireproof.

The Winona, a bungalow style home, was very popular for many years. It was first available in 1913 and remained in the catalogue until the Honor-Bilt

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line was discontinued in 1940. The Winona was a one-story home, and plans were available with two or three bedrooms and one bathroom. In the 1930s, the price for this home ranged from $744–$1998, making it one of the more economical models in the Honor-Bilt line.

The bungalow was first seen in American domes-tic architecture during the late nineteenth century, and houses in this style were built across the coun-try, especially through the mid-twentieth century. Characteristic features of the bungalow style home can be identified from the outside. Most bungalows

Another example of a Sears mail-order home kit, this one for the ‘Modern Home No. 115’, is shown in this advertisement from the Sears, Roebuck, and Company Catalogue.

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are one- or one-and-one-half-story homes. Bungalows generally have a low-pitched roof and a large, cov-ered front porch. The profile is generally horizontal in its emphasis, making the bungalow look cozy and inviting from the exterior.

On the interior, many bungalows maximize limited space by incorporating built-in furnishings such as cabinets, bookcases, and benches. Interior spaces are generally small and intimate, with relatively open flow through the living areas. In particular, the kitchen, din-ing area, and living room are usually integrated, while the bedrooms are typically located to one side.

These features are all visible when we examine the Sears Honor-Bilt Winona home. From the exterior, we see several steps that lead to the broad porch, which extends across the width of the house. One can also see the low-pitched roof and exposed beams, typi-cal of a bungalow. The interior plan reveals that the house is bifurcated, with one half dedicated to com-munal living and the other half set aside for private life. To the left of the entrance is the living room, which leads directly into the dining room and beyond that, the kitchen. The rooms are divided by walls, but the arched opening between the living room and the dining area is wide, providing for a sense of continuity from one space to the next. A hallway from the com-munal area leads to the bedrooms and bathrooms, which are located on the opposite side of the house. Each of the bedrooms has a closet, and one plan included another closet located at the home’s main entrance. The basement and attic provide additional storage space. Over time, many of these attics have been converted to bedrooms, although they were not designed as such in the original plans.

Various options were available with the Winona design. The plan could be flipped so that the bed-rooms were on the opposite side of the house. Customers could choose between two- and three-bedroom layouts, depending on their needs and the size of their land. The selection of either a garage or a carport was also left to the discretion of the buyer. In addition, the consumer was able to select from a variety of plumbing and heating options. In all cases, the lumber and other essential building materials were consistent. A key selling point for the Honor-Bilt line was the use of high-quality “clear” woods, mean-ing floors and sidings that did not have knots visible. Superior woods such as oak and maple were used for areas of the home where guests would be received; pine, a more economical option, was used for the intimate spaces such as the bedrooms. The catalogue suggested that the house be painted ivory or white with a red roof.

Sears Modern Homes came in three different lines—Sears Honor-Bilt, Standard Built, and Simplex Sectional. These lines ranged in price and quality, and were marketed to three different income brackets. The Sears Honor-Bilt homes, of which the Winona was

a popular model, were top-of-the-line and used the highest quality materials, while the Simplex Sectional houses were extremely basic in their design. Many of the Simplex Sectional homes were probably used as vacation homes. The Standard Built homes fell in the middle range; they were designed for year-round occupancy, but the materials were often less prestigious than those used in the Honor-Bilt line, and the homes included fewer features. Within each line, there were a variety of price ranges. During the 1930s, Honor-Bilt houses ranged from less than five hundred dollars for the low-end Kismet model to over four thousand dollars for the seven-room, Colonial style Lexington house. Compared to the $155,000 estimated cost of Fallingwater, it is easy to see how these homes were much more accessible to a middle-class homeowner.38

In the 1920s, Sears, Roebuck and Company offered financing plans, which made it possible for peo-ple without extensive savings to purchase a home. Loans were available at about 6–7 percent interest. With increased economic pressures at the onset of the Great Depression, however, Sears discontinued financing, and so customers in the 1930s needed to have cash available on hand to purchase a kit.

By the time the company began to offer kit homes, it already had a thriving mail order business and was able to reach a wide audience. The Chicago-based company was founded in 1886 by Richard Warren Sears and Alvah C. Roebuck. The first Sears, Roebuck and Company catalogue was published in 1893, and with it, Sears and Roebuck sought to compete with local general stores by providing a wide variety of goods at low prices. The catalogues of the early twentieth century sold everything from seeds to automobiles. Over the course of a twenty-two-year period (1908–40), Sears, Roebuck and Company sold approximately 70,000–75,000 kit homes through mail order. Sears, Roebuck and Company did have compe-tition, as other manufacturers certainly existed at the same time. However, the company’s use of its popular catalogue to reach consumers across the country was a unique and effective marketing technique. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

Section IV Summarym Skyscrapers: Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Empire

State Building, New York City, 1931

m The construction of monumental skyscrapers in the 1930s, supported by private, specula-tive funding, provided jobs and a boost to morale during the economic crisis of the Great Depression .

m At the time of its completion, the Empire State Building was the tallest building in the world .

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m Skyscrapers were developed in cities like Chicago in the second half of the nineteenth century in order to use the limited space of the city center to its greatest advantage .

m The Empire State Building relied on innova-tions in architecture developed in the late nineteenth century (steel beam construction in particular) .

m Its streamlined Art Deco design was consid-ered to be modern and appropriate for the new age .

m Public Architecture: Gordon Kaufmann et al ., Hoover Dam, Nevada-Arizona Border, 1931–36

m Large public projects sponsored by the gov-ernment provided employment and housing for workers during the Great Depression .

m From the standpoint of architectural construc-tion, important government agencies during the 1930s included the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the Works Progress Administration .

m Government agencies under the New Deal provided for new and improved roads, bridg-es, park amenities, schools, libraries, hospitals, post offices, town halls, and other buildings intended to improve communal life .

m Hoover Dam was initiated many years before the Great Depression, but it was completed and dedicated under Roosevelt in 1935 .

m In addition to being a tremendous achieve-ment from an engineering standpoint, the dam holds great aesthetic appeal .

m Architect Gordon Kaufmann incorporated Art Deco elements into the dam’s final design .

m The name of the dam has changed over the years, illustrating the political nature of public architecture .

m Domestic Architecture: Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania, Designed 1935, Built 1936–39; Winona, Sears Honor-Bilt Home, available 1913–40, 1930s catalogue version

m High unemployment and diminished construc-tion during the Great Depression resulted in homelessness in many areas across the coun-try; the impact was especially felt by poor and middle-class families .

m Hoovervilles were temporary and informal housing communities set up by homeless people in cities throughout the United States . They were plagued by health and sanitation problems, but other solutions to the housing crisis were not easy to find .

m During the New Deal, the government sought to alleviate problems with homelessness through programs designed to provide low-interest loans and encourage construction .

m The two examples discussed here (Fallingwater and the Sears Honor-Bilt Home) provide a con-trast between innovative, uniquely designed housing for the rich and the mass-produced, affordable housing of the middle class .

m Wright was a prolific and innovative architect who was especially well known for his domes-tic architecture designs .

m Fallingwater was completed in the second stage of Wright’s career . At that time he was concerned with creating “organic” architec-ture by incorporating elements of nature into his built structures .

m Fallingwater is remarkable for its integration of nature and the built environment .

m Sears, Roebuck and Company sold kit homes through their catalogue from 1908–40 .

m The homes, available in three price ranges, were accessible to middle-class customers .

m Sears homes arrived to the customer in a kit and could be assembled by a team of amateurs .

m The Winona is a bungalow, a popular style of domestic architecture found throughout the country . The Winona was a popular Sears home from 1913–40 .

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Introduction and Historical ContextThe Search for “America”

The search to define “America” was of national inter-est in the 1930s, especially as the country faced tremendous change during the Great Depression .

As we have seen, photographers supported by U .S . government agencies were also involved in this pursuit . Through their photographs, they sought to capture the multiplicity of experiences across rural and urban America . Artists completing mural projects in public places were similarly preoccupied with identifying the subject matter and style most appropriate for address-ing the concerns of the American people . Finally, skyscraper projects were intended to represent the greatness of America and its ability to build higher and higher, symbolically overcoming adversity . The painters discussed in this section all depicted some aspect of the American experience .

This interest in defining “America” was complicated by the fact that the nation was highly pluralistic . Many Americans were aware of an urban-rural divide that translated into different experiences and values in those different settings . In addition, the country and its cul-tures varied widely from coast to coast and from north to south . No doubt we are aware of pluralism along these same lines today, and we have certain ideas asso-ciated with urban centers in the North and how they differ from small towns in the South, for example, just as we continue to sense differences between the two coasts . However, when compared to the 1930s, these regional differences have been lessened by increased movement of the American population throughout the nation, greater accessibility to different parts of the country through travel, and increased knowledge of other ways of life through media exposure .

Immigration, especially from Europe, but also from Asia and other parts of the world, increased during the first decades of the twentieth-century . Many immigrants found it necessary to assimilate with the dominant culture in order to blend in as ordinary “Americans .” Notions of race and ethnicity, cultural constructs that had great significance in the nineteenth century, were

defined and redefined during this period and so were constantly in flux . Although citizens of some European nations had antagonisms toward each other that car-ried over in the United States, ethnic identity among Europeans was largely de-emphasized; the emphasis instead was on racial identity under an all-encompass-ing umbrella of “whiteness .” The racial divide between whites and African Americans continued to be laden with tension, even decades after the abolition of slav-ery . Since most art institutions—schools, museums, and galleries—were controlled by whites, a significant portion of the artworks produced in this period tended to erase experiences that deviated from the white mainstream . The Harlem Renaissance, which provided education and patronage for African-American artists, provided an alternative, as we will discuss .

Artistic Styles in the 1930sA great tension existed in the art of the 1930s . Many

progressive artists in Europe and the United States sought a new language of expression that would chal-lenge the art of the past . This was especially the case in the years between the world wars; modernist artists felt that the artistic languages of the past had failed in the context of such tremendous crisis, and they sought to redefine human civilization through new art forms . Cubism, Futurism, and Dada are artistic movements that might come to mind here, as each challenged in new ways the concept of a painting as a window into another world that was depicted in a way that would appear naturalistic, and thus “comfortable,” to our eyes .

American artists and audiences were quite aware of new tendencies in European modernism . First, many American artists, including most who are discussed in this guide, traveled to Europe in the early stages of their careers in search of an understanding of European art styles . Second, prominent European artists immigrated to the United States in the years around the wars, and in this way European modernism became American modernism . And third, New York City was already an important international center for art exhibitions in the early twentieth century, beginning with the 1913

S E C T I O N V :

American Regionalism/American Experiences

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Armory Show, which highlighted the most progressive modernist art of the time .

In the context of this quest for “American” art, many artists consciously rejected European influences . The most visible and vocal proponents of a move-ment toward a new American art were perhaps those associated with the Regionalist movement, also called American Scene painting, specifically Thomas Hart Benton (1889–1975), Grant Wood (1891–1942), and John Steuart Curry (1897–1946) . Each of these artists is strongly associated with images of rural life in the Midwest, especially rooted in their home states of Missouri (Benton), Iowa (Wood), and Kansas (Curry) . Benton, Wood, and Curry were by no means provincial artists who simply painted from their own experiences . Each of these artists traveled widely and gained famil-iarity with European traditions, which were consciously rejected in favor of a naturalistic style focusing on everyday subjects related to American rural life .

The December 24, 1934, issue of Time maga-zine focused national attention on the art of the Regionalists, praising their art as truly “American .” The magazine featured Thomas Hart Benton on the cover, bringing national attention to the Midwestern themes in his art . The accompanying article also placed an emphasis on Wood and Curry as major artists associ-ated with the movement . While a number of painters shared the Regionalist vision, the most prominent art-ists associated with this group were white men . This tended to result in paintings that generally expressed experiences from the white male perspective; relatively speaking, the experiences of women and people of other racial groups were given minimal attention .

The artists discussed in this guide, all primarily paint-ers, were not all associated with Regionalism . However, all five of the painters we discuss here were dedicated

to figurative art and forged styles of painting that have come to be seen as “American,” and therefore distinct from European modernism . Of these five artists, only O’Keeffe’s work might be defined as abstract because of the artist’s focus on detail and her expressive use of color; even so, O’Keeffe remained wholeheartedly rooted in figurative study throughout her career .

Selected WorksSELECTED WORK :Grant Wood, American Gothic, 1930

Grant Wood’s painting American Gothic (1930), one of the most iconic images of the decade, became famous very soon after its completion and remains a highly recognizable image in American culture today. In spite of its seemingly straightforward style and simple subject, American Gothic is very complex and open to multiple interpretations. Although it is some-times understood as a reverential image of rural life in the American heartland, it can also be read as a satirical and potentially critical image of rural life and values.

Wood, who was born in Anamosa, Iowa, in 1891, was strongly connected to the rural Midwest through-out his life. He promoted an image of himself as a rural worker, often posing for pictures dressed in overalls. Although he spent his earliest years in a farming community, his family moved to Cedar Rapids in 1901 following the death of Wood’s father. There, Wood began to take formal art lessons.

In 1910, after completing high school, Wood con-tinued his art education at the Minneapolis School of Design and Handicraft. He studied metalwork, wood-working, and jewelry making, and gained greater experience with design principles. During this period, Wood was also influenced by the Arts and Crafts aesthetic and its focus on ornamental design; the emphasis on decorative pattern remained prevalent in his later work, as is evident in American Gothic. The influence of this early introduction to many forms of art beyond the “fine art” of painting remained with Wood throughout his career. In addition to working as a fine-art painter, he also made prints, advertising posters, and drawings.

In 1913, Wood moved to Chicago where he studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. At this time, he also worked as a teacher in Cedar Rapids. In the 1920s, Wood made several trips to Europe where he studied Impressionism and Post-Impressionism and also gained a familiarity with contemporary European modernism. In his work, he rejected the movement toward abstraction that drove much of the progressive European art scene in favor of an emphasis on naturalism and scenes from everyday

A photograph of works on display at the 1913 Armory Show.

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life. Ultimately, Wood, along with other artists asso-ciated with American Regionalism, sought to move away from the influence of European art, arguing that contemporary American painting should reflect a truly American experience through style as well as subject matter. While in Europe, however, Wood did become very interested in historical art styles such as the detailed linearism and heightened naturalism of the northern Renaissance artist Jan Van Eyck. Even when seeking to establish new traditions, Wood found that it is impossible for an artist to be truly free of all his-torical influences.

During the summers of 1932 and 1933, Wood worked at the Stone City Art Colony in rural Iowa. The Stone City Art Colony was created to provide artists with residencies during the difficult finan-cial times of the Great Depression.39 Wood taught painting over the two summers that the colony was in existence. For Wood and his colleagues at the Colony, the opportunity to work in rural Iowa was an important way of maintaining contact with life in the heartland of America. The rural setting was certainly a contrast to the cosmopolitan art world that Wood had found through his travels in Europe in the 1920s. In 1934, when Wood was charged with overseeing the Public Works of Art Project for the state of Iowa, he employed some of the artists who had been active in the colony, and in this way the community of like-minded Regionalist artists was strengthened.

Wood was also an active member of the artistic community in Iowa City, serving as a painting profes-sor at the University of Iowa, not far from his home-town of Cedar Rapids. Wood was on the University of Iowa faculty from 1934 until his death in 1942. There

he also sought to promote a mode of art production that focused on the experience of life in the Midwest. Wood died in 1942, just before he turned fifty-one years old. While his work was very well received in the 1930s, in the years after his death it came to be seen in a more negative light. With the new emphasis on abstraction in the 1940s, Wood’s art was deemed naïve, folksy, and overly simplistic. It is impossible to predict how Wood’s work and career might have shifted had he lived a longer life.

Many of Wood’s contemporaries in the Midwest thought that his work upheld age-old values that were being challenged by outside forces. A newspaper obit-uary from 1942 argued that the values of Midwestern rural life were under threat from increased industrial-ism and urbanism. The author argued that “through-out this period of crisis, and even more earnestly in the period of demobilization that follows, it will be the task of the agricultural leadership to refresh, to renew, and to preserve the serenity, the privacy, the earthi-ness, and wholesomeness of the rural home. This difficult task will require the insight Grant Wood had and the appreciation his warm canvases so eloquently expressed.”40

American Gothic depicts a man and a woman standing stiffly in front of a white farmhouse with a Gothic-style window. The image is closely cropped, and the figures are positioned in a formal fashion, as if they are posing for a photograph. The man and woman are shown from the waist up, and their bodies fill the frame to its edges. Likewise, the farmhouse and red barn in the background are only partially visible, extending beyond the confines of the frame. The close-up nature of this image implies a kind of intimacy with its subject matter. Wood creates the illusion that the image is a portrait of a farm couple, although in fact the painting is not a portrait at all but a staged image.

The couple is dressed in clothing that in the 1930s must have appeared old-fashioned and very conser-vative to contemporary viewers of the painting. The woman wears a dark dress with a white collar in a style that would have been fashionable decades before. A cameo is pinned at her throat, indicating that she is dressed to look her best. Her clothing is protected by a brown and white apron: although she is dressed in fine clothing and adorned with a simple piece of jewelry, she is also prepared for work. The man in the painting stands to her side and slightly in front of her. He is dressed in a striped work shirt, overalls, and a dark blue jacket. He holds a pitchfork solidly in front of him; his hand, grasping the tool firmly, is weathered from hard work and exposure to the sun.

Both of the figures are posed stiffly, seemingly aware of an audience. Their expressions are serious, and their faces reveal little emotion. While the wom-an’s eyes drift to the side, the man engages directly with the viewer, his gaze looking straight out at us.

A photograph of Grant Wood sketching in the Iowa countryside.

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Although the painting is so naturalistic that it has the look of a photograph, we must keep in mind that Wood made purposeful decisions about every detail, such as the direction of the figures’ gazes. It is pos-sible that he meant for the more direct male gaze to serve as an indicator of a strong patriarchy, in which the man serves as a protective figure for the woman, who is relatively shielded from public view. The posi-tion of the pitchfork in a protective position in front of her body certainly reinforces this idea.

The farmhouse in the background is painted in great detail. It is a simple, wooden house with a large porch. A few potted plants are sitting on the porch, but beyond that there is little superficial adornment. The most distinctive detail is the window on the upper level. With its pointed arch and tripartite division, it is reminiscent of Gothic architecture, giving the painting its name. A patterned brown and white cloth hangs in the window, echoing the woman’s apron. The lighten-ing rod on top of the house is partially visible, but in conjunction with the medieval revival style window, it is also reminiscent of a cross on the steeple of a church. To the viewer’s right, part of a red barn is vis-ible, in close proximity to the house. In the distance we see a densely packed field of trees and the indica-tion of a church steeple, a weathervane, or another lightening rod in the distance.

Typical of Wood’s style, every aspect of the paint-ing is purposeful, and there is a great deal of rep-etition in design. Both of the figures are thin with elongated faces that echo the shape of the Gothic revival window. The more oval face of the woman also repeats the shape of the cameo brooch she wears. The form of the pitchfork is repeated in the stitching on the front of the man’s overalls and in the three sets of stripes on his shirt, as well as in the window form in the divisions of its panes of glass. These instances of repetition provide unification throughout the paint-ing. These details also remind us that Wood’s image is not merely an anecdotal representation of a scene he observed, but rather a highly constructed image.

Wood’s style is both highly naturalistic and styl-ized. The figures’ faces are shown in great detail, with every wrinkle visible. We can also observe how care-fully Wood has depicted every detail of his figures’ hair and clothing. This level of specificity extends into the background as well; the texture of the wood of the buildings is visible, as are subtle gradations of light and color in the landscape. The trees in the background are depicted with sharp detail; they are, in fact, depicted with a degree of detail that goes beyond what is naturalistic. This uniform detail creates the illusion that Wood was a naïve, self-taught painter, when in fact he had extensive training. The crisp detail and focus on pattern and symbolic elements is in keeping with the influence of northern Renaissance art, especially Flemish painters such as Jan van Eyck, on Wood’s style.

One of the first questions that this painting raises in the viewer’s mind relates to the relationship between the man and the woman who stand before us. While some viewers have interpreted the work as an image of a husband and wife on their farm, it is more often understood as an image of a farmer and his spinster daughter, given the clear age discrepancy between the two figures. In fact, the image is not a portrait at all. The man and woman were based on Wood’s younger sister Nan (1900–90) and his dentist, Byron McKeeby (1867–1950). The two figures are positioned in front of a Gothic revival house that Wood encoun-tered while visiting Eldon, Iowa. Wood’s models never actually posed together in front of the house. Wood instead had each figure model for him separately, and he then pieced these images together with sketches he made of the house for the final work.

Wood entered American Gothic in a competi-tion at the Art Institute of Chicago and received a bronze medal. He was rewarded with a $300 prize, a significant amount of money in 1930. The painting was also purchased by the Art Institute of Chicago for an additional $300. This purchase brought a tre-mendous amount of attention to Wood and to the painting. Critical reception was mixed, though. While some viewers saw the work as a celebration of rural life and an homage to the hard work and stoicism of Midwestern farmers, others viewed the work as satirical, arguing that Wood was mocking religious conservatism. Wood denied any intention to mock his subjects and situated the work instead in the context of Regionalism, with its focus on the lives of ordinary people in rural America. However, some of Wood’s other works, such as Daughters of the American Revolution, are undeniably satirical; as a result, this work remains open to interpretation today.

As the Depression worsened in the 1930s, Regionalist works such as this, with its focus on rural America, came to represent the moral virtue of the American farmer. In that light, the work was read as celebratory of the struggling farmer who weathered the storm of financial crisis with his stoic attitude and firm stance. Wood and his work were subject to reinterpretation after his death, however. Tremendous shifts in the art world occurred in response to U.S. involvement in World War II with the development of Abstract Expressionism as the dominant style. In this context, Wood’s work began to appear provin-cial. Worse yet, art historian H. W. Janson lambasted Wood’s style, equating it with the heroic realism pro-moted by Hitler’s regime in Nazi Germany. Janson went on to write an influential art history textbook that is still used in classrooms today; his utter erasure of Wood’s work in early editions of the text limited scholarly inquiry into Wood’s paintings for decades. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

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SELECTED WORK :Georgia O’Keeffe, Cow’s Skull with Calico Roses, 1931

Over the course of her long career, Georgia O’Keeffe (1887–1986) earned a position of promi-nence as one of the country’s most important paint-ers. O’Keeffe emerged as an influential painter on the American scene in the 1920s, a time when women artists had relatively few opportunities to acquire an education and receive recognition for their work, as compared to their male contemporaries. O’Keeffe remained active for decades, and her landscapes and still-life images produced in the Southwest have virtu-ally defined the art of that region of the country.

O’Keeffe was born in 1887 in Sun City, Wisconsin. Her parents encouraged all of their daughters to receive an education and pursue a career, and O’Keeffe was introduced to the visual arts at an early age. By the time she graduated from high school, her interest in painting was already clear. In 1905 she began to take classes at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. In 1907 she relocated to New York and enrolled at the Art Students League. By 1908 it seems that O’Keeffe had decided to abandon art school, in spite of the fact that she received high praise and recognition for her work there. She moved back to Chicago, where she put her skills to use as a commercial artist, and then left the Midwest for Texas, where she worked for a time as an art teacher.

O’Keeffe’s interest in painting was rekindled in 1912 when she took a summer class at the University of Virginia and was introduced to the work of Arthur Wesley Dow, who eventually became O’Keeffe’s teacher and an inspiration for her mature work. Dow’s ideas and his focus on nonwestern art helped O’Keeffe arrive at a more abstract style, while still maintain-ing her focus on the natural world. She produced a series of charcoal images that she sent to one of her friends, Anna Pollitzer. Pollitzer showed O’Keeffe’s drawings to the famous New York photographer and influential art dealer Alfred Stieglitz. Without consult-ing O’Keeffe, Stieglitz decided to show her work at his well-known gallery, 291. This exhibition ultimately brought O’Keeffe tremendous exposure.

Stieglitz, who exerted a very strong influence on the development of contemporary art in America during the teens and twenties, began to provide sup-port for O’Keeffe and promoted her work. The two fell in love, lived and worked together, and married in 1924. Although they spent a great deal of time apart, O’Keeffe and Stieglitz remained married until his death in 1946.

As her career developed in the 1920s, O’Keeffe focused on images of flowers and plants as well as the distinctive architecture that defined the modern city of New York. Working in oil paint, she produced

sharply delineated and abstracted images of her sub-jects. By the end of the decade, she was one of the most recognized and successful painters working in New York City. Stieglitz’s promotion of her work cer-tainly helped her in this regard.

In 1929 O’Keeffe made a trip to the Southwest that would lead to a shift in her art. Spending time in Taos, Santa Fe, and Albuquerque, New Mexico, O’Keeffe was inspired by the stark and dramatic landscapes of the desert. She began to spend her summers painting in New Mexico; in 1949, a few years after Stieglitz’s death, she relocated to the Southwest permanently. As in New York, O’Keeffe remained focused on her subjects—the landscape, distinctive architecture, and the world of plants and flowers all around her—but in an abstracted style, allowing for a focus on undulat-ing forms and evocative colors rather than naturalistic representations.

O’Keeffe continued to receive recognition for her work in the 1940s and the decades that followed. Her work was exhibited in major retrospective shows at the Art Institute of Chicago (1943) and the Museum of Modern Art in New York (1946). The show at the

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A photograph of Georgia O’Keeffe, taken in 1950 by Carl van Vechten.

Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division.

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Museum of Modern Art was the museum’s first retro-spective exhibition dedicated to the work of a female artist. In the 1970s, O’Keeffe was seen as a source of inspiration for a new generation of feminist artists.

O’Keeffe’s eyesight began to suffer in the early 1970s, and she temporarily abandoned painting. Soon, though, she returned to art making, inspired by the potter Juan Hamilton, who worked closely with her in the last decades of her life. From the mid-1970s until her death in 1986, O’Keeffe painted and produced works in clay.

Cow’s Skull with Calico Roses, painted in 1931, was inspired by one of O’Keeffe’s trips to the American Southwest. Here, O’Keeffe presents an image of a cow’s skull that has been dried and bleached by the sun. The skull, shown larger than it would appear in life, is set against an abstracted backdrop, perhaps shown as if mounted on a wall. Two roses adorn the skull, one by its snout and one near the horn at the right.

Typical of O’Keeffe’s work, Cow’s Skull with Calico Roses is painted in a linear style. Forms are delineated by firm outlines, and subtle gradations of light and dark provide a sense of volume. The symmetrical form of the skull dominates the center of the composition; this symmetry is broken, though, by the thick, dark line that bifurcates the composition, appearing as negative space between the fabric that has apparent-ly been suspended as a backdrop behind the skull.

O’Keeffe’s use of color is a distinguishing charac-teristic of her work. Many of her compositions employ color dramatically, juxtaposing shades of vibrant reds, blues, yellows, and greens. Cow’s Skull with Calico Roses also works with color contrasts, the focus here being on shades of white, black, and gray. The skull stands out against the delicately shaded background because its harsh whiteness contrasts with the vary-ing tones of gray. Although O’Keeffe’s palette in this work is subtle, it is also dramatic, due to the strong contrast between the white skull and the dark wood.

The human skull was often represented in earlier European still life paintings as a momento mori, a symbolic reminder of the mortality of all humans. O’Keeffe plays on this tradition, replacing the human skull with that of a cow. The bleached cow skull serves as a marker of the natural passage of life. O’Keeffe’s image is not mournful, however; instead, her focus is on the beautiful form of the decaying bone as an abstract object. Although the skull obviously repre-sents death, the roses serve to animate the scene, recalling a woman with a rose tucked behind her ear. In one sense, it is as if O’Keeffe sought to contrast opposites by juxtaposing the roses in full bloom with the bleached and damaged skull, perhaps represent-ing a lost life. At the same time, the roses, themselves bleached of the colors that they must have had in full bloom, appear ghost-like, reinforcing the image of death.

Although her work after 1929 is strongly associ-ated with a particular region of the country—the Southwest—O’Keeffe would not be classified as one of the Regionalist painters of the 1930s, as their work was centered in the Midwest and on the depiction of human life in rural settings. O’Keeffe was very con-nected to the world in which she lived and the crisis of the times, and yet her work remained focused on land-scapes and still life objects treated in an abstracted manner that was distanced from social commentary. Even so, her paintings of the 1930s reveal an interest in various aspects of the American experience and the distinct qualities of different areas of the country.n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :Thomas Hart Benton, Departure of the Joads, from The Grapes of Wrath, 1939

Thomas Hart Benton, along with Grant Wood, is considered one of the most important Regionalist painters. Wood, whose career was cut short by his premature death, did not live to see his naturalistic style of art fall out of favor. Benton, on the other hand, lived a long life and continued to be active as an artist for decades, witnessing the decline in popularity of the Regionalist style among critics.

Benton was born in Neosho, Missouri, in 1889, and his work was strongly associated with Missouri, even though he traveled and worked throughout the country and in Europe. He was sent to military school as a young man, in keeping with his father’s expecta-tions that his son would pursue a career in politics or in the military. Benton’s father was himself a military man, a lawyer, and a representative in Congress; his great uncle, after whom Benton was named, was a long-time United States senator.

Benton’s aspirations were different from those of his father, however, and in 1907 he left Missouri to enroll at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Like many of his contemporaries who aspired to be artists, Benton traveled to Europe, where he spent several years in Paris, beginning in 1908. Upon his return to the United States in 1912, he settled in New York, where he remained for over a decade. In New York, Benton struggled artistically, as he worked to free himself from European modernism and to devel-op a vision that he defined as uniquely American. Benton also worked as an art teacher. It was in this role that he met his future wife, Rita Piacensa, who was one of his students. The two married in 1922 and remained together until his death in 1975.

In 1924, Benton returned to Missouri to help care for his dying father. Back in his home state, he became increasingly interested in the representation

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of Midwestern life as a symbol of American identity. Like Wood, he began to paint the working lives of ordinary Americans in the Midwest, often focusing on rural scenes. In 1932 Benton was selected to paint a series of murals illustrating the state of Indiana, its history, and the life of its people. The Indiana Murals were first exhibited at the World’s Fair in Chicago in 1933; they are now on display at the campus of Indiana University. The murals were controversial at the time of their completion because Benton included aspects of Indiana’s history that many people hoped to forget. He depicted the activities of a racist organization, the Ku Klux Klan, and illustrated the forced removal of Native Americans from the state. Far from showing an idealistic vision of Indiana, he also included scenes of labor riots and long unemployment lines. This brutal honesty became Benton’s signature style, and it set him apart from artists such as Wood, who seemed to show an idealistic and pastoral image of the Midwest. By this time, Benton had also developed his unique style as a muralist. His lively compositions are typically crowded with stylized figures who nearly threaten to burst off of the wall. Another of his most important

works from the 1930s was The Social History of the State of Missouri (1936), a mural cycle for the Missouri State Capitol building in Jefferson City.

Benton was also active as a teacher; interestingly enough, one of his most famous students was the Abstract Expressionist painter Jackson Pollock (1912–56), whose mature work would be radically different from his teacher’s naturalistic style. Benton taught at the Art Students League of New York from 1926–35, and it was there that he first served as a mentor to Pollock. He also made a lasting mark as a professor at the Kansas City Art Institute, where he began teach-ing in 1935. Benton, who was often quite outspoken, caused a good deal of controversy in Kansas City for offensive statements he made that gained national attention; he was fired from the Kansas City Art Institute in 1941.41

Over time, Benton and his work began to fall out of favor. With the rise of Abstract Expressionism in the 1940s, Regionalism began to be seen as provin-cial and simplistic. In addition, Benton’s connection to the conservative art critic Thomas Craven became problematic. Craven had been a strong supporter of Benton’s work, praising it in the 1930s. By the 1940s, however, Craven’s blatant anti-Semitism became increasingly unpopular, as the United States entered World War II as an enemy of Nazi Germany. Given Craven’s former support of Benton’s work, this meant that the artist, already no stranger to controversy, became increasingly marginalized. Benton continued to work actively as a painter for the decades leading up to his death; however, he increasingly took the landscape as his subject.

While Benton is most recognized as a painter, and specifically as a muralist, he was also an accomplished printmaker. The Departure of the Joads, which is a lithograph, depicts a scene that many viewers in 1939 and today would recognize as an illustration for John Steinbeck’s famous novel The Grapes of Wrath. The Departure of the Joads depicts a scene when the Joad family prepares to embark on a journey from their home in Oklahoma to California in search of work and a better life.

The lithograph depicts a landscape populated with characters from the novel. A few clouds drift across the sky, revealing a crescent moon. A small, ramshackle house is seen in the distance, and the farmland, formerly a source of stability for the fam-ily, is barren. Many of the figures are seen from the back or with their faces concealed. Rather than cre-ate detailed images of each of the novel’s characters, Benton chose to limit himself to depictions that leave much to the viewer’s imagination, opening the scene up to multiple interpretations.

The foreground is dominated by the rickety truck that will carry the family to California. The men load the family’s possessions onto the truck while a woman, perhaps Rose of Sharon, sits on the running board by

A photograph of Thomas Hart Benton, taken by Carl van Vechten.

Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division.

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the passenger side door. In the foreground, the two children, Ruthie and Winfield, look on. The men seem certain of their path, as they work with no sign of hesitation. The more passive stance of the women and the children indicates their lack of agency, as they must follow the decision made by the others. Two fig-ures located directly in the middle of the composition appear to be involved in a moment of intense discus-sion or feeling; the anguished poses of the figures in the middle ground are perhaps meant to represent the anxiety associated with tremendous change. Recalling the story, Grandpa Joad had expressed a strong desire to stay home, but was ultimately forced to travel with the family. Tragically, he dies on the journey west. Perhaps this central couple in the com-position is intended to capture this sense of angst associated with plunging into an uncertain future. A solitary figure, perhaps representing Muley Graves, a neighbor who chose to stay behind in Oklahoma, is seated by the side of the house.

In 1939, Twentieth Century-Fox commissioned Benton to produce promotional images for the movie based on Steinbeck’s novel. Benton made five images that illustrated some of the main characters from the book; a sixth image was this narrative moment depict-ing the family’s departure for California. This image was enlarged and reproduced as a billboard and was also recreated as a painting.42 A book publisher saw Benton’s promotional images and commissioned the artist to produce a series of lithographic illustrations for the 1940 edition of Steinbeck’s novel, published by The Limited Editions Club. Sixty-one illustrations were included in this special edition of the book, including The Departure of the Joads.43

The Joads’ preparation for departure is a moment full of emotional intensity in the novel. The Joads find themselves at a symbolic crossroad; they are faced with the choice of staying or moving on. Optimistic at this point in the novel, the Joads make the deci-sion to bank on the seductive image of a better life in California. Notably, Benton chose to illustrate the pos-sibility of different paths within this single lithograph. In the foreground we see the confident men load-ing the truck. The figures in the middle ground are representative of hesitation, while the solitary figure seated against the house is symbolic of the steadfast will to remain rooted at home, no matter how difficult life there became. Such choices and varied responses were similar to the situations faced by countless Americans during this time of crisis. The particular moment that Benton chose to illustrate, then, would have had resonance for countless Americans during the time of recovery following the Great Depression. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

SELECTED WORK :Jacob Lawrence, And the Migrants Kept Coming, from the “Migration Series,” 1940–41

During the 1930s and 1940s, the experiences of African Americans were largely absent in the work of white Regionalist artists like Wood and Benton. The art of the African-American artist Jacob Lawrence, such as his panel And the Migrants Kept Coming, was an important exception to the art of the time as it portrayed the experiences of African Americans. And the Migrants Kept Coming was part of a larger series illustrating an aspect of African-American life during the years between the World Wars—the migration of over a million African Americans from the South to the North, Midwest, and West. The series was repro-duced in a popular magazine and traveled for exhibi-tion throughout the country. In this way, Lawrence’s work reached the mainstream and gave voice to those who were typically silenced in American mainstream culture.

Lawrence was born in Atlantic City, New Jersey, in 1917. His parents separated in 1924, and Lawrence and his siblings lived in foster care for a few years following their separation. After spending time in Philadelphia, the children were reunited with their mother in Harlem when Jacob was thirteen years old. Lawrence’s emergence as an artist began as a young man in Harlem; at that time, he began to take formal art classes and spent his spare time at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

In the 1920s and 1930s Harlem was growing rap-idly, and the neighborhood was home to a vibrant African-American population. During Lawrence’s for-mative years, musicians, poets, novelists, playwrights, artists, and intellectuals together promoted the surge in literature and the arts that became known as the New Negro Movement, a term that emerged from a book of the same title by the philosopher Alain Locke (1925). The New Negro Movement is also known as the Harlem Renaissance; it was envisioned as a rebirth of African-American culture that would result in racial pride and freedom from continuing racial tension and prejudice. Poets such as Langston Hughes sought to express pride in their racial heritage through works like his 1920 poem “The Negro Speaks of Rivers.”44 Singers, musicians, and entertainers like Billie Holiday, Count Basie, and Bert Williams attracted large audi-ences in Harlem nightclubs. Visual artists such as the muralist Aaron Douglas, whose work Aspects of Negro Life we have discussed, turned to new sources and subject matter in order to capture the African-American experience in a new and unique way.

It is in this context that Lawrence emerged as an artist in Harlem during the 1930s. While still young, he took classes from the muralist Charles Alston

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at Utopia Children’s House and the Harlem Art Workshop, where he also studied with the sculptor Augusta Savage. In addition to spending time at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, he studied at the 135th Street Branch of the New York Public Library (later renamed the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the site of Douglas’s murals), where he found many resources related to African-American culture and history. By 1936 Lawrence had set up a studio space and was working independently, while continuing his studies at the American Artists School. Soon he had amassed enough work to have a solo show at the Harlem YMCA in 1938. The recognition he received there led to a position painting for the WPA/FAP in 1939–40. Many of Lawrence’s works from this period focused on daily life in Harlem.

Lawrence was also fascinated with history. In the late 1930s he began to seek a new way to capture the complexities of the African-American experience and to celebrate the contributions of African Americans to American history. In 1938 he completed a series of small paintings that illustrated the life of the abolition-

ist and former slave Frederick Douglass, and he fol-lowed this with a series on the life of Harriet Tubman, who led many slaves to freedom on the Underground Railroad. The success of these works helped him win a grant to complete an even bigger series on the Great Migration, which we will discuss in detail here. The Migration Series made Lawrence famous throughout the country, as major museums vied to purchase his work.

In 1946, Lawrence joined the faculty at Black Mountain College in North Carolina. He had great skill as a teacher and continued to instruct students until late in his life. He eventually took a position as a professor at the University of Washington in Seattle, where he taught from 1970 until his retirement in 1986. He was a prolific painter until his death in 2000, and in addition to the historical series paintings, he executed murals, prints, and panel paintings that revealed life in African-American communities and in some cases addressed crucial issues regarding race relations. Throughout his career, Lawrence worked closely with his wife, the artist Gwendolyn Knight, whom he married in 1941.

And the Migrants Kept Coming is a panel from a much larger series of paintings illustrating the com-plex experiences of the Great Migration. Together, the images that make up The Migration Series tell the story of the movement of well over a million African-American people from the South to the North, Midwest, and West in the years between the World Wars. Although slavery had been abolished decades before, African Americans throughout the country, especially those in the South, faced repression and violence resulting from racist Jim Crow laws, espe-cially in the early twentieth-century. Other factors that contributed to the desire to migrate included limited opportunities for education, poor health care, and inadequate housing facilities. In addition, there were environmental problems such as the boll weevil infes-tation that devastated crops throughout the South and limited earning opportunities for agricultural workers. Increased industrialization on farms also led to a decrease in opportunities for landless workers.

Many African Americans living in the rural South moved to urban centers in the North in search of better jobs, living conditions, and education for their children. Between about 1910–40, over a million and a half African Americans moved to northern cities such as New York, Detroit, Chicago, and Saint Louis in what is known as the Great Migration. These cities offered opportunities for work in the growing indus-trial sector.

This rapid and dramatic migration led to the estab-lishment of densely populated African-American dis-tricts or neighborhoods in northern cities; Harlem is just one such example. Many African-American work-ers found better jobs and improved living conditions in the urban North; however, for many others, life in

Jacob Lawrence, photographed by Peter A. Juley & Son.

Peter A. Juley & Son Collection, Photograph Archives, Smithsonian

American Art Museum.

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the northern cities was in fact more difficult because of the lack of community and changes in social struc-ture that they found there. African Americans contin-ued to face discrimination in the North, even if it was different in nature from the difficulties in the South. In addition, challenges in finding good jobs and housing were exacerbated during the Great Depression.

Lawrence’s series consists of sixty panels, each 12” x 18”, some oriented horizontally and others vertically. The panels were each accompanied by a brief text, which served as narration for the series. Lawrence’s wife, Gwendolyn Knight, worked together with Lawrence to compose the text, which is lyrical as well as informative.

And the Migrants Kept Coming is a horizontal panel. The viewer looks across railroad tracks to a platform crowded with African-American men, women, and children. With the exception of a few children, the figures appear to be dressed for travel, wearing overcoats and hats. There are many suitcases and trunks in the foreground, indicating that the jour-ney will be long. The figures’ faces are all uniformly brown. Although most of the figures look back across the tracks and thus have their faces visible to the viewer of the work, they lack facial features and there-fore are not treated as individuals. The figures blend together and appear as a large mass; each person appears like an anonymous figure in a large crowd. From one side of the painting to the other, the group of figures fills the frame completely. The figures on the edge of the composition are cut off, implying that the line of travelers extends beyond the confines of the painting.

The work is painted in tempera on composition board; the texture is smooth, and the quality of the paint is matte. Lawrence’s range of colors is quite limited in this panel, consisting of brown, white, black, green, blue, yellow, red, and gray. These are the essential colors that Lawrence used throughout the series, as they were the colors that were read-ily available in inexpensive, commercially produced tempera paint powders. Lawrence sought uniformity in his series, and one of the ways he achieved this was through color. Rather than completing each panel separately, he worked on all of them simultaneously. He began by drawing each image on the composi-tion board. He then worked through the entire series with each individual color, completing all of the red sections at one time, followed by all of the green sec-tions, and so on.

While his use of color helped Lawrence create a unified series, so too did the repetition of motifs. Throughout the series, Lawrence repeated shapes and patterns for overall compositional unity. He also alternated close-up and distant viewpoints, vertical and horizontal compositions, to create variety and an overall visual rhythm. And the Migrants Kept Coming is the very last panel in the series of sixty paintings,

and it serves as a bookend for the story, along with the initial panel, which depicts a faceless mass of people crowding through gates marked Chicago, New York, and Saint Louis.

Through this extended series of paintings, Lawrence addressed the complexities of the Great Migration and the multitude of experiences of the African Americans who were part of this great wave that changed the face of northern cities. The early panels illustrate numerous factors that led African-American people to leave the South: two captions read “Food had doubled in price because of the war” (panel 11) and “The labor agent who was sent South by Northern industry was a very familiar person in the Negro counties” (panel 28). The later panels in the series present both positive and negative aspects of life in the North, illustrating the success brought by better jobs and improved educational facilities side by side with the horrors of race riots and the everyday oppression of segregation in public spaces.

Lawrence was no doubt aware that the history of African-American people was largely neglected in the “official” story; that is, African Americans played only a minor role in American history books, received little coverage in mainstream media, and in spite of the vibrancy of movements like the Harlem Renaissance, wielded very limited political and economic power throughout the country. Lawrence conducted exten-sive research for his series, studying at the 135th Street Library in Harlem in particular. This series, in conjunction with his treatment of the lives of fig-ures such as Touissant L’Ouverture, Harriet Tubman, and Frederick Douglass, helps one to conceive of Lawrence as a historian as well as a painter.

Lawrence created the series with the intention that it would be viewed as a whole. However, upon its completion, both the Museum of Modern Art in New York and the Phillips Collection in Washington, D.C., wished to have the series in their collections. Eventually, the artist agreed that the series could be split in two. Now the Museum of Modern Art houses the even numbered panels in the series, while those with odd numbers are owned by the Phillips Collection.45

Before the collection was divided, it was viewed by a broad audience across the country. The panels were exhibited together at the Museum of Modern Art before embarking on an exhibition tour across the United States. In addition, a number of panels from the series were illustrated in Fortune magazine in 1941, along with an article that discussed Lawrence’s work and the Great Migration. In this way, many Americans were exposed to Lawrence’s sophisticated interpretation of the complex historical events that led to and resulted from the Great Migration. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

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SELECTED WORK :Edward Hopper, Nighthawks, 1942

Edward Hopper (1882–1967) shared with many of his contemporaries an interest in capturing aspects of the American experience through naturalistic depic-tions of daily life. But while the Regionalists Wood and Benton focused on rural scenes, Hopper tended to explore experiences in the urban settings that he knew best from his long residence in New York City.

Hopper was born in Nyack, New York, a town north of New York City. Hopper’s family was comfort-able financially, and as a boy he received a solid edu-cation and the opportunity to explore his interests in the visual arts. Although he had already experimented with many art materials as a teenager, his most sig-nificant formal art education was at the New York Institute of Art and Design, where he studied with accomplished painters such as William Merritt Chase, Robert Henri, and John Sloan. These artists exerted a strong influence on the development of Hopper’s naturalistic style.

In 1905 Hopper was living in New York City and working as an illustrator in the advertising industry. Seeking to establish his own distinctive style and desiring a more independent career as a painter, Hopper made three trips to Europe between 1906 and 1910, focusing his time on the art scene in Paris. Like Wood and Benton, though, he reacted strongly against the modernist tendencies emerging in Europe during the first decades of the twentieth century, moving instead toward an increasingly naturalistic, representational style of art. Hopper’s particular inter-ests involved urban scenes featuring architecture and figures in shared spaces. He would return to these themes throughout his life, often producing images that seemed to reflect the feelings of isolation that can be part of urban living.

Back in New York, Hopper continued to paint, but he was forced to rely on his skills as an illustrator to support himself. In 1923 he became reacquainted with Josephine Nivison, whom he had met before when both artists were studying with Robert Henri. The two were married, and from this point Nivison helped to manage her husband’s career and promote his art. With her support, Hopper had six of his paint-ings included in an exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum in 1923. This exhibition resulted in sales and critical acclaim, allowing Hopper to finally make an adequate living through his painting alone. Throughout the 1930s, Hopper continued to receive positive criticism. His works were purchased by major museums, and in 1933 the Museum of Modern Art produced a retro-spective of his paintings throughout his career.

Hopper and his wife chose to live simply in spite of his financial success. They maintained their residence

in a Greenwich Village apartment until Hopper’s death in 1967, traveling to their country home in the sum-mer. Hopper continued to produce scenes of urban life as well as landscape paintings.

Hopper was passionate about the theatre and movies. His paintings often have a stage-like qual-ity to them, reminiscent of film stills, with the use of strong light and frozen poses. Many of his narrative scenes depict quiet moments. Solitary figures deep in thought appear in many of his works, as do groups of people who seem to be alone, even in a crowd. Hopper’s style seems to be in keeping with his public persona. While his wife is said to have been outgoing and vivacious, Hopper was known to be silent and solitary, and his paintings perhaps reflect this stillness. In this way, his work stands in complete opposition to the crowded and active compositions of his outspo-ken contemporary Thomas Hart Benton.

Like Wood’s American Gothic, Hopper’s large can-vas titled Nighthawks is an icon of American painting. The scene is a specific diner (no longer in existence) in Greenwich Village. While many depictions of New

SW

Edward Hopper, photographed by Peter A. Juley & Son.

Peter A. Juley & Son Collection, Photograph Archives, Smithsonian

American Art Museum.

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York City in paintings and photography of the period focused on verticality—celebratory images of sky-scrapers symbolic of growth, for example—Hopper’s composition is strongly horizontal. It is focused on the human experience in the city rather than on the city itself as a subject. Hopper has conveyed this street corner diner carefully and meticulously, with hard lines tracing the edges of the buildings and harsh flores-cent light spilling out onto the sidewalk.

The corner diner is distinctive for its open appear-ance. The walls of the diner are almost entirely made of glass, providing us with an excellent view of the counter inside. However, the diner also appears inaccessible to us, as there is no door shown as an entrance or exit. Inside the diner we see a curved counter, its shape echoing the curves of the building itself.

A blond-haired man is dressed in white and works behind the counter. One solitary figure in a dark suit and hat sits at the counter with his back to us. A couple is seated on the other side of the counter. The man wears a suit and hat, and the woman wears a red dress. Her long, vibrant red hair hangs loose. The couple’s hands are positioned next to each other on the counter, not quite touching. All three of the diner’s patrons have been served coffee, but there is no evidence of food or menus.

The triangular-shaped counter is clean, shiny, and uncluttered. Napkin holders and salt and pepper shakers are in place on the counter, and two large cof-fee tureens are situated toward the back wall. Aside from this, the diner is extremely spare in its decora-tion and equipment. A narrow door in the yellow wall apparently leads to the kitchen. The only text visible in the painting is an advertisement for Phillies cigars across the top exterior of the diner.

The street outside the diner is silent, and like the diner itself, it is neat and uncluttered, free of any garbage. Across the street we see a darkened store-front. The apartment upstairs from the shop is also in darkness; the open shades are the only indication that there might be life inside.

Art historian Barbara Haskell has referred to Hopper’s tendency to depict stage-like scenes as a “narrative of inaction.”46 We are given only one frozen moment in time; the narrative is not laid out for us, and we are left wondering what came before and what will follow this moment. In the case of Nighthawks, we might ask about the relationship between the couple at the counter. Did they just meet, or did they arrive at the diner together? What might they be talking about? What brings the solitary man out into the night? Who is the man serving at the counter, and how does he engage with the custom-ers? Like a film still, Hopper’s image provides us with limited information and leaves us wanting to know the full story. The stillness of Hopper’s images, his use of suspended narrative, and the harsh lighting effects

are all characteristic of his style and may reflect the influence of Hollywood films and especially film stills, on his work. n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n n

Section V Summarym Defining what was unique about America was a

preoccupation among many artists working in the 1930s .

m Expressing an “American Experience” through art was complicated by the fact that the nation was so diverse . Most of the art produced in this period focused on the experiences of white men; the experiences of women and people of color were relatively silenced in art .

m Groups of artists interested in creating a style of art that was uniquely American often reacted against European modernism .

m Regionalist or American Scene artists (Benton, Wood, and Curry) focused on the naturalistic depiction of everyday life in the rural Midwest .

m Grant Wood, American Gothic, 1930

m Wood was strongly associated with his home state of Iowa, where he lived and worked for most of his life .

m Wood traveled to Europe early in his career; he claimed to reject European sources, although one can detect the influence of northern Renaissance painting in his mature works .

m Wood’s American Gothic is not a portrait; Wood called upon his sister and his dentist as models for this highly constructed image of a man and a woman in front of a farm house .

m The meaning of the work is ambiguous: is it a satirical image that pokes fun at Iowa farmers, or is it a reverential painting celebrating the values of rural Midwesterners?

m Georgia O’Keeffe, Cow’s Skull with Calico Roses, 1931

m Over her long career, O’Keeffe emerged as one of the most influential artists in America, especially for her images of the Southwest .

m O’Keeffe was married to art dealer and pho-tographer Alfred Stieglitz . Although the two artists spent a great deal of time apart, his position in the art world helped her gain expo-sure and allowed her tremendous freedom .

m In the 1930s, O’Keeffe divided her time between New York and New Mexico . Beginning in the

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late 1940s, she spent most of her time in New Mexico, where she depicted landscapes, architecture, and plant life in her paintings .

m Color was a distinguishing characteristic of O’Keeffe’s works, as is evident in this painting .

m The cow’s skull is a reminder of death, but it is treated as a beautiful object .

m Thomas Hart Benton, Departure of the Joads, from The Grapes of Wrath, 1939

m Benton was from Missouri, and his work was associated with this state, even though he spent large portions of his career away from the Midwest .

m Benton was a very outspoken artist, and his work often showed the grittier side of things, in contrast to Wood’s more romanticized, pas-toral imagery . As a result of this, some of his works were controversial at the time of their completion .

m Benton, like Wood, traveled to Europe but claimed to reject any European influences .

m The Departure of the Joads illustrates a scene from John Steinbeck’s novel The Grapes of Wrath . It was commissioned to promote the movie based on Steinbeck’s novel and was later used in a special edition of the book .

m Benton chose to depict a moment in the story that is full of emotional intensity and optimism . He showed various reactions to the departure within the same image .

m Jacob Lawrence, And the Migrants Kept Coming, from the “Migration Series,” 1940–41

m Lawrence emerged as an artist in the vibrant cultural context of the Harlem Renaissance (1920s–30s) .

m The Migration Series illustrates the complexi-ties of the African-American experience of migration during the years between the World Wars .

m And the Migrants Kept Coming is the final painting in the series; it depicts the contin-ued wave of migrants, who are nameless and faceless .

m Lawrence completed extensive research for his series, and he intended his images to be accompanied by text .

m The series received wide exposure, including a major exhibition that traveled throughout the country and a feature article in a national magazine .

m Edward Hopper, Nighthawks, 1942

m Like the Regionalists, Hopper focused on experiences of everyday life, although his works are generally situated in the urban set-ting that he knew best .

m Hopper traveled to Europe but claimed that he was not influenced by European art, seeking instead to create an American visual vocabu-lary based on naturalistic representation .

m Hopper struggled in his early career, but by the 1930s he had achieved critical acclaim .

m Nighthawks, an iconic image, depicts a corner diner in Greenwich Village at night . It seems to reflect one take on the isolation of the urban experience .

m Hopper’s depiction of this scene is dominated by stillness; the viewer is left wondering about the relationships between the figures .

m Hopper’s style draws upon elements from film stills and theater lighting .

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Conclusion

In addition to introducing you to the diverse artworks of the 1930s, this resource guide is also intended to provide you with a broader understanding of art his-

tory as a discipline . Having read this guide, you should have a better understanding of the relationship of art to its historical context . You should have also acquired the basic skills you need to discuss these works of art in a sophisticated manner . We have explored both public and private commissions during the period of the Great Depression . The role of the patron in the production of an artwork has been emphasized here . We have also paid attention to public interaction with works of art .

If you look around, you may find similar examples of works of art from the 1930s in your own town or city, especially since government-sponsored projects were implemented throughout the United States . Many post offices, schools, and public buildings were constructed with public funds during the 1930s, and numerous murals from this period are also visible throughout the country . You may also wish to explore other works by the artists presented here in more detail . The bibliog-raphy at the end of the guide will lead you to additional resources that will assist in future research related to American art of the 1930s and 1940s .

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aerial perspective – a type of perspective that creates an illusion of distance by increasing the color intensity of nearby objects and decreasing the color intensity of objects that are farther away; in addition, the contours of objects are increasingly blurred the farther away they are from the viewer

aesthetics – the philosophical inquiry into the nature and expression of beauty

approximate symmetry – a type of balance in which shapes or objects are slightly varied on either side of the central axis

arbitrary color – the use of colors for their emotional or aesthetic impact

art criticism – the explanation of current art events to the general public via the press

art history – an academic discipline dedicated to the study of the history of the development of the visual arts

asymmetrical balance – a visual balance that is achieved through the organization of unlike objects

balance – the equal distribution of visual weight in a work of art

barrel vault – a semi-cylindrical vault that is in effect a deep arch or uninterrupted series of arches

binder – in painting, the substance that holds the grains of pigment together and allows the paint to adhere to the surface

chiaroscuro – the use of dramatic contrasts of light and dark in painting and drawing

color – the aspect of objects that may be described in terms of hue (the name of the color), lightness, and saturation

color wheel – the visual spectrum of colors depicted in a circular diagram that shows how the colors are related to one another

composition – the artist’s organization of the elements of art

contextual analysis – in the context of studying art, an analysis that looks outside of the work of art in order to determine its meaning; this involves examining not only the context in which the work was created, but also later contexts in which the work was and continues to be consumed

contrapposto – a pose in which a standing figure is shown with weight shifted onto one leg, and the hips and legs face in a different direction from the shoulders and head

Corinthian – describes a slender column with an ornate capital (upper part of the column)

Counter Reformation – a reform movement in the Catholic Church that aimed to counteract the effects of the Reformation

crosshatching – the marking created by two series of parallel lines that intersect and create the effect of shad-ing and thus three-dimensionality

Doric – one of the five classical orders of architecture; characterized by fluted columns with a rounded molding at the top and no base

encaustic – an ancient method of painting that used colored molten wax applied with hot irons

engraving – the process of incising a design in hard material, for instance a metal plate; can also refer to the print or impression made from such a plate

etching – a type of engraving in which the design is incised through a layer of wax or varnish on a copper plate; after the incising, the plate is immersed in acid, which eats away at any exposed portions of the plate

flying buttress – an exterior support structure that opposes the lateral thrust of a vault or an arch

focal point – the point in an artistic composition where the eye tends to rest

form – a three-dimensional object

formal analysis – in the context of studying art, an analy-sis that focuses on the visual qualities of the work of art itself

fresco – a painting technique in which the artist mixes pure powdered pigments with water and applies them to a wet plaster ground—this kind of fresco is termed buon fresco (“true” fresco); in the technique called fresco secco, the artist applies paints to dry rather than wet plaster

glaze – in oil painting, a thin transparent or semi-trans-parent layer put over a color to alter it slightly

gouache – a water-based opaque paint

hatching – the engraving or drawing of lines in close proximity to create the effect of shading

Glossary

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hue – the name of a color

intaglio printmaking – a printmaking process in which lines are incised on a wood or soft metal plate; after the incising, the plate is immersed in acid, which etches, or eats away, the exposed metal, and then ink is forced into the etched areas of the warmed plate; the ink on the surface of the plate is wiped off, paper is placed on the plate, and it is passed through a heavy press; the paper is forced into the etched, inked areas, and the ink transfers to the paper

intensity – refers to the brightness or purity of a color

Ionic – refers to the order of architecture characterized by fluted columns and capitals (upper part of the column) with spiral scroll-shaped ornaments

line – the mark made by a moving point; in art, line defines space and can create a silhouette or define a contour and thus creates the illusion of mass and volume

linear (single vanishing point) perspective – a means of creating a sense of three-dimensionality in a two-dimen-sional work by having all parallel lines or lines of projec-tion seem to converge on a single point on the horizon, referred to as the vanishing point

lithography – a printmaking process in which a design is drawn using a greasy material on a plate surface; when the greasy image hardens, the plate is saturated with water, and ink is then applied; the ink adheres only to the greasy image since oil resists water; the image is picked up on the paper when the plate is moved through a press

local color – refers to the “true” color of an object or area as seen in normal daylight, irrespective of the effects of distance or reflections from other objects

motif – a single element of a pattern

negative space – the area that surrounds the objects, forms, and shapes in an artwork

neutral – describes colors without hue, such as black, white, and gray, which are not part of the color spectrum

optical color – refers to the effect that special lighting has on the color of objects

pattern – the repetition of artistic elements or motifs within an artwork

pigment – finely ground coloring material

positive space – refers to the space occupied by the objects, shapes, and forms in an artwork

post-and-lintel construction – a construction technique in which two posts support a horizontal beam (the lintel)

proportion – refers to the size relationships among the parts of a composition

Reformation – the sixteenth-century religious move-ment that rejected or modified some Roman Catholic doctrines and practices and led to the establishment of Protestant churches

relief printmaking – a printmaking process in which the artist cuts away parts from the surface of the plate so that the remaining parts will stand out in relief; these areas, when they are inked, will produce the image

rhythm – the principle associated with movement or pat-tern; rhythm in an artwork can be created by the repeti-tion of elements such as line, color, shape, and texture

ribbed vault – a vault that features a framework of ribs or arches under the intersections of the vaulted sections

scale – refers to the dimensional relation of the parts of a work to the work in its entirety, and can refer to the overall size of an artwork

screen print – a printmaking process in which a pho-tograph or other image is transferred or adhered to a silk or synthetic fabric that has been stretched onto a frame; the image serves as a sort of stencil, blocking out areas of the permeable fabric so that when ink is forced through the fabric using a squeegee, the image will be transferred to the paper or fabric beneath at those areas not blocked by the stenciling

sfumato – a smoky haziness that softens outlines in paintings

shading – the use of markings made within outlines to suggest three-dimensionality, shadow, or degrees of light and dark

shape – the two-dimensional area of an object (e .g ., triangle, square, etc .)

slip – clay dispersed in a liquid that is used for casting, decoration, or to attach pieces of pottery together (e .g ., attach a handle to a cup)

solvent – in painting, substances such as water or oil that are mixed with pigments and binders to form paint; solvents can be used to change the consistency of paint or change its drying time

space – an element of art involving the organization of objects and the areas around them

stippling – the use of dots in an artwork to create the effect of shading; the closer the dots are to one another, the darker the shading

tempera – paint in which a pigment is mixed with a binder of egg yolk, glue, or casein, and water is used as a solvent

texture – the visual and tactile surface and characteris-tics of an object

value – the amount of light reflected by a hue; the more light that is reflected, the higher the value

vault – a masonry roof or tunnel constructed on the arch principle

watercolor – a water-based paint that is transparent

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Notes

1 . “Ben Shahn Interview,” Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, 27 Sept . 1968, 29 July 2009 . <http://www .aaa .si .edu/collections/oralhistories/transcripts/shahn68 .htm> .

2 . Erika Doss, Twentieth-Century American Art (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002) 99 .

3 . Doss 97 .

4 . This interpretation of the image is based on Cynthia Newman Helms, ed ., Diego Rivera: A Retrospective (New York and London: W . W . Norton and Company, 1986) 290–293 . Interpretations of the scenes depicted in the Detroit Industry murals vary depending on the source consulted .

5 . “How the Great Depression Changed Detroit,” Detroit News, March 4, 1999, 28 July 2009 <http://apps .det-news .com/apps/history/index .php?id=49> .

6 . Ibid .

7 . “Ben Shahn Interview,” Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, 28 July 2009 . Shahn discusses his early years at length in this interview with Forrest Selvig .

8 . Diana L . Linden, “Ben Shahn’s Murals for the Bronx Central Post Office,” Magazine Antiques (November 1996) .

9 . “I Hear American Singing” first appeared in Leaves of Grass in 1860 . This version was published in the 1867 edition and was reprinted in Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass: Comprehensive Reader’s Edition, Harold W . Blodgett & Sculley Bradley, eds . (New York: New York University Press, 1965) .

10 . Linden, “Ben Shahn’s Murals for the Bronx Central Post Office .”

11 . F . Jack Hurley, Portrait of a Decade: Roy Stryker and the Development of Documentary Photography in the 1930s (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972) .

12 . John T . Hill, Walker Evans: Lyric Documentary (Gottingen and London: Steidl Publishers in association with the Library of Congress, Washington, D .C ., 2006) 10 .

13 . Hill 10 .

14 . Geoff Dyer, The Ongoing Moment (New York: Random House, 2007) 208 .

15 . Alan Trachtenberg, Reading American Photographs: Images as History, Mathew Brady to Walker Evans (New York: Noonday Press, 1989) 258–264 . Trachtenberg discusses the way in which Evans’s photographs can be read, as well as the visual demands on the viewer to piece together a story from a series of images .

16 . Hill 12 .

17 . Carl Fleischhauer and Beverly W . Brannan, eds ., Documenting America 1935–1943 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988, 116 .

18 . By some accounts, Lange produced six images of this group of people . However, only five were sent to the FSA archives .

19 . Lange, quoted in Popular Photography, February 1960 .

20 . An audio transcript of Florence Owens Thompson’s interview with Bill Ganzel can be found at: http://www .ganzelgroup .com/movies/thompson .html#, accessed August 13, 2009 .

21 . Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division . http://www .loc .gov/rr/print/list/128_ migm .html, accessed August 13, 2009 .

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22 . Abbott, cited in Melissa A . McEuen, Seeing America: Women Photographers Between the Wars (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 2000) 273 .

23 . McEuen 264 .

24 . McEuen 287 .

25 . See Jonathan Spaulding, “Yosemite and Ansel Adams: Art, Commerce and Western Tourism,” Pacific Historical Review 65 (November 1996): 616–625 .

26 . This print was sold at auction by Sotheby’s in 2006 .

27 . Ansel Adams, Examples: The Making of 40 Photographs (Boston: New York Graphic Society, 1983) 40–43 .

28 . Leland M . Roth, American Architecture A History (Boulder: Westview Press, 2001) 372 .

29 . Although it had been surpassed in height, the Empire State Building once again became the tallest building in the city with the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001 .

30 . A collection of Hine’s Empire State Building images can be found at the New York Public Library site, “Lewis Wickes Hine: The Construction of the Empire State Building 1930–1931,” http://www .nypl .org/research/chss/spe/art/photo/hinex/empire/empire .html, accessed August 19, 2009 .

31 . An image of the original design, prior to Kauffman’s reworking of it, is visible at “Modernity and the Hoover Dam,” http://xroads .virginia .edu/~ma98/haven/hoover/modern .html, accessed August 31, 2009 .

32 . Many images of housing in Hoovervilles can be found on the Library of Congress page, “Hoovervilles During the Great Depression,” http://memory .loc .gov/learn//features/timeline/depwwii/depress/hoovers .html, accessed August 31, 2009 .

33 . Roth 403 .

34 . The single remaining building of the Jane Addams Homes has been preserved as a museum “dedicated to interpreting the American experience in public housing .” See “Public Housing Museum,” http://www .publi-chousingmuseum .org/site/epage/47450_ 663 .htm, accessed August 30, 2009 .

35 . These toys were special blocks called Froebel Gifts that were designed by Friedrich Wilhelm August Frobel .

36 . “What is Fallingwater?” Western Pennsylvania Conservancy, 27 Aug . 2009 <http://www .fallingwater .org/37/what-is-fallingwater> .

37 . Ibid .

38 . The average 1935 Winona house cost about $1371 at the time it was built (not counting the cost of the land); adjusted for inflation, this is the equivalent of about $20,514 in 2007 dollars . The total cost for Fallingwater ($155,000) includes the architect’s fee, the land, and all building and material costs for the main house, guest-house, and garage . Adjusted for inflation, this price is roughly the equivalent of 2 .3 million dollars in 2007 . Calculations using S . Morgan Friedman’s “The Inflation Calculator,” http://www .westegg .com/inflation/ .

39 . Photographs from the short-lived residency program can be viewed in the Grant Wood Papers, 1930–83, Smithsonian Institution Archives of American Art, 11 Sept . 2009 <http://www .aaa .si .edu/collectionsonline/woodgrap/container183171 .htm> .

40 . Obituary from February 14, 1942, in the Grant Wood Papers, Box 1, Folder 1 . The name of the newspaper is not included in the clipping .

41 . See “Benton Hates Museums,” from Time, April 14, 1941, for an example of Benton’s controversial state-ments . <http://www .time .com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,932248,00 .html>, accessed September 14, 2009 .

42 . Brian E . Railsback and Michael J . Meyer, eds ., A John Steinbeck Encyclopedia (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing, 2006) 24 .

43 . Railsback and Meyer 25 .

44 . A recording of Langston Hughes reading this poem can be found at poets .org, from the Academy of American Poets: http://www .poets .org/viewmedia .php/prmMID/15722 . Accessed September 11, 2009 .

45 . Images in the Phillips Collection may be viewed at: http://www .phillipscollection .org/migration_ series/flash/experience .cfm .

46 . Barbara Haskell, The American Century: Art and Culture 1900–1950 (New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1999) 182 .

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