Research Type On the Basis of Nature, Qualitative

Chanak Trikhatri

Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of

a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal

experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational,

historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine

and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives.

• Organize a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping

always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.

Contd….

• ‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they say they feel. This kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather than numbers’

• Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people and their thoughts) in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.

Qualitative Research

• is not generalizable / is “anecdotal”

• The sample is too small to say anything / is not a random sample / not representative

• the researcher’s presence in the setting biases the results

• lacks rigor, procedure is unsystematic

Theoretical Approach

Deductive Theoretical Approach : Seek to use existing theory to shape the approach which you adopt to the qualitative research process and to aspects of data analysis

Inductive Theoretical Approach : Seek to build up a theory which is adequately grounded in a number of relevant cases. Referred to as Interpretative and Grounded Theory

Uses of QRA

• Qualitative research is used to gain insight into people's attitudes, behaviors, value systems, concerns, motivations, aspirations, culture or lifestyles.

• Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior.

• Qualitative research is often associated with naturalistic inquiry.

Uses QRA Contd….

• Naturalistic methods of inquiry attempt to deal with the issue of human complexity by exploring directly.

• Naturalistic inquiry always takes place in the natural settings (field).

• Naturalistic studies result in rich, in-depth information that has the potential to elucidate the multiple dimensions of complicated phenomenon.

• The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when.

• The qualitative researcher is interested in illumination and understanding rather than causal determination or prediction.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to describe, explore, and explain phenomena being studied. Qualitative research questions often take the form of what is this? or what is happening here? and are more concerned with the process rather than the outcome ( Ploeg, 1999)

o Better understanding of a phenomenon and gain new perspectives.o Explore in-depth information that can’t be conveyed quantitatively.o Provide rich descriptions of complex phenomena.o Explore sensitive topicso Explore the issues of difficult to access groups / subcultures o Explore culturally defined experienceso Track unique/unexpected events o Illuminate experience and interpretation o Gives voice to those rarely heard.

Characteristics of QLRA

• Takes place in the natural setting

• Uses multiple methods that are interpretive

• Emergent rather than tightly prefigured

• Interpretive (role of researcher as interpreter)

• Portrait social phenomena holistically

• Systematically reflects subject inquiry

• Sensitive to personal biography and how it shapes the study

• Uses complex multifaceted, iterative, and simultaneous

• Detail exploration of phenomena.

Comparison Between QN & QL Research

Concept Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

General framework

• Seek to confirm hypotheses

• Positivist paradigm

• Seek to explore phenomena

• Naturalistic paradigm

Objectives• To predict & control • To understand (what, how, &

why)

Tools

• Highly structured methods: questionnaires, surveys, and structured observation

• Use semi-structured methods: in-depth interviews, focusgroups, and participant observation

Design• Rigid design

• Controlled & experimental

• Emergent design

Comparison Between QN and QL Research conti.

Concepts• Quantitative Research • Qualitative Research

Focus

• Prediction• Outcomes• Generalizability

• Rich “thick” description• Similarities & contrasts• Process & context

Sampling

• Relatively large samples using often random sampling

• Small samples using purposive, convenient or snow ball sampling technique.

Nature of data analysis

• Statistical • Non-statistical

Nature of Report writing

• Identified variables and its outcomes are measured statistically

Narrative description of the proposed phenomena.

Common Qualitative Research Methods

• Observation - Most sensitive method, three most common methods are:

• Participant observation: peripheral membership, active membership & complete membership. This method is appropriate for collecting data on naturally

occurring behaviors in their usual contexts.• In-depth interviews

Optimal for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories, perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics are being explored.

• Focus groups Effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in

generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural groups or subgroups represented.

Common Methods of Data Collection

Semi structured interviews

In-depth interviews

Focus Group Discussions

Ethnography

Participatory Action Research

Narrative Life History

Participant Observation

Additional Methods of Data Collection

• Simple observation

• Document analysis (written records)

• Audio-visual

• Text analysis / Discourse analysis/ diaries

• Case studies

• Therapeutic play

• Material culture

• Auto-ethnography (object, subject and researcher)

Sampling in Qualitative Research Approaches

Sampling methods used in qualitative research are:

1.Purposive sampling

2.Quota sampling, and

3.Snowball sampling

4.Convenient

Process in Qualitative Research

An Iterative Approach (Inductive Analysis)

1) research topic/questions

2) sampling, site selection

3) data gathering

4) analysis

5) write-up

4) more analysis

Field work

QLR Process

Conceptualizing and Planning o Generally begin with a broad area to be studied.

o Identify a site for data collection.

o Make preliminary contacts with key actors in the selected site to ensure cooperation and access to informants

o In qualitative research, the research design is often referred to as emergent design- a design that emerges during the course of data collection.

o Audio-taping or videotaping interviews with informants.

QLR Processes Contd….

oData collection

oData analysis

o Interpretation

o These processes take place in an interactive fashion.

o The investigator starts data collection by talking with

or observing a few people who have first-hand

experience of the phenomenon under study.

Ground Theory

Introduction

The grounded theory, which has its roots in sociology, seeks to describe and understand the key social psychological and structural processes that occur in a social setting. Grounded theory was developed in the 1960s by two sociologists, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. The focus of most grounded theory studies is on a developing social experience the social and psychological stages and phases that characterize a particular event or episode.

Defining Grounded Theory

• ‘The discovery of theory from data – systematically obtained and analyzed in social research’ (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)

• The systematic generation of theory from systematic research; a set of rigorous research procedures leading to the emergence of conceptual categories

• Grounded theory, an important method for the study of nursing phenomena, has contributed to the development of many middle-range nursing theories.

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The Purpose of Grounded Theory

• The purpose of grounded theory research in any discipline is to develop new concepts and theories of basic phenomena, where these concepts and theories are firmly grounded in qualitative data

• Purpose is to develop to theory about phenomenon of interest should be grounded or rooted in observation

• Allows researcher to seek out and conceptualize latent social patterns and structures through constant comparisons

Grounded theory

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Steps Grounded Theory Study

• Decide if Grounded Theory design best addresses the research problem

• Identify a process to study• Seek approval and access• Conduct theoretical sampling• Code the data• Use selective coding and develop the theory• Validate your theory• Write a grounded theory research report

Methods

• Interview

• Field note

• Documents

• Observation

• Participatory observation

• Literature

• Journals

Advantagesof Grounded Theory

– It encourages systematic, detailed analysis of the data and provides a method for doing so

– It gives researchers ample evidence to back up their claims

– It is especially useful for describing repeated processes e.g. the communications processes between nurses and patients, or the communications processes between information systems analysts and users

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Disadvantages of Grounded Theory

–First time users can get overwhelmed at the coding level

–Open coding takes a long time

–Because it is a detailed method, it can be difficult to see the bigger picture

Phenomenology

Introduction

The term ‘phenomenology’ is partly derived from the Greek word phainomenon (plural: phainomena). Phainmenon literally means ‘appearance’, that is, ‘that which shows itself’. Philosophers generally define ‘phenomena’ to mean ‘the appearances of things, as contrast with the things themselves. Phenomenology is both a philosophical movement and method.

Contd…

• Phenomenology belongs to the branch of philosophy which gives more emphasis on the social behaviors.

• A phenomenological research study is a study that attempts to understand people's perceptions, perspectives and understandings of a particular situation (or phenomenon).

Contd…

• Phenomenology: the study of structures of experience, or consciousness.

• A philosophy or method of inquiry based on the premise that reality consists of objects and events as they are perceived or understood in human consciousness.

Edmund Husserlt 1901• Father of phenomenology• The “science of being”• Every certainty is questionable• Believed scientific method & naturalistic

thinking was overvalued and, “not important to understanding behavior based on consciousness.” In short, can conduct a science of perceptions

• Consciousness is where you will find ‘true’ meaning behind actions

MethodolotyA phenomenological study often involves the four steps

of:

• Bracketing: Bracketing is the process of identifying and holding in preconceived beliefs and opinions that one may have about the phenomenon that is being researched.

• Intuiting: It is a process where the researchers need to deeply immerse in to the data set for generating actual meaning from the perceived experiences of the respondents

Contd…

• Analyzing: The researchers need to be very attentive as well as empathetic while collecting information from the respondents, so that during data analysis process, they can identify the essence of the phenomena based on the reported subjective experiences of the respondents.

• Describing: Researchers need to report the essence of the experiences in narrative description, by revealing the clear explanation of respondents lived experiences. The researchers need to provide a meaningful explanation of the phenomena so that the identified critical elements portrays clear understanding of what it is like to be in such situation.

Data Collection MethodThe data collection tools that are most often used are:

• In-depth Interviews/speech

• Diaries/written field note/ keeping memos

• Drawings/non-verbal

• Observation/visual• Postal questionnaires• Email dialogue• Focus groups • recording the interviews using video/tape

06/21/16 34phenomenological research

Advantages of Phenomenology• Efficient and Economical (only in terms of data generation or maybe not at

all. . .)• Direct Interaction with Participants• Data is in the participants’ own words• Synergy: participants react to and build upon the responses of other

participants.• Flexible research tool• Results are easy to understand (in terms of people’s direct opinions and

statements)• in-depth understanding of individual phenomena. • Presents narrative description of the events• Portraits empirical evidences• Help to adjust new issues and ideas as they emerge• Contribute to the development of new theories• Gathers data which is seen natural rather than artificial

Disadvantages of Phenomenology• Findings are difficult to generalize to a larger population• Data is often difficult to analyze and summarize.• Researcher may give too much credit to the results (immediacy of a

personal opinion)• Requires a quality moderator • Phenomenology cant describe the unique experiences and make

generalizations about the experiences at the same time.• Experience as observer, must occasionally fill in blanks, which could

lead to inaccuracies

• Subjectivity of the data leads to difficulties in establishing reliability and validity of approaches and information.

• Difficult to detect or to prevent researcher induced bias.

• Does not produce generalisable data as the samples are generally very small

• Difficult to replicate , being a descriptive experience

• Recall biases, as past information are collected in most of the situations

Phenomenology

Introduction of Ethnography

• Anthropologist Clifford Geertz invented the 1970s

• Ethnography is a type of cultural inquiry that involves the description and interpretation of cultural behaviour.

• It involves collection and analysis of the data about the cultural groups.

• Rich and holistic study of culture under study.

• It provides health belief and health practices of the culture.

• It helps to understand the behaviour affecting health and illness.

Definition

• It is the approach developed with the view of understanding the behaviour of the people in the natural setting in relation to their culture.

• Leninger (1985) defines ethnography as “ the systematic process of observing, analyzing, detailing, describing, documenting lifeways or particular pattern of culture ( or subculture) inorder to grasp the lifeways or patterns of the people in their familiar environment.

• The ethnographers listen and record the voices of the informants with the intent of generating a cultural portrait.

• The end purpose of ethnographic method is the development of cultural theories.

Methodology

• The ethnographers should pose the research question that is related to how cultural knowledge, norms, values and other contextual variables influence other’s health and well being.

• In this approach the ethnographers needs to bracket their known facts inorder to prevent the personal biases.

Contd.....

• The five steps to be followed while conducting the ethnographic study are:

a) Identifying the phenomenon

b) Structuring the study

c) Gathering the data

d) Analyzing the data

e) Describing the findings

Sources/ Methods of Data Collection

ObservationIn-depth interviewRecord chartsOther types of physical evidence like photographs,

diaries, letters)

Advantages

• More ecological validity• Respect for complexity of human activity• Design for human needs; reflect users’ own issues and everyday

problems• Cheaper to do it• Rich data, non-reductive• Direct observation of events, practice rather than reliance only on self-

report• Understanding behaviour, tacit knowledge• In-Depth understanding of a culture amongst a group of people

(detailed and more likely valid interpretations)• Gives a voice to a culture to express their views, which might not

otherwise be heard• Influential in creating an understanding among outsiders• Also may reveal embedded cultural values that were not obvious to the

group

Disadvantages• Extraordinarily time consuming, unpredictable• Extreme heterogeneity of data can be difficult to analyze,

make sense of• It can be difficult for some to write up the findings for a

journal article• Some ethnographical study are costly • Observation can cause informants to feel self-conscious and/or

to act unnaturally• Informants can be sensitive to their perceived loss of privacy;

can become “increasingly selective” in cooperating with researchers.

• Systematic errors that operate…in the mind, in the eye, or in the hand of the scientist but are not due to uncontrolled variables that might interact with the subjects’ behavior.

ReferencesJoshi, S. (2008). Qualitative Research Approaches for Health

Personnel, (1st ed.). Kathmandu: Makalu Publication HouseNieswiadomy, R. M(). Foundations of Nursing Research.( 5th

Edition). India: Pearson Education Inc.Polit , D.F. & Beck, C.T.( 2008). Essentials of nursing

research:appraising evidence for Nursing practice. Philadelphia:Wilters Khiwer.

Retrieve from, http://research-methodology.net/research-philosophy/phenomenology/

Retrieve from, http://www.health.herts.ac.uk/immunology/Qualitative%20research/phenomenology.htm

Retrieve from, http://www.uiowa.edu/~c07p331/phenomenology.ppt