research objectives, process and method

Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method

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CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES, PROCESS AND METHOD

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Lincoln and Denzin (1994, 2000) write about their vision for the future of qualitative research

and elaborate on the tensions that define this collection of methods. They maintain that two

tensions are embraced simultaneously, on the one hand qualitative research is drawn towards

the broad, interpretative, post-modern, feminist and critical sensibility, on the other hand it

can also be drawn to a more narrowly defined, positivist, post-positivist, humanistic and

naturalistic conception of human experience and its analysis. The orientation of the present

study fits more with the former than with the latter position. In the later writing on

qualitative research of Lincoln and Denzin (2000, p. 1047) they further define this tension

and comment “that there is an elusive centre emerging in this contradictory, tension-riddled

enterprise”; a movement away from grand narratives with the center lying in the humanistic

commitment of the qualitative researcher to study the world, contextually, gendered and

historically situated. From this develops the radical and liberal politics of qualitative

research; there is the belief that previously silenced voices need to be heard to redefine

accepted ‘truths’. To work with or assist the unemployed is an attempt to expand their “life

chances”; to understand their crisis is to interact compassionately with them and listen to

their stories.

The choice to follow a qualitative approach was made based on the underlying assumptions

of the qualitative mode of enquiry (De Vos, 1998; Creswell, 2003; Rossman & Rallis, 1998;

Schurink, 1998; Wolcott, 1999). The assumptions of qualitative research are summarised in

Table 3.1.


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Table 3.1 The Assumptions of Qualitative Research i. Inductive reasoning is utilised – concepts, insights and understanding are developed

from patterns of data.

ii. There is an emic perspective of enquiry – meaning is derived from the subject’s

perspective.

iii. It is idiographic rather than nomothetic, aiming to understand the meaning people

attach to everyday life.

iv. Reality is regarded as subjective.

v. The researcher captures and discovers meaning which is immersed in the data;

seeking to understand phenomena.

vi. Concepts are in the form of themes and categories and data are presented in the form

of words. Data are analysed by extracting themes.

vii. Observations are determined by the information “richness” of settings.

viii. The research design used is flexible and unique and evolves throughout the process;

there are no fixed steps to follow.

ix. The unit of analysis is holistic, concentrating on the relationships between elements

and contexts.

Note. Adapted from Schurink (1998).

Since the purpose of this study was to understand the unemployment experience, a qualitative

research process was chosen as being appropriate i.e. “qualitative researchers are interested in

meaning – how people make sense of their lives, experiences and their structures of the

world” (Creswell, 1994, p. 145); “if a concept or phenomena needs to be understood because

little research has been done on it, then it merits a qualitative approach” (Creswell, 2003, p.

22). Lincoln and Denzin (2000, p. 1063) refer to “the commitment of all qualitative

researchers to study human experience from the ground up, from the point of interacting

individuals who, together and alone, make and live histories that have been handed down to

them from the ghosts of the past”. Therefore, a qualitative approach was more aposite than a

quantitative approach.


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Firstly, it was the emic (subjective) view of the participants which was of interest, and in

order to gain understanding through a reflexive interaction, the rich insight into behaviour

offered by qualitative data was preferred to a quantitative approach. Context is increasingly

regarded as a fundamental element of modern career theories (Herr, 2002; Collin, 1994;

Hansen, 1997) and in understanding the unemployed the stripping of context for the

exactitude of quantitative methods would detract from the complexity of the human situation

under analysis.

The discovery of ‘themes’ of the unemployed experience was a core aspect of this research

and quantitative method with its verification of preconceived hypotheses and deductive logic

would not encourage the discovery dimension of the inquiry. After receiving a large body of

data from the interviewees, inductive thinking and reasoning was used to arrive at the main

themes and the central storyline.

This study was not focussed on “objective” measurement but rather on understanding

(“verstehen” – from the tradition of Wilhelm Dilthey) experience, however, so-called ‘facts’

and objectivity have also been questioned for their value-ladeness (Phillips & Burbules,

2000) so a quantitative approach would not have been appropriate. The choice of a

qualitative approach was further endorsed by the positioning of the inquirer in an interactive

reflexive process with the participants. The position of the inquirer within quantitative

method as being ‘objective’ and recording ‘facts’ scientifically was not seen as suitable for

the purpose of this study; it is unlikely that the participants would respond with openness in

an impartial interaction. A qualitative approach would facilitate in breaking through the

silence surrounding the unemployed experience and would assist in articulating their stories.

Fontana and Frey (2000) note that interviewing is a common and powerful way to understand

fellow human beings, and in qualitative studies the interview may be seen as a form of

discourse between two or more speakers such as the interviewee and the respondents.

3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The intention of this study is firstly to understand, at depth, and then describe the

unemployment lived experiences of unemployed individuals within a particular context. In

terms of the context, this research focused particularly on the mid-career adult (over 40 years


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of age) who had been out of work for six months or longer and was anxious and motivated to

return to the workplace.

The second objective is to make counselling recommendations for career psychologists, out-

placement agencies, managers responsible for retrenchment programs and the unemployed

themselves. This research could assist in achieving a greater understanding of the dynamics

and impact of the unemployment experience contextualised with a focus on the mid-career

stage. The recommendations may be useful as a basis for the creation of a practical

individual or group counselling intervention for the unemployed who may be experiencing a

crisis period in their lives. This study has particular relevance for South Africa with a

reported unemployment rate of 28-40% of the total economically active population

(Makgetla, 2001; Schlemmer & Levitz, 1998). Unemployment is probably the most severe

problem facing South Africa Society. For the individual, job loss is ranked as being in the

upper quartile of unpleasant events that generate life stress (Holmes & Rahe, 1967).

The findings would, in addition, be useful to enhance the South African literature in this

domain. The South African experience of being unemployed may or may not be similar or

generalisable to the European of American condition about which much has been written.

Adults over 40 years of age are reported to be one of the groups most severely affected by job

loss (Greenhaus, Callahan & Godshalk, 2000). The participants had all previously been

employed by corporations and hence organisational life is another of the key contexts for this

study. This chapter will continue with a discussion of the research process and the

methodological basis of this study will be described.

3.3 THE RESEARCH PROCESS FROM A QUALITATIVE PERSPECTIVE

Denzin and Lincoln (1994, 2000) suggest that the qualitative researcher deploys a wide range

of interconnected, interpretative methods and orchestrates the research process from a

biographically situated position; the researcher’s view being filtered through language,

gender, class, race and ethnicity. The process, for ease of communication, can be described

as moving through five phases. Phase 1 – The Researcher; Phase 2 – The Interpretive

Paradigm; Phase 3 – The Strategy of Inquiry; Phase 4 – The Method of collecting and


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analysing empirical material; Phase 5 – Ethics and Politics in Qualitative Research and Phase

6 – The Art of Interpretation. In the paragraphs that follow each of the above stages is

described.

Phase 1: The Researcher

In looking at qualitative research as a process the question arises, ‘who’ is doing the research,

‘who’ is selecting and orchestrating the process? As Creswell (2003) comments, the

qualitative researcher filters the data through a personal lens that is situated in a specific

socio-political and historical moment. Even after the decision is taken to follow a qualitative

rather than a quantitative orientation, there are further methodological decisions, some

either/or and others both/and, which need to be resolved. The outcome of this decision

process shapes and colours the path of the research and researcher and gives the final product

its original stamp or watermark. The researcher is not an empty vessel, but as Denzin and

Lincoln (1994) comment:

Behind these terms (ontology, epistemology and methodology) stands the personal

biography of the gendered researcher, who speaks from a particular class, racial,

cultural and ethnic community perspective. The gendered multi-culturally situated

researcher approaches the world with a set of ideas, a framework (theory, ontology)

that specifies a set of questions (epistemology) that are then examined (methodology,

analysis) in specific ways. (p. 11)

As a researcher, I bring my own distinct point of view to every stage of the research process,

this perspective will in addition influence my view of the ‘other’ and, likewise, the

participants bring their own ideas originating from their personal history as a gendered and

multi-cultural respondent. Furthermore, permeating every stage of this research will be my

view of and application of ethics and politics in the widest sense and as it relates to the study.

Qualitative research is concerned with moral discourse. All qualitative researchers are united

in the belief that the oppressed should be heard. The qualitative researcher is concerned to

study the world from a humanistic perspective, the individual is viewed always in context,

gendered, historically situated or interacting. This viewpoint has resulted in studies of

individuals and for groups who have been oppressed by the ideological, economic or political


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powers of a society or at a particular historical intersection (Lincoln & Denzin, 2000).

Qualitative research is very much about giving a space, a voice to those previously ignored or

overwhelmed.

In considering who I am, the researcher, the research instrument, another decision arises,

which part of my history has relevance in terms of bias for this inquiry. To what depth

should I disclose and, in fact, to what point is my life relevant as the researcher? Creswell

(2003) notes that biases, values and interests (or reflexivity) of the researcher should be

explicitly stated in the research report, such openness is considered useful and positive. In

this reflexive process (on reflecting who he or she is) it appears that a balance in terms of

disclosure is needed between self (me) and other (participants) as the research stories are

created, hence the ‘story’ of the researcher has relevance. Gergen and Gergen (2000)

consider reflexivity to be an emerging innovation in methodology. Here investigators share

their biases, show their historical and geographical situatedness and generally use self

disclosure in an effort to tell the truth.

The personal-self becomes inseparable from the researcher-self. Constructivism (the inquiry

paradigm situating this research) has as its aim the understanding of constructions that people

initially hold, and thereafter the continuous revisions (reconstructions) of these constructions,

both of the enquirer and the participant (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; 2000). It therefore seems

that the enquirer, the researcher, is required to reflect on the areas of personal bias or values

at more than a superficial level. In choosing qualitative research, ideas of a rational,

scientific observer are questioned and with a qualitative strategy of inquiry it is not

advantageous to hide one’s private persona behind the mask of scientific research; one needs

to communicate fully and find the courage for personal disclosure to finally create more

trustworthiness in the research findings.

As the researcher, what follows are aspects of my personal history, which have focused my

presently held ideas and beliefs. This overview is relevant to the reader who will then

understand or interpret my rendering of the interview material in the light of my biases or my

gendered, historical and racial biography.


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Early Years - School Life: I attended a British styled girls-only, private school in Durban

from age three to 17 years. I then continued with the British/Durban tradition of education

and studied towards a BA degree in Psychology and English at the University of Natal in

Durban.

Early Working Life: After overseas travel and a short period of time in Oxford, England, I

moved to the London area to teach at an immigrant school, being responsible for the remedial

teaching of young scholars from Barbados, Trinidad and other West Indian countries. I was

the relief teacher for the district of Wilsdon Junction, (a poor neighbourhood on the outskirts

of London), where a large number of immigrant families had settled. Thereafter, I lived and

worked in the United States and Europe and after a period of some years in Austria I returned

to South Africa to become involved in a business venture in travel and tourism.

Gender: My nuclear family is relatively small, being comprised of mother, father and one

sister. Although my early years were predominantly in a female environment (home and

school), I was never an active participant in womans’ causes.

Class: My family background is white, middle class, English speaking, South African;

although many school associates were from the “socially advantaged class” I interacted with

students and friends across all classes. In my mature years, I find that I question the power

structures embedded in the hierarchical British class system, its social positions and titled

structures, such as British ‘gentlemen’, and historical classes such as lords and ladies.

Traditions such as these do not flow harmoniously with my preferred Eastern philosophies

(Dalai Lama, 1997) which uphold developing genuine empathy by considering others as

equal to yourself, and with that sense of equality you reverse a self-centred perspective and

adopt a more compassionate view of life. The Dalai Lama (1997) continues that as the world

becomes smaller and smaller the concept of divisions and ‘us’ and ‘them’ is almost outdated.

Race: I was schooled in South Africa during the Apartheid times of the 1950’s and 1960’s.

At university I questioned the political system and attended political meetings, but did not

become an active participant. My views led me to leave South Africa after university for a

period of almost 10 years, where I encountered and interacted with a variety of cultural and

racial groups in the United Kingdom, Europe, the United States and India.


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Culture: I enjoy the evolving South African way of life, our blended culture with its African,

White, Asian and Indian strains. My travels to India have given me insight into the Hindu and

Buddhist cultures and way of life; my interest in African music/shamanism/primitive

myths/sangoma practices and the African world view are themes explored in my life. I have

experience and understanding of European cultures from living in the United Kingdom,

Switzerland and Austria. My personal philosophy is integrated with the spiritual teachings of

the Tao (LaoTsu), Buddha, Osho and various Indian mystics and I am familiar with the

Eastern practices of meditation, yoga and tai chi. The traditions of a Western Psychology

have been the core of my formal studies and of particular interest to me are thinkers such as

Frankl, Reich and Jung. I feel that mainstream psychology has limited itself by not

historically including a spiritual domain and a holistic view of body, mind and spirit is only

beginning to emerge. The philosophies and practices of the transpersonal psychologists such

as Mindell (1995) and Grof (1988) become increasingly of interest to me.

Family Life: I am a mother of one child and take an active part in a large extended family

group.

Later Working Life: Work has always been an important and integral part of my life and has

supported my independence. I have diverse experience in the commercial world – working in

large organisations in a senior management role, being self employed in business consulting,

as well as offering advisory and counselling services in human resources and career

counselling.

“World-view”: In exploring the much spoken of paradigm of post-modernism, I am

somewhat confused by the various authors. This paradigm is defined differently by many

writers, however, my appreciation includes a view of “a New Age, incorporating messy,

uncertain multi-voiced texts, cultural criticism and new experimental works” (Marcus, 1994

p. 567). Post-modernism is also an information revolution and it challenges modernist

rationality as anti-humanism (Turner, 1992). Each person is encouraged to choose his or her

unique world view and the “grand narratives” of science, religion and organisational life are

no longer fashionable or valid for many individuals, particularly the youth. The youth are

living in a post-modern, spontaneous, ever-changing context whilst many older people still


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hold tight to their perception of a world with its once dominant and defining structures.

Marcus (1994) summarises the change from modernity to post-modernism.

Post-modernism has been powered by the widespread feeling that the conditions of

social life (especially in the West, and especially in the frame of American post-war

hegemony) were in fundamental transformation, a break up of the world order,

systematically conceived, with fragments that have not yet taken new configurations

that can be easily identified. (p. 564)

With the world media today and the global village phenomenon, we are now all participants

in a multi-cultural, multi-racial, eclectic world, where we can choose and exert our actions

from this vast menu of options. There appears to be more freedom for individuality than ever

before in our society.

Social action/values: My view of human behaviour fits with the idea that individuals have

consciousness, thoughts, feelings and intentions and hence do not merely react to external

stimuli but act on situations in terms of the meaning given to it. This does not resonate with a

positivist view of cause and effect and the acceptance that the behaviour of humans can be

objectively measured; it follows that, in my understanding, an objective view of human

behaviour is questioned. My values pertaining to social action, psychology and sociology

will influence this research; my paradigms contain my unique ideologies, a judgement not

only of how things are but how they ought to be. I suggest that my history directs me

towards eclectic thinking, and my wish is for an inclusive philosophy of life rather than an

exclusive viewpoint.

Phase 2: The Interpretative Paradigm, Constructivist Assumptions

I have mentioned that the paradigm, interpretative framework or set of beliefs which guides

my action in this research, is the constructivist theory (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, 2000). In

terms of my philosophy this paradigm combines my beliefs about ontology (what is the

nature of reality), epistemology (what is the relationship between the enquirer and the object

of investigation) and methodology (how do we know the world or gain knowledge of it).

These beliefs shape how the qualitative researcher sees the world and acts in it.


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A comparison of the differences between qualitative and quantitative research is to be found

in many documents and the choice of research methodology depends on the questions to be

asked in the research. These differences are well documented by numerous authors and De

Vos (1998) has clearly illustrated these differences which are elaborated on in a table which

is attached in Appendix F. Wolcott (1990) suggests that there is no longer a call for each

researcher to discover and defend qualitative methods anew and he continues that audiences

probably do not share a comparable sense of excitement (with neophyte researchers) about

hearing them discussed once again. The assumptions of Qualitative Research are tabled in

Table 3.1.

A more complex task is to understand and communicate the subtleties and differences in

interpretative enquiry under different names such as interpretative thinking (e.g. symbolic

interactionism) and the shades of constructivist thinking such as radical constructivism, social

constructionism or the constructivist paradigm of Guba and Lincoln (Schwandt, 1994). My

understanding is that these different approaches, under one umbrella, have more similarities

than differences; there is one goal for all these methodologies and that is of understanding our

complex world. These qualitative methods derive from Kant’s idea of human knowledge

being based in understanding, which in his time was in juxta-position to the held ideas of

Cartesian objectivity (Hamilton, 1994). Claims of reality (following Kant) were therefore

influenced by the perception of the enquirer and this created a transcendental perspective and

a break from the etic viewpoint. Both interpretist and constructivist thinking have roots back

to the ‘Verstehen’ (understanding) tradition in social science (Schwandt, 1994).

Constructivism is a more recent vintage than interpretive thinking and emphasises Kant’s

earlier position that what we take to be objective reality, knowledge or truth is a result of our

perception (Hamilton, 1994). In South Africa, Modlin (1999) may be used as an example of

this viewpoint in his book, “Prisoners of our Perceptions”. He writes how the behaviour of

his patients often changes with an altered perception or view point on their lives, using

hypno-analysis. Their reality is not linked to a scientific, objective, reality but it is very much

reliant on their emic view point, and changes in that, brings about a change in their reality,

their behaviour and their life.


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Constructivist thinking says that the mind is active in the construction of reality or

knowledge, knowing is not passive, a simple imprinting of sense data on the mind, but active.

Human beings hence do not discover knowledge but rather create it and thereby make sense

of their world. Constructivists are deeply committed to a contrary view to modernism and

that what we take to be objective knowledge and truth is the result of perspective (Schwandt,

1994).

Schwandt (1994) elaborates and summarises on the key aspects of Guba and Lincoln’s (1989)

constructivist paradigm.


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Table 3.2

The Constructivist Paradigm Positions __________________________________________________________________________________________ i. It is an eclectic framework.

ii. Constructivist, interpretative, naturalistic and hermeneutical paradigms are all similar

notions.

iii. They propose that the constructivist paradigm is a replacement for what they label the

conventional, scientific or positivist paradigm of enquiry.

iv. They assume that what is real is a construction in the mind of the individual.

v. The individual may hold multiple, competing or conflicting constructions. The

individual’s truth depends on the most sophisticated construction held at a given time.

vi. The observer cannot be disentangled from the observed in the activity of enquiring

into constructions.

vii. The outcome of an inquiry is a literal creation.

viii. Constructions are not part of the objective world but reside in the mind of individuals.

ix. Constructions are

attempts to interpret experience

extensively shared

there may be malconstructions (incomplete, simplistic, uninformed or internally

inconsistent)

a judgement of a malformed construction can only be made within context or with

reference to the paradigm of the constructor

challenged when new information conflicts with an already held construction, new

sense needs to be made

x. The goodness or quality criteria are trustworthiness and authenticity

xi. The inquiry aim is understanding (and reconstruction)

xii. The ‘voice’ is that of the ‘passionate participant’ facilitating multi-voice

reconstructions

Note. Adapted from Guba and Lincoln (1989, 1994, 2000).


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Geertz (1980) suggested that social scientists were turning to the humanities for models and

theories and that the positivist and totalising approaches to human disciplines were giving

way to an interpretive perspective. Schwandt (1994) comments that the future of

interpretivist and constructivist ideas depends on dissolving dichotomies and on the

integration of opposites, one needs to be comfortable with blurring the lines between science

and the art of interpretation; the social scientific and the literary account (Geertz, 1980).

Guba and Lincoln (2000) reconfirm Geertz’s (1980) prophecy that the competing qualitative

paradigms would become interwoven and blurred as in the ‘blurring of genres’ – they write

that this is now becoming a reality.

Constructivist/interpretivist thinking is becoming accepted as an alternative to empirical

social science - there is now a distinct turn towards more interpretivist, post-modern and

critical practices and theories (Bloland, 1995). Lincoln and Guba (2000) note “that the

number of practitioners of new paradigm inquiry is growing daily” (p. 164). It is somehow a

more human investigation wherein one actively engages a participant placing our ideas on a

par with theirs and it does not evaluate him or her against a preset unchangeable standard, but

rather encounters him or her within his or her context without evaluation or measurement

against others or some set standard (Jackson, 1989).

Phase 3: The Strategy of Inquiry, Phenomenology

The strategy of enquiry connects the philosophical orientation of the researcher to the method

for the collection and analysis of data. Schurink (1998) suggests that research design is a

concept more suited to quantitative research where the researcher follows a preset design step

by step. In a qualitative inquiry, the plan (design) is flexible and determined by the action of

the researcher and may develop and change with the process of the research. Different

strategies may be linked in the final product. The strategy of inquiry or tools could for

example include the case study, the use of grounded theory, action research or

phenomenological techniques.

The strategy (or “tools”) that suited this study was derived from phenomenological thinking

which aims to interpret the meaning that individuals give to their everyday lives.

Phenomenological thinking or philosophy is congruent with the constructivist position in its


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subjectivist assumptions about lived experience and interpretivist practices. These derive

from the phenomenological tradition of Husserl (1970) and Schutz (1967, 1970), Holstein

and Gubrium (1994). This strategy uses participant observation or interviewing as methods

of data collection. The data is then, after systematic collection, analysed within a specific

context (De Vos & Fouche, 1998). Morse (1994) clarifies the idea that research strategies are

merely tools and it is necessary for the researcher to understand the variety available and their

different purposes in order to select the most appropriate method over another.

Since this research question concerns the meaning of lived experience, the best strategy to

answer the question is one derived from a phenomenological tradition. Making the correct

link between the question and the method chosen will determine the type of results obtained

and the usefulness of the findings. Within the strategy of phenomenology an appropriate

method was deemed to be that of ‘audiotaped’ conversations or interviews (Morse, 1994).

Interviewing is often used as a method to study the interpretivist practices people use since

language is a central medium used to communicate meaning. “The researcher identifies the

‘essence’ of human experiences concerning a phenomenon, as described by participants in a

study. Understanding the ‘lived experiences’ marks phenomenology as a philosophy as well

as a method” (Creswell, 2003, p. 15).

Phase 4: Method of Collecting and Analysing Empirical Materials The key objective that drives this research is to understand the lived experience of the

unemployed mid-career adult. What does it mean to our participants to be without work?

Purposefully selected site Once the key objective was defined and the interview selected as the means for data

collection, the selection of a site and participants needed to be addressed. I chose the

interview rooms at my private practice as a preferred site, for a number of reasons. From a

practical point of view I would not need to travel; the offices are light, airy, quiet,

comfortable and easily accessible for the participants. The alternatives were, to either

interview the participants in their home environment, (this may raise questions from the

family, the participant may feel uncomfortable for an interviewer to be there, the participant

may also feel inhibited by the presence of children or a spouse); or alternatively a public


30

venue which would lack privacy. There would be noise, and curious onlookers could distract

the participant, particularly, if the conversation was being recorded. The participants had

visited me in my offices previously, they knew the location and were reimbursed for any out

of pocket travel costs.

Purposefully selected participants In choosing participants there was a ‘non-random’ or purposive selection process that was

followed. The individuals contain typical attributes of the topic being researched (Strydom,

1998). Patton (1990) advises that in purposive sampling the sample should be information

rich. Furthermore, a strategy of intensity sampling was followed – this means that the

participants are experiential experts with regards to the particular experience under study.

The criteria that the individuals were required to fill were that they had been previously

employed by a large corporate company (in excess of 100 employees); they needed to be at

the mid-career stage of their career cycle and over forty years of age; they should be beyond

the early stage of unemployment and have been without work for more than six months. The

early stage (the first few months) of employment is expected to be treated as a ‘holiday

period’ during which time the participant is optimistic with regards to early reemployment.

After a period of about six months there is the “reality shock” that reemployment may not be

so easily found and adjustments need to be made, financially, emotionally, mentally and

within the daily life/lifestyle. In terms of the multi-cultural population of South Africa,

participants from different racial groups were selected, this applied as well to the selection of

participants across gender. There were eight individuals in the sample.

All of the participants were drawn from the Shipping, Freight and Logistics industries. It is

an industry sector that I am well acquainted with and hence I am able to communicate with

the participants using their ‘jargon’. Their industry context, corporate cultures and value

systems are familiar to me. The sampling technique was hence purposive and not random

and the collective case approach was used (eight participants), individuals were selected to

best reflect the processes being studied. The participants were chosen in terms of belonging

to ‘the general class’ being studied, that is “the unemployed adult”; however, each person

brought his or her own unique story on his or her experiences of being unemployed, after

years of secure, gainful and participative activities in his or her corporate setting. They were

all at mid-management level of seniority.


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Sample size

With qualitative research, understanding meaning is the primary purpose and hence dense

description of the phenomenon is looked for. Once saturation is reached with the data, that

is, themes are repeated and no new insights are obtained, the sample size is considered

adequate. The sample size was determined in this study after eight interviews were

conducted, at that point there was a repetition of the themes identified. No further interviews

were considered (Morse, 1994). The table below summarises the criteria mentioned above

for the selection of participants.

Table 3.3

Selection criteria for Participants (Purposive Sampling) __________________________________________________________________________________________

i. Previously employed by a large corporate organisation (in excess of 100 employees)

ii. Individuals were required to be over 40 years of age (in their mid-career cycle)

iii. They needed to be beyond the early stage of unemployment, that is, they have been

without work for six months or longer

iv. There was a mix of participants in terms of race and gender

v. The participants had all previously worked in the Freight, Shipping and Logistics

industry

vi. The participants were all at mid-management level of seniority

Collecting the data - unstructured interviewing

The key method used for collecting empirical data was the unstructured interview with a

schedule. This type of interview was chosen to illicit depth and breadth in the responses from

participants, it was a face to face, individual, verbal interchange of approximately two hours

duration. A sample of the interview schedule may be found in the Appendix B. The opening

questions were intended to relax the participant, assure him or her of confidentiality and

obtain biographical information. Open-ended questions followed to allow the individual

freedom to express what was most important to him or her; the last group of questions were

open-ended but followed a schedule of topics expected to be of importance. If the


32

interviewee chose to give little attention to any of the structural questions I moved on to the

following one.

I encouraged a ‘feminine’ quality in the interview process and attempted to establish a co-

equal, open relationship with the respondents through emotional engagement. As trust

developed we explored cognitive and emotional issues with regards to unemployment and I

found that they shared quite freely their insights and feelings with me. This follows Oakley’s

(1981) Model of a Feminist Nature described by Fontana and Frey (1994, 2000). This model

endorses an ethic of commitment and equalitarianism contrasting the scientific position of

detachment and differential roles of power with interviewer and interviewee (Denzin &

Lincoln, 1994). The gender of both the interviewer and the interviewee have relevance for

the manner in which the process is conducted. In interviewing a woman, she was not treated

as an ‘object’ with no regard for her individuality; as an interviewer I understood that there is

no intimacy without reciprocity and a closer relationship was encouraged, “Interviewers show

their human side, answer questions and express feelings” (Fontana & Frey, 1994, p. 370).

Fontana and Frey (2000) clarify further that, “Interviewers are increasingly seen as active

participants in interactions with respondents and interviews as negotiated accomplishments of

both interviewers and respondents, that are shaped by the contexts and situations in which

they take place” (p. 663).

As already discussed, I wished to minimise the difference in status between self and

respondent and I attempted to establish a human to human exchange by sharing my own

relevant experiences and expressing feelings. In a ‘feminine’ approach (Oakley, 1981),

respondents are encouraged to digress and to relate anecdotal information, this often

contributes unexpected and relevant insight, and furthermore, allows for open-ended

responses. Fontana and Frey (1994, 2000) describe unstructured interviewing as giving

greater breadth of data through its open-ended character. They offer a synopsis of the process

of unstructured interviewing as illustrated in Table 3.4 and this was followed step by step in

the study.


33

Table 3.4

The Process of Unstructured Interviewing __________________________________________________________________________________________

i. Accessing the setting

ii. Understanding the language and culture of the respondents

iii. Deciding on how to present oneself

iv. Locating an informant

v. Establishing rapport, and,

vi. Collecting empirical materials

Note. Adapted from Fontana and Frey, 2000.

I will now elaborate on the stages of the interview process.

i. Accessing the setting

This is understood as getting in, breaking into, becoming an insider within the cultural

or delimited or boundaried group under study. Through my work in recruitment and

selection I have access to many individuals who have approached me as job seekers

and I was able to ask for co-operation from certain suitable individuals (participants)

and invite them to an interview to assist with this research. Firstly a letter outlining

the research objectives and process was read to the participants (see Appendix A)

over the telephone. They were asked if they would attend an interview and share their

relevant experiences since they left their last employer and have been without work.

There were one or two participants who, when requested to assist with the research,

were hesitant about the process and I understood that they were not comfortable to

discuss their experiences. I did not pursue them as respondents. Most of the

individuals that I approached were willing to participate.

ii. Understanding the language and culture of the respondents

Most of the participants were drawn from my job seekers; they had previously been

employed in the freight or shipping industry which is my niche speciality for

recruitment and placement. I have worked within these industries for 15 years and

hence understand the language, culture, nuances and jargon. In addition, I am


34

familiar with most of the major corporations who make up the core of this industry, I

understand and have experience of the climate and culture of most of the past

workplaces of the participants.

As I had been unemployed for a period of months after resigning from a senior

position in the freight industry, I had first hand experience of being ‘jobless’. So, not

only was I well suited to understand the language, conditions of employment and the

organisational culture of the participants past employer, but also the experience of

being unemployed at the mid-career stage. There is certainly “a jargon” which is used

by freight and shipping specialists and the ability to speak their ‘language’ and

understand their ‘context’ (culture) increased my credibility as an interviewer and

reduced the distance between us.

iii. Deciding on how to present oneself

In asking the respondents if they would be prepared to share their experience with me,

I explained to them that besides the role they associated me with (as recruitment

agent), I was, in addition, active with a research project through RAU University, the

topic of which was the experience of individuals who had been previously employed

in the corporate world and who were now, for whatever reason, unemployed. I

continued that I was hoping that after the interviews I would be in a position to create

a training program or counselling intervention which would assist other individuals in

a similar predicament.

The confidentiality of the process was stressed. I offered to give them general

feedback after I had completed my interviews with others who were in a similar

situation. Hence, my presentational self was that of a “researcher” gathering

information which should be useful for a programme that would assist other

unemployed persons. For most of the respondents the opportunity, to talk of and

share their experiences with an interested party, was welcomed. A few respondents

mentioned that it was a relief to talk about their situation since they were unable to

share their fears and insecurities with their family. They did not wish to alarm their

dependants or alert them to the seriousness of the situation. Others were concerned

that if they did disclose their fears that their partner or spouse would respond by


35

becoming more anxious, or would no longer respect them or hold them in high regard.

One participant communicated that after being unemployed for a lengthy period, he

now felt he was no longer able to sit at the Sunday dinner table and offer fatherly

advice, he no longer received respect from the family.

iv. Locating an informant

Since I had been ‘an insider’ (employed within the same industry) for many years, it

was not necessary to find a translator or an informant to guide me through the

organisational, cultural or social subtleties of my participants’ environments, I had

first hand experience.

v. Establishing rapport

I considered that the individuals who responded to my request for assistance and

arrived for the interview had already progressed some way down the road in terms of

feeling comfortable to interact with me, there was an element of trust. Once we were

settled in the interview room, I again clarified my reason for the interview, stressed

the confidentiality of the information and offered consolidated feedback,

incorporating the views of others who were unemployed, at a later stage. A request

was made to use a tape recorder. I was watchful of maintaining my role as “friend”

rather than that of interviewer, since in my daily work, given time restraints, I am

usually in control of the direction of the recruitment interview. I am aware that the

relationship of trust is extremely fragile and any change or shift to a position of power

in the interview could cause the individual to withdraw and then continue his or her

story at a superficial level. Any comments that I may make which could be

interpreted as judgmental would be detrimental to our open communication.

The respondent was offered tea or coffee on arrival and friendly conversation

followed. This was used to relax him or her and take the respondent through the

transition from where they had been to being present in the interview. To talk about

their emotions or experience of being unemployed could be perceived by them as a

difficult, shameful or frightening interaction. I also needed to be open and clear with

them that this interview was not connected in any way to an employment interview or

promises of employment. A longer term relationship was envisaged with certain of


36

the participants (three) who were invited to attend a second interview at a later date to

verify the content of their transcripts, so that which I had understood and transcribed,

was what they had meant to convey. The content and meaning of the original

transcripts were confirmed in the second interview. On completion of the study all

respondents received a general overview of the results and the findings of the research

project.

I believe that my concern about their unemployed status was communicated to them.

The experience of having one’s basic security needs, as well as needs for social

interaction, status and challenging daily activity threatened, is still a reality for me,

and this motivated me throughout the period of this thesis to assist others in a similar

situation. I expressed my concern openly to them and showed genuine empathy

throughout the interview. Fontana and Frey (2000) refer to Lincoln’s (1995)

comment on the interviewing approach of the feminist, communitarian model, as one

in which the framework presumes a researcher who builds collaborative, reciprocal,

trusting and friendly relations with those studied. I attempted to keep this model in

mind during my interviews.

vi. Collecting empirical materials

The interviews took place in a private interview room, I used a tape recorder (with the

respondents’ consent) and made sure that I handled the operation of the tape recorder

quietly and unintrusively. I believe that after a short while the respondents forgot that

the interview was being taped. During the interview I was aware of my non-verbal

behaviour, my use of personal space, body movement and tone of voice. The non-

verbal elements of the exchange are important in that body language should support

the verbal communication and reinforce the open empathetic tone of the interview

(Schurink, 1998). The duration of each interview was between one and a half to two

hours.

The room has a round boardroom table and a number of chairs around the table;

respondents were able to choose their place in the room and I then chose a chair next

to them but with a good arm’s length of space between us. There is another interview

room with two couches facing each other, but it appears from recruitment interviews


37

that the interviewees like the security or protection of the table in front of them and to

have me sitting in a relaxed manner at a 45 degree angle rather than in a

confrontational or oppositional position. I attempted to maintain an open, relaxed

body posture throughout the interview, taking notes quietly when I needed to

highlight a response.

In terms of the pace of the interview I followed the lead given by the respondent but

allowed time and silences when necessary for the person to remember circumstances

or emotions or frame his/her comments or responses. It was important to fall into the

rhythm and pace of the respondents to allow them to feel that they were able to

express themselves in their own time and that they had control over the interaction. I

closed the interview allowing time for questions, discussions or comments and then

reoriented them for travelling or driving safely. I made sure that they had my

telephone number so if any perplexing or worrying thoughts or emotions arose, they

could be in contact with me.

Four of the interviews had already been conducted as the preliminary phase of the

original research project (which was to gather information for the creation of an

intervention which would be evaluated through the use of a control and experimental

group). These initial interviews were then treated as a pilot study and the information

generated allowed focus on particular areas of interest and on a redefinition of the

questions in the interview schedule. This being in accordance with an understanding

that qualitative research is emergent – the research questions may change and be

refined as the inquirer learns what to ask (Creswell, 2003).

The new interview schedule allowed for more ‘in depth’ questions; the participants

were encouraged to participate spontaneously with regards to the general theme and,

thereafter, the schedule was used as a guideline. The questionnaire used in the present

study (attached in the Appendix B) shows the opening statements to the participant,

the open-ended interview questions followed by the semi-structured questions. I

made reflective notes and comments on aspects of the interview.


38

Personal notes were made to refer to during the interview, these were to remind me

about certain procedural issues, such as offering a contribution to the travelling costs

of the participants or giving my telephone number should he or she wish to make

contact after the interview. I also had a reminder for myself with regards to the

‘distance’ in the interview between self and ‘other’ and to maintain an open, human

interaction. Notes were taken to describe the ‘presentational self’ of the participant.

Analysing empirical material There is no one right method for the analysis of data, there are many ways of getting analyses

‘right’ (Miles & Huberman, 2002) and qualitative processes can generate a vast volume of

textual narrative which needs to be managed and finally reduced for sense making.

Qualitative data are voluminous and “like the phenomena they mirror, these data are usually

complex and ambiguous and sometimes downright contradictory” (Miles & Huberman, 2002,

p. 394). They suggest an interactive model for data management, which includes data

collection, data display, data reduction and finally conclusion drawing and verification.

Tesch’s approach (1990) proposes that the researcher combines the activities of data

collection and data analysis simultaneously, rather than wait to begin the analysis after the

field is exited, or the interview process is completed. He continues that first one should get a

sense of the whole; then select one transcript and read through it to establish the meaning

and sub-themes, then continue with the rest of the documents. Thereafter, cluster the sub-

themes into major, unique and left over topics. These sub-themes are then aggregated and

turned into themes or categories – the categories can be linked by drawing lines to show their

inter-relationship. A preliminary analysis can then be performed. In this research the

methods of both authors (Tesch, 1990; Huberman & Miles, 1994; Miles & Huberman, 2002)

have been used and integrated. What follows is a description of my procedure, with

examples, of qualitative content analysis.

The interviews were audio-taped and the cassettes given to a typist who transcribed the

interviews verbatim, printing the transcript with a large margin on the left hand side. The

transcribed tapes were returned to me at different times and on receipt of the material I

listened to the recording and read through the transcript for errors. At the same time I started

the process of labelling chunks of meaning with a describing word, which I wrote in the


39

margin. I worked systematically through the first manuscript noting the ‘sub-themes’ in the

margin. I worked through all of the eight transcripts in a similar manner as I received them

from the typist.

The passage quoted below is taken from one of the transcripts. This is an example of how I

coded the verbatim interchange of the participants. In one paragraph this participant spoke

about the main changes in his life that he was attempting to cope with, that is, financial strain

and declining self-esteem – these are two of the main themes of the study. He also touched on

his experience of being socially stigmatised, his increasing isolation and his altered sleep

patterns which indicated depression or worry. Qualitative research is known for the richness

of its data and in this one short paragraph the participant touches on a variety of sub-themes.

Interviewer: Looking at the most difficult changes for you to cope

with since leaving ------, what are they?

Participant: Um, self-belief and readjusting, the finances;

obviously self-belief covers so many things. I have noticed

(Self esteem) that unemployed people are treated like lepers for example,

(Finances) and people who used to phone me just don’t phone me, and

(Social Stigma) things like that, so it leads to an altered sleep pattern, and I

(Stress symptoms) don’t sleep as well as what I used to, so all those issues are

there attached, but that’s probably those two that are the

major ones.

Thereafter, I took a large A5 drawing paper and noted the names of the participants across the

top using different colour pens for each person. Starting with the first participant I noted

his/her sub-themes down the left column of the sheet and included a few key words for each

topic, I then moved on to the next transcript and treated it similarly, matching similar sub-

themes on the sheet or adding new ones. After completing all the transcripts I had a number

of sheets with 33 sub-themes noted. An example of the final sheet is shown as Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 An Example of Coding Sheet showing Sub-Themes

PARTICIPANTS

SUB-THEMES

A B

C 8 Participants

i. Stress • Hair turned grey overnight

• Depression

• Feet swollen • Problem with

sleeping

• Blood pressure up

• Altered sleep pattern

ii. Lack of Finances • Downsized my

life • No finances for

basic necessities

• No entertain-ment, no luxuries

• Change in lifestyle

• No money for maintenance payments

• No money for children’s schooling

33 themes

On another sheet these sub-themes were then grouped under the headings of major topics

(sub-themes), unique sub-themes and left-overs. The sub-themes were looked at for

duplication and overlap and then reduced to 15. Figure 3.1 illustrates how a group of sub-

themes were condensed and integrated into a main theme.


40

THEME

Coping behaviour

SUB-THEMES, e.g.

• Dealing with the self

• Coping with stress over time

• Structuring of the day

• Coping resources – family support

Figure 3.1 An Example – From Sub-Themes to Theme in Qualitative Content Analysis. Note: Adapted from Henning (2004)

Phase 5: Ethics and Politics in Qualitative Research

Punch (1994) writes that field work and qualitative research includes one’s social and moral

conduct in relation to the political restraints of the field or setting. What follows is an

elaboration on my understanding of the moral and ethical requirements in conducting

qualitative research.

The creation of trust had already started to take place before the participant entered my office

for the interview. In simple terms they knew where to come, they knew who would interact

with them, they have been interviewed by me before (albeit for a different outcome) and they

knew of the company from its profile in this specific market. An open relationship certainly

developed over this one to two hour interview, but an encounter of this nature is not expected

to generate the same variety of ethical considerations as those relevant to field work or

ethnography where the researcher would live, sleep or eat with the participant. However,

ethical and political issues do arise even from an interview situation since these participants

revealed many thoughts and feelings, describing their position of vulnerability and fear.

Similarly to a counselling intervention, there could be at a later stage, day dreaming,

cognitive restructuring or emotional issues which may cause concern for the participant.

The participants in the interviews were asked to be in contact with me if there were any

disturbing issues or questions that arose after the interview session. Participants had spoken

during the interviews about ideas of suicide, feelings of failure and rejection, changes in their Chapter Three – Research Objectives, Process and Method

41


42

self concept, declining self esteem and guilt at the impact of their unemployment on their

family. Any of these experiences “relived” could result in negative or positive outcomes at a

later stage, which may need to be dealt with. For many of the participants this was the first

time that they ‘broke their silence” with regards to their thoughts or feelings about being

jobless.

As a researcher I take responsibility for the ethics of my intervention and do this by firstly

clarifying my reason (the research objective) with the participants for initiating the interview,

explaining that I hoped to create a training intervention from this information to help others

in the same or similar situations. I then assured all participants of the confidentiality of the

interview and their material. Feedback was offered to them, not only on their interview but

also on the experiences of other participants. An emotionally safe environment was created, I

ensured that the interview process moved in tune with their level of willingness for

disclosure. I asked their permission to use the tape recorder and made sure that they were

comfortable with their story being recorded; in addition, I was careful in the choice of a

recorder, in that it should be quiet, non-intrusive and require little adjustment. Since the

individuals were without work, I offered to reimburse them for any travelling costs. They

understood that they are able to call me at any time after the interview should they have any

questions, dilemmas or discomfort. I reminded myself at all stages of the interview process

that I am a ‘friend’ and not an interrogator; that I have been through a similar experience and

crisis in my life, and that I do not wish to project a distant, judgmental, authority figure. The

Buddhist ideal of cultivating genuine empathy by putting yourself in others’ shoes was used

as a personal reminder to myself (Dalai Lama, 1997). I requested that some of the

participants return at a later date to verify my transcripts to make sure that I had understood

their experiences as they intended to communicate them.

Ethical behaviour in the research process rests with the individual researcher, and she will be

accountable for the positive and negative consequences of every decision (Strydom, 1998).

Strydom continues that there are a variety of relevant ethical issues and each issue should be

internalised by the researcher so that ethically guided decisions become part of a non-

negotiable response set. The following are core ethical issues for any research project and

were respected and followed in this study.


43

Harm to the respondent

In a study such as this, harm is likely to be of an emotional rather than a physical nature, if

such should occur. It is difficult to predict if harm will arise out of these interview situations

and all participants were thoroughly informed with regards to the possible impact of the

investigation. At any stage of the interview, if the respondent did not wish to continue, he or

she was made aware that he or she could terminate the interaction. With almost all of the

respondents the interview continued for more than one and a half hours and the researcher

was the party that needed to guide the session to a close. The participants would willingly

have continued for longer.

Babbie (1990) mentions that negative behaviour or emotions may be recalled from the past

during a session and this could later have repercussions for the participant. He suggests that

unless such information is crucial to the study, it should not be included. Since these

participants were responding to open-ended questions or leading the direction of the

discussion, they initiated the topics and were not requested to respond to any intrusive

questions. If the participant wished to bypass any of the ‘schedule’ questions, the interviewer

moved on to the next topic.

Informed Consent

This refers to placing all possible or adequate knowledge with regard to the goal of the study,

the procedures, the credibility of the researcher and the advantages and disadvantages of

being a participant – in the hands of the individual. The person needs to fully comprehend

the possible impact for themselves and make a clear decision on participation. Of course, the

participant should be legally and psychologically competent to give consent. These

participants were all older adults who had maintained sound working careers for most of their

adult life and were viewed as being able to make their own decision with regards to

participation. Information with regards to this project was first given over the telephone

when the request for their participation was made. Before beginning the interview, a more

detailed overview of this research work was communicated and if the participant chose not to

continue, this would have been respected. In practice this did not happen.


44

Deception of Participants

Judd, Smith and Kidder (1991) suggest that this may be done to disguise the real goal of the

study or hide the experiences that subjects will go through. Since much of the information

for this study was volunteered by the participants, this was not believed to be an issue for

concern.

Violation of Privacy

The individuals were given a commitment that their interview information would remain

anonymous and that this would ensure their privacy. All information has been kept in a

secure, locked and private place and has not been accessible to others. Before the tape

recorder was used in the interview session, respondents were asked for their consent for its

use. The respondents were asked for their permission to participate in the research and were

read a letter explaining the objective of the study, and given time to ask any questions.

Furthermore, they were given assurance that there would be no personal referrals in the

written findings and that their particular information would be combined with that of other

participants in a general report. Verbatim quotations would be used in the text but the source

would remain anonymous. Anonymity for the participant in the final research text is my

responsibility as researcher and is an important ethical concern. The final story or outcome

could also be shaped by the researcher from the reflexive and intimate sharing of stories – the

researcher needs to be watchful about changing the participants stories or meaning.

Publication of the Data

The findings of this study will be presented to the academic community and presented in as

clear and trustworthy a manner as possible. The participants will all receive a document

outlining the findings. This will be written in such a manner that it is not too detailed or that

it discloses any issues of confidentiality (Huysamen, 1993).


45

Debriefing Sessions

After receiving a summary of the findings of the research, all participants will be offered the

opportunity to verify their information and the content of their individual interviews. At the

same time the individual will have the opportunity to clear any misconceptions, to ask further

questions, to make comments on his or her experience of the interview process and his or her

participation in the study. The research experience should be a positive learning experience

for the participants as well as the researcher and Dane (1990) comments that a debriefing

session is an ideal opportunity. Three debriefing sessions were held prior to the completion

of the study – the balance of the participants will be invited to a session once the general

summary is written.

Permission for Conducting the Research

Each participant was read a letter, Application for Permission to Conduct Research (see

Appendix A) giving the background to the research project, the process of the research, the

academic context and the objective for the study. They were asked if they understood the

document and if there were any questions. At a later stage each participant signed the letter.

Competence of the Researcher

The authority of the researcher is elaborated on in the Section 3.5 Measures to Ensure

Trustworthiness.

Respect for Participants

Oakley (1981) takes a stand with regards to ‘human’ face to face interviews. She feels that

most traditional interviews treat the participant as an object or a number and that the tactics

used are manipulatory. In feminism or feministic interviewing a subjective reflexivity is

accepted and is used to counter the supposed, objective, value-free discourses. In this

research an attempt has been made to reduce the distance between ‘self’ and ‘other’ and

maintain a close relationship with the interviewees. Punch (1986) suggests that as


46

researchers we need to exercise moral responsibility and common sense; Fontana and Frey

(1994) add that this should be to our participants first, the study next and ourselves last.

Researcher’s Degree of Involvement

Fontana and Frey (2000) discuss further issues such as the researcher’s degree of

involvement with the participants and the manipulation of the respondents as objects. These

ethical problems were not seen to be relevant to this study.

Accuracy

Christians (2000) comments “that data that are internally and externally valid are the coin of

the realm, experimentally and morally” (p. 140). Fabrications, fraudulent materials as well as

omissions are contrary to the spirit of social science research. The researcher has attempted

to communicate the participants stories as accurately as possible.

A Sacred Discourse

There is a shift from individualist utilitarianism to feminist communitarianism (Lincoln &

Denzin, 2000); Christians (2000) clarifies this as a new way forward in the field of ethics.

Social and feminist ethics go beyond the utilitarian models of the past, which is not meant to

reduce the value of informed consent, deception or confidentiality. Compassion and

nuturance resolve conflicting responsibilities amongst people and this moves us beyond

merely avoiding harm. The desire to offer counselling recommendations is indicative of a

desire to take action in a helping mode to enhance the ‘life chances’ of unemployed people.

A sacred discourse moves us forward to a universal human ethic emphasising the sacredness

of life, human dignity, truth- telling and non-violence (Christians, 1997).

Axiology

There is a recent move to include ‘values’ as part of the ethics domain in qualitative research

and Lincoln and Guba (2000) refer to axiology in this regard. This introduces the

consideration of and dialogue around the role of spirituality in human inquiry; the place


47

where the spiritual meets the social. Values are seen to feed into the research process with

each process decision taken and this stresses how qualitative research is value-laden.

Decisions such as choice of the problem, choice of paradigm and choice of method all reflect

the basic beliefs of the researcher.

Phase 6: The Art of Interpretation

Once the data is reduced, analysed and reformatted into a text which makes sense, given the

multiple meanings expressed – the task is to interpret the material. This is not a

straightforward deductive process but a creative leap from the results and field text to

producing a meaningful storyline. Van Maanen (1988) suggests that the final tale from the

field may have many forms such as confessional, realist or impressionary.

This research tells the story of the unemployed experience. I have described the participants

comments, emotions, experiences and thoughts and attempted to find underlying meaning(s)

in their responses to their unique situations. This qualitative project is a ‘realist’ story about

entering into the world of the unemployed and bringing it to light and making it alive for the

reader (Clough, 1992). Denzin and Lincoln (1994) write that the researcher moves from the

field to the text to the reader, each step involving a reflexive process. Within the

constructivist paradigm there is the reality of the reader, the researcher and the participants.

Creswell (2003) describes a process for the inductive logic of research in a qualitative study.

The first step is the collection of data, the researcher asks open-ended questions – the data is

then analysed to form themes or categories. What follows is the creative step of

interpretation wherein the researcher looks for broad patterns, generalisations or theories

from the themes. Finally there is the generalisation (or theory) to past experience and

literature. This process was followed step by step with the resulting theory being a ‘pattern

theory’ rather than a theory devised from deductive reasoning. Neuman (2000) explains that

pattern theories are systems that inform – the concepts and relations within them form a

mutually reinforcing, closed system. Creswell (2003) writes that pattern theories are an

explanation that develops during naturalistic or qualitative research.


48

3.4 STRATEGY OF INQUIRY

Phenomenology, which aims to understand and interpret the meaning that subjects give to

their everyday lives (De Vos & Fouche, 1998) was chosen as an appropriate strategy for this

study. The researcher attempts to place herself in the position of the participant and elicit

rich data through the medium of interview or audiotaped conversations. Both types of

interaction were used in this study. Unstructured interviews with a schedule were the more

formal tool and yet informal, reflexive conversations developed at times as the researcher

engaged in a real conversation with give and take (Fischer & Wertz, 2002). Phenomenology,

as an approach, considers how lived experience is constructed through perception. Husserl

(1970) has insisted that an assumption of phenomenology is that the relation between

perception and its objects is not passive and that human consciousness actively constitutes the

objects of experience.

Bracketing and intuiting is much spoken of in data analysis in qualitative method. Burns and

Grove (1987) explain that in bracketing the researcher puts aside his preconceived notions or

ideas about the phenomenon being studied in order to achieve an open context. They

continue that intuiting occurs after the process of bracketing when the researcher focuses all

awareness and energy on the data or part of the data to allow an increase of insight. Absolute

concentration and absorption with the experience being studied is necessary. In the data

analysis phase the researcher was aware of both bracketing and intuiting as an attempt was

made to reach an understanding of the nuances being discussed or the subtleties of the story

of the participant. Poggenpoel (1998) refers to these reasoning strategies used in data

analysis (on bracketing and intuiting) and quotes Burns and Grove (1987) in that regard. I

was aware that as a ‘gendered’ researcher with a particular history it was useful for me to

remind myself of my areas of potential bias whilst analysing material, yet from a

contextualist viewpoint one cannot be entirely removed from the interpretation.

When following a traditional interview format in qualitative research the researcher is

expected to avoid becoming involved in a real conversation and should not answer questions

asked by the participant, interviewers are not expected to give opinions. However, in

‘gendered’ or creative interviewing the researcher may decide to engage in a real


49

conversation with empathetic comments, which allows for the expression of feelings in the

interview , making the exchange more honest, morally sound and reliable (Douglas, 1985).

Rules are forgotten to allow research participants and the interviewer to express themselves

more freely. There is, however, a balance required with gendered interviewing, as Bruner

(1990) explains, there is a danger in putting yourself (the researcher) so deeply in the text that

it dominates. No-one advocates such self-indulgence. It appears that critical judgement is

required.

3.5 MEASURES TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS

Denzin (1994) suggests that the positivist terms of reliability and validity be replaced in

qualitative research within the constructivist paradigm by the notions of trustworthiness and

authenticity. Trustworthiness consists of four aspects which are described as credibility,

transferability, dependability and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Denzin continues

that although the constructivist paradigm is not supportive of post-positivist assumptions,

Lincoln and Guba (1985) are still embracing the elements of “good science” in their

commitment to methods and procedures that display trustworthiness. It would appear that

this aspect of qualitative research is still moving through change and is unresolved. Lincoln

and Guba (2000) continue to grapple with the place of validity in the new paradigms and

indicate that the central question is how do we know that our social inquiry has delivered

‘faithful’ findings upon which we may feel safe to take action or the community may

respond. The debate continues not so much around which criteria to use but rather whether

the nature of social inquiry should change. Lincoln and Guba (2000) refer as well to the

authority of the text and whether we can genuinely lay claims to being accurate, true and

complete, that is, offer a Gods-eye view.

These are indeed taxing and confusing questions and I can make the choice and decide that

criteria for validity, given a contructivist paradigm, are not applicable, that the ‘truth’ is

subjective and hence not available for external consideration. Alternatively, I can follow, to

some degree, the guidelines of trustworthiness and attempt to introduce some rigour in the

research study. I have decided on the latter.


50

Guba and Lincoln (1994) elaborate on the two sets of criteria for judging the quality or

‘goodness’ of a research inquiry, that is its trustworthiness. The criteria of credibility

parallels with internal validity; transferability parallels external validity; dependability

parallels reliability and confirmability addresses objectivity. Authenticity is the criteria of

fairness.

Poggenpoel (1998) supports Guba’s model of trustworthiness as one that is well developed

conceptually and in use by qualitative researchers. She uses the term ‘truth value’ for

credibility. We do need to be reminded that qualitative studies stress the social construction

of reality, the intimate relationship of the researcher with what is being studied (as well as the

situational restraints) hence the value laden nature of such research is stressed.

Quantitative studies emphasise measurement within a ‘value free’ environment and reliability

and validity are central to such research. However, Guba and Lincoln (1994) attempt to bring

some rigor into the evaluation of qualitative studies. The future use of ‘trustworthiness’ in

qualitative research is likely to evolve and change as the discipline matures.

The four aspects of trustworthiness are elaborated upon by Schurink, (1998) and Poggenpoel,

(1998) i.e. credibility or truth value, transferability or applicability, dependability or

consistency and confirmability or neutrality.

Credibility (Truth Value)

This criterion will be used to determine the extent to which the findings are representative of

the experience of unemployed adults in this sample, whether the researcher has confidence in

the “truth” of the findings based on the design, participants’ contributions and the context.

This could be tested by asking other unemployed individuals if these findings reflected their

experience and if they recognise the major themes that are tabled. Another worker in the

field of unemployment or an ‘expert’ could be approached to make comment on the

credibility of the findings.

In this research process follow up interviews were arranged with three of the participants.

These interviews lasted one to one and a half hours. The participants were asked to

reconfirm their most critical experiences of being unemployed. This was compared with the


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overall storyline and main themes that were arrived at previously. With all three participants

the key themes were confirmed. Thereafter I went through their typed transcript with them

and asked for confirmation of my understanding of their experiences. I was quite surprised to

hear them almost ‘verbatim’ repeat their previous comments. I asked for comments on my

time scale graph, A Suggested Pictorial Expression of the Unemployed Experience over

Time (Figure 3.1) and received two major adjustments to the shape of the graph. Firstly,

after leaving their job or being retrenched there was not as great a period of ‘shock’ as I had

anticipated. Secondly, after finding employment the return to ‘normal’ functioning was

dramatic and instantaneous and not as slow as I had predicted. Changes were made to the

Time Scale graph.

In terms of prolonged engagement, the researcher has worked in the field of unemployment

and career counselling for twelve years and has in addition known the participants and their

environment, the industry within which they work. The authority of the researcher plays an

important role in assessing the truth-value of the research. The researcher’s authority for

proceeding with the research is based on the following criteria. I am a registered Industrial

Psychologist (with a theoretical and academic background); I have worked in an

organisational context for more than twenty years (practical experience); I have worked with

unemployed adults for twelve years in a career counselling as well as in a recruitment and

selection role (career counselling experience); I have written and conducted a training

program for unemployed graduates, and finally, working with the unemployed is of particular

interest for the researcher and hence enhanced attention is given to these activities.

Transferability (Applicability)

This criterion refers to the transferability of these findings to other contexts, groups or

settings. This could be established by a ‘face value’ confirmation, which would occur when

another unemployed adult from another industry or age group reads the findings and confirms

that much in the findings relates to his/her experience. The fit with the background

literature, journal articles and peer studies would in addition confirm the applicability of the

findings. The background literature and content of the journal articles were to a large extent

supported by the experiences expressed by the participants.


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Dependability (Consistency)

Lincoln and Guba (1985) define consistency in terms of dependability. This criterion will

denote the similarity of the results of other studies using a similar sample group from the

same contexts. To allow for the conducting of a similar project, a clear description is needed

of the data collection and data analysis methods so that other researchers could follow the

process of this work. An attempt has been made to do so. From another perspective if one

assumes that there are multiple realities in qualitative research this notion is no longer

relevant. In terms of the interactive interview process whereby a different reality would

emerge with each participant, and the unique involvement of a particular researcher in the

research text – each author is likely to bring his or her reality into the text. Krefting (1990)

comments that if there are multiple realities the notion of reliability is no longer relevant.

Confirmability (Neutrality)

This refers to the degree that the findings are the texts of the participants and that the

influence of other biases, motivations and perspectives is recorded and made allowance for.

The personal history of the researcher has been written up in considerable detail and is to be

found at the beginning of this chapter. Bracketing is also discussed in the methodology in

terms of an attempt being made to put aside one’s biases when one is integrating and

analysing the findings of this research; intuiting has, in addition, been discussed as a thought

process to enhance neutrality.

It is necessary to add that a researcher speaks from a perspective of class, race, gender and

culture and orchestrates the qualitative research process. It is a ‘value laden’ process where

recognition of bias may be more authentic than the pretence of neutrality (Lincoln & Denzin,

1994, 2000). In quantitative research objectivity is the criterion of neutrality and is achieved

through adherence to reliability and validity; it is also achieved through distancing the

researcher from the participants. Qualitative work has other intentions such as decreasing the

distance between researcher and participant and neutrality is not desired during the process of

the research. Guba and Lincoln (1994) suggests that it is the neutrality of the data that should

be considered and not that of the researcher.


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Triangulation

With triangulation the researcher may decide to use more than one method or more than one

source of data to arrive at the research findings. Denzin (1978) identifies four types of

triangulation. These types include data triangulation, a variety of sources of data or sampling

strategies, investigator triangulation (use of different researchers, coders or interviewers),

theory (different perspectives to interpret the data) and method triangulation (multiple

methods within one research project). Frequently researchers use triangulation as a

combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. Finally, interdisciplinary

triangulation is seen to be an integration of perspectives which would assist in obtaining a

‘holistic’ view of the experiences or phenomena being studied.

In this research triangulation was used in the following instances. An in depth case study

could have been used, however, the decision was to use eight participants (purposive

sampling) and thereby obtain a broader perspective. One method, that of the unstructured

interview was used but within that main interview method other systems were introduced

reflecting a more ‘creative’ method of interviewing. At times the interview reflected an in-

depth methodology, at other times open-ended questions were introduced, conversation

developed as well, with the interviewer at times answering questions or passing comment.

Although this research is viewed through the lens of a constructivist paradigm (whereby a

unique reality is created in the reflexive interaction between participant and researcher) the

analysis of the data into themes by an independent coder was arranged.

The themes that the independent coder arrived at confirmed those of the researcher. Her four

major themes reflected exactly the analysis of the researcher, however, her ordering of

importance differed, as did her main story line which she described as a story of loss. The

researcher’s overarching theme was one of coping with crisis – loss is reflected as a minor

theme within other themes.

In terms of using different perspectives to interpret the data, multiple theories underpinning

this project are reflected at each stage of the research. The chapter on recontextualisation of


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the research into theory and literature gives, in depth, detail of the theories underpinning this

inquiry.

A promoter’s knowledge and skills have, in addition, been drawn upon to confirm or

disconfirm processes or information in this study (expert supervision). Finally all

respondents have been invited back to receive a summary of the findings and confirm or

question their individual transcripts (member checking) and group findings. Peer viewing

has also taken place in terms of a seminar where critical appreciation and feedback was

requested.

To use multi-perspectives, methods or data to arrive at the trustworthiness of a qualitative

project makes common sense in terms of creditworthiness. Janesick (1994) refers to

triangulation as a heuristic tool for the researcher.

Sources of Bias

Janesick (2000) reminds us that qualitative research is ideologically driven and hence there is

no bias-free or value-free inquiry. The qualitative researcher declares her paradigms,

explains her social, philosophical and physical location in the study and source of bias – the

reader is therefore able to discern the ideological viewpoint and make allowances for it. The

researcher is not able to rid him or herself of his or her cultural self which is brought to the

inquiry (Hughes, 1992). The researcher should still be aware about his or her views and

uncover these perspectives particularly on issues central to the research. Questions of bias on

race, age, class or gender should be attended to.

When evaluating the quality of qualitative reports, Lincoln and Guba (2002) refer to

resonance criteria which assess the degree of overlap between a qualitative report as written

and the basic belief system which the inquirer has chosen to follow. The construction has an

obligation to be self-examining, self-questioning, self-critical and self-correcting. There

should be conscious reflexivity to expose bias.

Sadler (2002) refers to biases which arise simply from being a person. ‘Man’s’ performance

as an intuitive data processor (as in qualitative research processing) shows evidence of


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misperception, misaggregation and defective inference all of which lead to suboptimal

assessments. He continues that these biases are linked to our national processes of cognition.

These biases may be summarised as data overload, first impression, availability of

information, missing information and unreliability of information amongst others. This

draws attention to common failings or limitations in human information-processing and

through this understanding better evaluations should emerge.

Other sources of bias identified by Sadler (2002) are ethical compromise (due to payoffs or a

conflict of interest with a funding agency) and biases traced to the researcher’s background,

knowledge, experience or world view, which he acknowledges as a natural and necessary

element in qualitative research.

Verification includes checking for bias, which can enter into the conclusions drawn.

Huberman and Miles (1994) write that data overload could skew the analysis (information

overload); the salience of first impressions could influence the researcher; overconfidence

with the data could lead to superficial analysis; one could misinterpret co-occurrences as

correlation; there could be unreliability of information from certain sources and finally the

over-accommodation of information that should be seen to question conclusions drawn.

During the analysis phase these checks and balances were kept in mind.

3.6 CONCLUSION

This chapter completes the discussion on the research objectives, process and method and

leads into the following chapter, which will report on the results of the unstructured and semi-

structured interviews with the participants. In conclusion, to mention again that in qualitative

research the data are usually complex and ambiguous and sometimes downright

contradictory, analysis is a matter of coming to terms with it and passing on conclusions

which clarify and deepen understanding (Miles & Huberman, 2002).

research objectives, process and method

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