Research philosophy

Session outline Why ‘philosophy’ ?

Overview of research philosophies

Some more common philosophical approaches

How to determine your own research philosophy

Let’s philosophise

Why philosophy ?

All research is based on assumptions

about how the world is perceived

about how we can best come to understand it.

Nobody really knows how we can best understand the world

Philosophers have been arguing about it for 1000s of years,

For us, as researchers, need to consider how we know about the world around us. What is our philosophical approach to knowledge?

Epistemology vs Methodology Epistemology is ‘how we come to know’

Methodology is ‘how we come to know’

Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge

Methodology is the practical ways, the methods used to gain knowledge

Inextricably linked of course

One philosophical view - positivism the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the phenomena

that we experience

study what we can observe and measure

Impossible to know about anything else

deductive reasoning to postulate theories that we can test

empiricism -- the idea that observation and measurement is the core of the scientific endeavour

Main method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws through direct manipulation and observation

What makes this view of the world attractive?

Why have many researchers moved away from this approach?

The enlightenment? Post-positivism Rejection of positivist ideas has lead to an array of

alternative approaches

One end of post-positivism

critical realism - there is a reality independent of our thinking about it that science can study. Recognizes that all observation is fallible and has error and that all theory is revisable

The other post-positivist extreme

Subjectivism - there is no external reality . It’s all in our heads!

Post-positivism generally Multiple measures and observations, each of which may

possess different types of error, triangulation across these multiple errorful sources to try

to understand better what's happening in reality. all observations are theory-laden All researchers are inherently biased by their cultural

experiences, world views etc Most post-positivists are constructivists who believe that

we each construct our view of the world based on our perceptions of it

objectivity by triangulation across multiple fallible perspectives. Thus, objectivity is not the characteristic of an individual, it is inherently a social phenomenon

Objectivity without positivism? “ The best way for us to improve the objectivity of what we do

is to do it within the context of a broader contentious community of truth-seekers (including other scientists) who criticize each other's work. The theories that survive such intense scrutiny are a bit like the species that survive in the evolutionary struggle. (This is sometimes called the natural selection theory of knowledge and holds that ideas have 'survival value' and that knowledge evolves through a process of variation, selection and retention). They have adaptive value and are probably as close as our species can come to being objective and understanding reality”

William Trochim, (2002) Research Methods Knowledgebase

Phenomenology Phenomenology is sometimes considered a

philosophical perspective as well as an approach to qualitative methodology. It has a long history in several social research disciplines including psychology, sociology and social work. Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others.

Key Features of Positivist and Phenomenological Paradigms

Phenomenological paradigm Positivist paradigm

Basic beliefs:

Science is driven by human interest Observer is independent

The world is socially constructed and subjective Science is value-free

Observer is part of what is observed The world is external and objective

Researchers should:

Try to understand what is happening Focus on facts

Develop ideas through induction from evidence Formulate and test hypotheses

Focus on meanings Look for causality and fundamental laws

Look at totality of each situation Reduce phenomena to simplest elements

Preferred methods:

Small samples investigated in depth or over time Take large samples

Use multiple methods to establish different views of phenomena Operationalise concept so they can be measured

Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Lowe 1994 pp. 27

Positivist paradigm

Phenomenological paradigm

Basic

beliefs:

The world is external and objective

Observer is independent

Science is value-free

The world is socially

constructed and subjective

Observer is part of what

observed

Science is driven by human

interests

Researcher

should:

focus on facts

look for causality and fundamental laws

reduce phenomena to simplest events

formulate hypotheses and then test

them

focus on meanings

try to understand what is

happening

look at the totality of each

situation

develop ideas through induction

form data

Preferred

methods

include:

operationalising concepts so that they

can be measured

taking large samples

using multiple methods to

establish different views of

phenomena

small samples investigated in

depth or over time

Considerations for successful research

Validity

Does an instrument measure

what it is supposed to measure?

Has the researcher gained full

access to the knowledge and

meanings of informants?

Reliability

Will the measure yield the same

results on different occasions

(assuming no real change in

what is to be measured)?

Will similar observations be

made by different researchers

on different occasions?

Generalisability

What is the probability that

patterns observed in a sample

will also be present in the wider

population from which the

sample is drawn?

How likely is it that ideas and

theories generated in one

setting will also apply in other

settings?

Positivist viewpoint

Phenomenological viewpoint

Deductive vs Inductive reasoning

Circular model of research process Inductive: begin at A

(observation/description), proceed to B (analysis), arrive at C (explanation)

Deductive: begin at C (hypothesis), proceed to A (gathering data to test hyp), proceed to B to test hyp against data

A: observation/ description

B: Analysis

C: Explanation/ Hypotheses/ Theory

How to determine your own research philosophy Consider your own research background/experience Consider your topic (theoretical basis, research subjects,

desired knowledge etc) Read widely on research philosophy – there are many often

contrasting and contradictory views Many more specific views eg relativism, subjectivism,

hermeneutics, deconstructivism, constructivism, feminism etc.

Engage in philosophical debate with peers, supervisors, yourself

Show this in your thesis, building a case for your own philosophical stance

Let this then lead your methodology

Conclusions There is no right or wrong research philosophy, but a

well argued case for the one you prefer showing understanding of alternatives

Your research philosophy will guide your methodology and your overall approach to your PhD

It’s hard but vital! An understanding of alternative philosophies will make you a much better researcher.

Further reading Many books and articles on this

Look for ones in your area of research as well as general social science/business research

Use seminal texts as well as up to date books/articles –the debate continues.

Look at the approaches of other researchers in your field of study

Review exercises

1. Read the short article ‘Toward a research philosophy’ and critique the author’s approach to research methodology

2. You are interested in examining management stress in particular kinds of organisations. You want to find out as much as you can about how it manifests itself in particular workplaces. In pairs debate whether this should be approached from a positivist or post-positivist/phenomenological perspective (one to play role of positivist other critical realist or phenomenologist)

3. Repeat the above for your own PhD topics. 4. Read ‘All research is interpretive’ and consider the

implications of this philosophical view (homework).