research notes print outs

8/3/2019 Research Notes Print Outs

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Q. 1. Research is a careful investigation or inquiry through search for new facts

in any branch of knowledge. Discuss in the light of nature and significance of

research.

Ans Researchin common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. The Advance Learners Dictionary

of Current English defines the research as careful investigation or inquiry through search for new factsin any branch of knowledge. Redman and Mory defines researchas Systemized efforts to gain new

knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to unknown.

According to Clifford Woody research compromises defining and redefining problems, formulating

hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and

reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the

formulating hypothesis. In general research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciation

the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and researching

certain conclusions ether in the form of solutions towards the concerned problem or in certain

generalization for some theoretically formulation.

Objectives:

The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and has not been discovered yet. The

research objectives are:

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insight into it studies with this object in

view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies.

To portray accurately the characteristics of particular individual, situation or group. These are called

descriptive research studies.

To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with

something else. This study is known as diagnostic research study.

To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables. Such study is known as testing

research studies.Motivation in Research:

The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.

Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e. concern over practical problems

initiates research.

Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.

Desire to be of service of society.

Desire to get respectability.

Types of Research

(a) Descriptive Vs Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of

different kinds. Its major purpose is description of state of affaires, as it exists at present. Analytical

researchers have to use facts or information already available and analyse these to make a critical

evolution of material.


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(b) Applied Vs Fundamental: applied aims at finding solution for an immediate problem facing a

society or an industrial or business organisation. Research to identify social, economic or political trends

that may affect a particular institution or the marketing research are the examples of applied research.

Fundamental is mainly concerned with generalization and with the formulation of theory. Research

concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental

research.

(c) Quantitative Vs Qualitative; Quantitative is based on measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative is based on the

qualititative phenomena i.e. phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.

(d) Conceptual Vs Empirical: Conceptual research is related to some abstract ideas or theory. It is

generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing one.

Empirical relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regards for system and theory. It

is data based on research coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation

or experiments.

(e) Other types of research: All types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated

approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on

the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factors. There are

many other types of research based on their occurrence such as one-time research, field-setting

research, clinical or diagnostic, historical and conclusion-oriented research etc.

Significance of Research: All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for

it leads to inquiry and inquiry leads to invention. Some of the significance in various fields are as

follows:

(a) Scientific and Inductive: Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the

development of logical habit of thinking and organisation.

(b) Aid to Economics Policy: The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether

related to business or to the economy as a whole has greatly increased in modern times. The

increasingly complex nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in

solving operational problems. Research as an aid to economic policy has gained added importance.

(c) Basis for Policies: Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic

system. For instance, govt;s budget rest in part on an analysis of the need and desire of people and on

the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of need has to be equated to probable

revenues and this is a field where research is most needed.

(d) Operational and Planning: Research has its special significance in solving various operational and

planning problems of business and industry. Operation research refers to application of mathematical,

logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimization or profit

maximization or optimization problems. Business budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected

profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates which in turn depend on business research.Thus research replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.

(e) Social Relationship: Research is equally important for social scientists in solving social relationship

and in seeking answers to social problems. Research in social science is concerned both with knowledge

for its own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns.

(f) To those student who are to write a master or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean careerism or a way

to attain high position in the social structure.


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(g) To professional in research methodology, I may mean a source of livelihood.

(h) To philosophers and thinkers, it may mean the outlet for new ideas and insight.

(j) To literary man and women, it may mean the development of new styles and creative work.

(k) To analysts and intellectuals, it may mean the generalisation of new theories.

Q2.Define research problem? Explain the techniques of defining

research problem.

Ans. A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulties which a researcher experience in the

context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. The

components of research problems are as follows:

There must be an individual or a group which has some problem.

There must be some objectives to be attained. If one wants nothing, one can not have a problem.

There must be alternative means for obtaining the objectives one wishes to attain. It means there

must be two means available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he can not have aproblem.

There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of

alternatives

There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertain.

Thus the research problem is one that requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given

problem, i.e. to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained.

Identifying the Problem: The research problem taken for study must be carefully identified. Following

points may be observed while identifying a problem:

The subject of the problem should not be overdone, for it will be difficult task to through any newlight on such a case.

Controversial subjects should not become the choice of an average researcher.

Too narrow and too vogue problem should be avoided.

The subject of the problem should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or

research resources are within ones reach.

The study of problem should fall within the budget he can afford.

A brief feasibility study must be undertaken to identify a problem. The subject or the problem

identified or selected must involve the researcher and must have an uppermost place in his mind so that

he may take all the pains needed for the study.

Necessity of Defining a Problem: A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. The problem to

be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the

irrelevant ones. A proper definition of the research problem will enable the researcher to be on the

track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdle. Question like:

What data are to be collected?

What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?


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What relations are to be explored?

What techniques are to be used for the purpose?

And similar other questions may crop up in researchers mind that can well plan his strategy and find

answer to these questions. In fact formulation of problem is often more essential than solution. It is

only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design and can

smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.

Techniques involved in Defining a problem: The research problem should be defined in a

systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves

the following steps one after the other:

(a) Statement of problem in a general way: The problem should be stated in a broad general way,

keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. The problem

stated in broad way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and

rethinking over the problem. At the same time feasibility of particular solution has to be considered and

be kept in view while stating the problem.

(b) Understanding the nature of problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its

origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss with those who first

raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objective in view.

The researcher must also keep in mind the environment within which the problem is to be studied and

understood.

(c) Surveying the available literature: All available literatures concerning the problem at hand must

necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of research problem is given. He must devote

sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problem. Studies on related

problem are useful for indicating the types of difficulties that may be encountered in the present study

as also the possible analytical shortcoming.

(d) Defining the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful

information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. People with rich experienceare in position to enlighten the researcher on different aspect of his proposed study and their advice

and comments are usually invaluable to the researcher.

(e) Rephrasing the research problem: This is last step of defining a problem. The researcher must sit to

rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of problem has been clearly

understood, the environment has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the

available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or

operational terms is not a difficult task.

In addition of the above following points must also be observed while defining a research problem:

Technical words and terms or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem,

should be clearly defined.

Basic assumptions relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.

A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation should be provided.

The suitability of time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the

researcher in defining a problem.


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The scope of the investigation or the limit within which the problem is to be studied must be

mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

Qu. 3. Define Hypothesis? Explain the types, needs and importance?

What are the difficulties in formulation of hypothesis?Ans. Meaning of Hypothesis: It is a theory entertained in order to study the facts and examine the

validity of the theory. According to George Caswell,Hypothesis is a summary temporary and imaginary

related to subject of study. According to Good and Hatt, Hypothesis is a proposition which can be put

to test to determine its validity. According to Poline V Young, A provisional central idea which

becomes the basis for fruitful investigation is known as a working hypothesis. According to Bernard

and Phillips, Tentative statements about relationship among phenomena hypothesis have been called

question put to nature are fundamental in scientific research. Thus hypothesis may not be a true one.

It is a claim for truth. It is a bridge in the process of inquiry or search which brings with it some felt

problem and ends without the resolution of the problem.

Origin of Hypothesis: There are many kinds of sources of hypothesis:

(a) Individual source: This includes researchers own thought, imaginations, sentiments, views and

insight.

(b) External Sources: This consists of sociology, humanities, images which are related to men and their

several aspects.

(c) General Culture: Culture gives various sources of formulation of hypothesis. It influences the social

people thoughts and views. Indian culture is dominated by philosophy and idealism, hence it influences

hypothesis and it will help to form hypothesis on the subjects.

(d) Scientific Theories: Science also acts as source to various hypotheses. Science has generalization

which is a source of hypothesis.

(e) Analogies: Analogies are at times useful to form hypothesis. These analogies can be seen in man

and animal alike.

(f) Personal Experience: The personal experience of a researcher becomes a source of hypothesis

formation. It depends on his views on the problem. The life gained experience is utilised in the study of

hypothesis.

Need and Importance: The success and effectiveness of a hypothesis depends crucially upon the

elimination of unnecessary and irrelevant facts and picking out of relevant facts. TH Huxley makes his

significant observation, those who refuse to go beyond fact rarely get as far as fact. Almost every great

step in history of the science has been made possible by the anticipation of nature, that is, by the

invention of hypothesis which, though verifiable, often had very little to start with. According to

Charles Darwin, No observation is possible if we do not have some hypothesis in mind. He says how

odd it is that any one should not see that all observation must be for or against some view, if it is to be

of any service.

Importance of hypothesis :

With the help of hypothesis, it becomes easy to decide as to what type of data is to be collected and

what is to be ignored?


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Hypothesis makes it clear as to what is to be accepted, proved or disproved and that what is the main

focus of study.

It helps the investigator to knowing the direction in which he is to move. Without hypothesis it will be

just duping in the dark and not moving in the right direction.

A clear idea about hypothesis means saving of time, money and energy which otherwise will be

wasted, thereby botheration of trial and error will be saved.

Properly formulate hypothesis is always essential for drawing proper and reasonable conclusions.

It helps in concerning only on relevant factors and dropping irrelevant ones.

Difficulties while formulating hypothesis:

Ignorance about systems and methods of hypothesis.: If the researcher is not conversant of systems

and methods of formulating a hypothesis, then he will be facing difficulties in formulating the

hypothesis.

Lack of Knowledge: The researcher must have the clear thorough knowledge of the hypothesis.

Lack of Responsibility: Lack of responsibility and scientific in the basis of hypothesis as the nature ofresearch subject of social science have elasticity. The researcher must be aware of these facts.

Lake of Theoretical knowledge: Not using and having theoretical knowledge is another difficulty in

formulating hypothesis.

Limitation: Following are the limitations of hypothesis:

Researcher collects facts accepting hypothesis as final guide, this is against scientific nature.

In commencing stages researcher collects such facts which are quite useless and deleterious in the

end.

Researcher forwards the facts after breaking and not changing the hypothesis on the basis of real

facts which causes results neither correct nor trustful.

His own view will favour his interest which will penetrate his studies so that neutrally and objectivity

is not present.

In the end, the challenges given by wasteway to researcher must be remembered those hypotheses

are those sleep giving acts which helps to give sleep o unconscious minds.

Types of hypothesis:

(a) Explanatory or Descriptive Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be about the cause of a phenomenon or

about the law of which it is an instance. A hypothesis about cause is explanatory and about law is

descriptive.

(b) Tentative Hypothesis: When an incident can not be fully understood because of technical difficulties,

we make tentative hypothesis about it and see how far this is successful in explaining. Some time

simultaneously we test two or more hypothesis. The famous hypothesis about propagation of light,

namely wave theory and corpuscular theory of light both explain the phenomenon of light but none of

them is final. They are tentative.

(c) Representative Fiction: according to Bain, Some hypothesis consist of assumptions as to the

minute structure and operation of bodies. From the nature of the case, these assumptions can never be

proved by direct means. There only merit is their suitability to express the phenomenon. These are


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Representive Fictions. Einsteins formula E= Mc2 is an instance of representative fiction. The

hypothesis is based upon imaginative reasoning and it primarily involves thinking without the help of

concrete instance. That is why hypothetical reasoning is abstract. A hypothesis which proves to be

correct becomes law or theory. The law of graviton was a hypothesis in Newtons mind but when it

proved to be true, it became a law.

Q . What do you mean by Research design explains various concepts regardingresearch design?

RESEARCH DESIGN: The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is

the preparation of the design of the research project, popu larly known as research design. A research

design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to

combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. According to Pauline V Young,

The logical and systematic planning and directing a piece of research is called research design. First, it

is the plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research questions.

Second, it is strategy or blueprint specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the

data. Finally, since most business research studies have time and economic constraint, both time and

cost budget are typically included.

Need for Research Design: It is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the variousresearch operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximum information

with minimal expenditure of efforts, time and money. Research design stands for advance planning of

the methods to be adapted for collecting the relevant data and technique to be used in their analysis

keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money. A research

design usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

The mean for obtaining information.

The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if nay.

The objective of the problem to be studied.

The nature of the problem to be studied.

The availability of time and money for the research work.

Concepts Relating to Research Design; There are various concepts relating to research design:

(a) Dependent and Independent Variables: A concept that can take on different quantitative values is

called variables. If one variable depends upon other variable, it is termed as dependent variable and the

variable that is antecedent to the dependent is termed as independent variable.

(b) Extraneous Variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study and

which may affect the dependent variables are termed as extraneous variables.

(c) Control: One important characteristics of a good research is to minimise the influence or effect of

extraneous variables. The technical term control is used when we design the study minimizing the

effect of extraneous variables.

(d) Confounded Relationship: Where the dependent variable is not free from the influence of

extraneous variables the relationship between the dependent and independent variables, it said to be

confounded by an extraneous variables.


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(e) Research Hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be verified by

scientific methods, it is termed as a research hypothesis. It must contain at least one independent and

one dependent variable.

(f) Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research: When the purpose of a research

is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis -testing research. It may be of experimental

design or of non-experimental design.

(g) Experimental and Control Groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research, when a group is

exposed to usual condition, it is termed as control group but when exposed to some novel or special

condition, it is termed as experimental group.

(h) Treatments: Treatments are the different conditions under which experimental and control group

are put. If we want to determine through an experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of

fertilizers on yield of rice, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three

treatments.

(j) Experiments: An experiment is the process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating

to some research problem. If we want of determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is

called a case of absolute experiment, but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer ascompared to the impact of some other fertilizer, then it will be termed as comparative experiment.

(k) Experimental Unit: The pre-determined plots or blocks, where different treatment is applied, are

known as experimental units.

Types Of Research Design: Research design can be classified into following:

(a) Design of Exploratory Studies: The purpose of exploratory studies is to achieve new insight into

phenomenon. The major emphasis in those studies is discovery of new insight or ideas. Exploratory

studies are more appropriate in the case of problem about which little knowledge is available. An

exploratory research will be effective and turn out to be fruitful if the following methods are adapted

before the initiation:

(i) Survey of Literature: A review of the literature in the patent field and in the fields of related social

science.

(ii) Experience Survey: The survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to

be studied.

(iii) Analysis of Insight-stimulating cases: The analysis of insight-stimulating is suitable in the area

where there is little experience to serve as a guide.

(b) Descriptive Research: Descriptive studies aim at portraying accurately the characteristics of a

particular group or situation. One may take a descriptive study about the work in factory, their age

distribution, their community-wise distribution, their educational level, the state of their physical health

and so forth. Descriptive study may be concerned with the attitudes towards anything e.g. attitudes

towards presidential form of Government, Right to strike, capital punishment etc.

Procedure: A descriptive study involves the following steps:

(a) Formulating the objectives of study: It is the first step to specify the objectives with sufficient

precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully, the study may not

provide the desired information.


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(b) Designing the methods of data collection: The technique for collecting the information must be

devised. Several methods such as observation, questionnaire, interviewing, examination of the records

etc, with their merits and demerits, are available for the purpose and the researcher may use one or

more of these methods.

(c) Defining the population and selecting a sample: In most of the descriptive studies the researcher

takes out samples and then wishes to make statements about the population on the basis of the sampleanalysis. Researcher has to select a sample design to be used in his study. Usually one or more forms of

probability sampling or random sampling are used.

(d) Collection of Data: To obtain data free from errors, checks may be set up to ensure that the data

collecting staff perform heir duty honestly and without prejudice.

(e) Processing and Analysising of data: The data collected must be processed and analyzed. This

includes steps like coding the interview replies, observation, etc, tabulating the data and performing

several statistical computations.

(f) Reporting the Findings: This is the task of communicating the findings to others and researchers

must do it in an efficient manner. The layout of the reports needs to be well planned so that all things

relating to research studies may be well presented in simple and effective style.

(c) Design of Diagnostic Studies: A diagnostic study is the solution of a specific problem by the

researcher of the relevant variables that are associated with it in varying degrees. A diagnostic study,

for example, may aim at discovering or analysing the specific problem of the farmers, college teachers,

career women or pensioners. While discovering or analyzing the specific problems or needs of these

categories of people, the diagnostic study aims to identify the relevant variables associated with the

problem or needs. It involves the same steps as the descriptive studies involve.

(d) Design of Experimental Studies: The purpose of experimental studies is to test a hypothesis of

casual relationship between variables. For an experimental study, two groups are required, and

compared in terms of the assured effect of experimental variables. The validity of an experiment

depends on the equivalence between the control group and the experimental group chosen . There are

two ways of assuring this equivalence: (i) Randomisation (ii) Matching

Q. Define primary and secondary data. Describe the various methods of

collecting primary data and comment on their relative advantages.Ans. Primary Data: Primary data are obtained by specifically designed to fulfill the data needs of the

problem at hand. The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time and thus

happen to be original in character. For example, data obtained in a population census by the office of

Registrar General and Census Commissioner are primary data.

Primary source: A primary source is one that itself collects the data. A primary source has more detailed

information on the procedure followed in collecting and compiling the data.

Advantage: It is advantageous to use the primary source for collecting the data for the following

reasons:Primary source shows data in greater detail.

It frequently includes definitions of terms and units used.

It often includes a copy of schedule and description of procedure used in selecting the sample and in

collecting the data.

The secondary source may contain mistakes due to errors in transcription made when the figures

were copied from the primary source.


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Secondary Data: The data which are not originally collected but rather obtained from published

or unpublished sources are called secondary data. For example, for the office of Registrar

General, the census data are primary whereas for all others, who use such data, they are

secondary. The secondary data constitutes the chief material on the basis of which statistical

work is carried out in many investigations.

Sources: Usually the secondary data are available in following: Various publication of central, state and local Govt.

Various publications of foreign Govt or international bodies and their subsidiary organisation.

Technical and trade journals.

Books, magazines and newspapers.

Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industries,

banks, stock exchange etc.

Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists etc in different fields.

Public records and statistics, historical documents.

Diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies, public/private individuals etc.

Methods of Collection: Following are the important methods of collecting primary data:

(a) Observation Method: It is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to

behavioural science. In this method information are sought by way of investigators own direct

observation without asking from the respondent. For instant, in study relating to consumer behaviuor,

the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent may himself look at

the watch.

Type: Three are many types of observations:

(i) Structured and Unstructured Observation :The observation which is characterized by a

careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information,

standardized conditioned of observation and selection of pertinent data of observation is called

structured observation. These observations are considered appropriate in descriptive studies.

When the observation is to take place these characteristics to be thought of in advance, it is

termed as unstructured observation. Theses observations are most likely in exploratory

studies.

(ii) Participant and Non-participant Observations: These observations are used in social

science. If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is

observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the

observation is called participant. But when that observer observes as detached emissary

without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the

observation is termed as non-participant.

(iii) Controlled and Uncontrolled Observations: If the observation takes place in natural

settings it may be termed as uncontrolled observation. The major aim of this type ofobservation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and person. But when observation takes

place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedures, the same

than termed as controlled observation. Such observations has tendency to supply formalized

data upon which generalization can be built with some degree of accuracy.

Advantage of Observation Method: Following are the advantages of observation method:

Subjected bias is eliminated, if observation is done correctly.


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The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening, it is not

complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.

This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond and as such is relatively less

demanding of active cooperation on be part of respondents as happen to be the case in the interview or

the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subject, i. e.

respondents who are not capable of giving verbal report of their feelings for one reason or the other.

(b) Interview Method: There are two types of interview method:

(i) Personal Interview: In this method of data collection, there is a face-to-face contact with persons

from whom the information is to be obtained. The interviewer asks them questions pertaining to the

survey and collects the desired information. The information thus obtained is original in character.

Techniques: There are various techniques of personal interviews:

Structured and unstructured: this interview involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and of

highly standardized techniques of recording. The interviewer follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking

questions in a form and prescribed order. It is used in descriptive studies. Unstructured interviews are

characterized by a flexibility of approach of questioning. It dont follow a system of predetermined

questions and standardized techniques of recording. The interviewer has greater freedom. This method

is used in exploratory or formulative studies.

Focused Interview: It is to focus attention on the given experience of the respondents and its effects.

The interviewer has freedom to decide the manner and sequence of the questions. These are generally

used in the development of hypothesis and constitute a major type of unstructured interviews.

Clinical Interviews: It is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivation or with the course of

individuals life experience.

Non-directive interviews: In this the interviewers function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk

about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.

Advantage: The advantages of personal interview method are as follows:

More information and too in greater depth can be obtained.

Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents.

There is a greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is alwaysthere, especially in the case of unstructured interviews.

Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.

Personal information can as be obtained easily under this method.

Sample can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of missing return, non-response

generally remains very low.

The interviewer can usually control which person will answer the question.

The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most spontaneous

reaction.

The language of interview can be adapted to the ability or educational level of the person

interviewed.

The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondents personal character

and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.

Pre requisite and basic tenets of Interview: For successful implementation of interview method:

Interviewer should be carefully selected, trained and briefed.

They should be honest, hard-working, sincere, and impartial and must posses the technical

competence and necessary practical experience.

Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that interviewer are neither cheating nor deviating

from instructions given to them for performing their job efficiently.


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Some provision should be made in advance so that appropriate action may be taken if some of the

selected respondents refuse to cooperate or not available when an interviewer calls upon them. In fact,

interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principle. The interviewers approach must be

friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased.

(b) Telephone Interview: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on

telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,

particularly in developed regions.

Advantage: The chief merits/advantages of such systems are:

It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

It is faster than other methods.

It is cheaper than personal interviewing method.

Recall is easy, callback are simple and economical.

There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method.

Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to the respondents.

Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.

No field staff is required.

Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

At times access can be gained to respondents who otherwise can not be contacted.

(c) Questionnaire Method: In this method a list of questions pertaining to the survey is prepared and

sent to the various informants by post. The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for

answers. A request is made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up his questionnaire and

send it back within a specified time. This method is adapted by private individuals, research workers,

private and public organisations and even by govt.

Advantage: This method is most extensively employed in various economic and business surveys. The

main advantages are as follows:

There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.

It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents own words.

Respondents have adequate time to give well out answers. Respondents who are not easily approachable can also be reached conveniently.

Large sample can be made use of and thus the results can be more dependable and reliable.

Requirement of good Questionnaire: The following general principle/requirements are useful in

framing questionnaire:

(i) Covering Letter: The person conducting the survey must introduce himself and state objective of the

survey. A short letter stating the purpose of survey should be enclosed along with the questionnaire.

(ii) Number of questions: The number of questions to be included in the questionnaire would strictly

depend upon the object and the scope of the investigation and number of the questions should be as

small as possible. Because if the questionnaire is lengthy, the rate of response will be lower.

(iii) Should be Arranged Logically: The question should be arranged logically so that a natural and

spontaneous reply to each is induced. For example it is illogical to ask a person about his income before

asking him whether he is employed or not.

(iv) Short and Simple: The question should be short and simple to understand and technical terms

should be avoided.

(v) Personal Question: Personal question should be avoided such as income, income tax is paid etc.

(vi) Necessary Instructions: The instructions about the unit of measurement or the time within which

questionnaire should be sent back etc should be provided.

(vi) Objective Answers: The descriptive questions should be avoided while framing the questionnaire.

As far as the question should be of such nature that can be answered easily in yes or no.


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(vii) Calculation: Question requiring calculation should be avoided. If calculus is included, informant

may not answer the questions.

(viii) Attractive: The quality of paper used and printing should be of high quality. Sufficient space

should be given for answering.

(d) Schedule Method: This method of data collection is very much like questionnaire method, with a

little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in by the numerators who are

specially appointed for this purpose. These numerators along with schedules go to respondents put to

them the questions from the Performa in the order questions are listed and record the replies in the

space provided. Numerators explains them the object of the investigation and also removes the

difficulties felt by the respondents. The numerators should train to perform their job well and the

nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly. The numerators should

be intelligent and must posses the capacity of cross examination in order to find out the truth. This

method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is,

however very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or

by some big organisations. Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.

Difference between Questionnaire and Schedule: Both methods are important. The points of

difference are:

(i) Mode of Sending: The questionnaire generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as

specified in a covering letter without further assistant from the sender. The schedule is generally filled

out by the research worker or the numerator.

(ii) Cost Effective: To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we

have to spend money only on preparing the questionnaire and in mailing to the respondents. Schedule

is relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing

numerators.

(iii) Rate of Response: Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not

respond and return the question without answering. It is very low in case of schedule method.

(iv) Identity: In case of questionnaire it is not always clear who replies, but in schedule the identity of

respondent is known.(v) Collection Time: The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow, but in case of schedules the

information is collected well in time as these are filled by numerators.

(vi) Contacts: Personal contact is generally not possible in case of questionnaire, but in case of

schedules direct personal contacts are established with respondents.

(vii) Literacy: Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative.

But in schedules information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.

(viii) Area: Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under questionnaire

method, but in schedules there are usually remains the difficulty in sending numerators over a relatively

wide area.

(ix) Accuracy: Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the

questionnaire method, but in schedules, information collected are complete and correct.(x) Results: The success of questionnaire method depends upon the quality of questionnaires itself but

in schedules it depends upon the honesty and competence of numerators.

(xi) Attraction: In order to attract he attention of respondents, the physical appearance of

questionnaire must be quite attractive but this may not be so in case of schedules.

(xii) Other Methods: Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such things are

not possible in questionnaire method while collecting data.


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(e) Other methods Of collecting Data: There are some other methods of data collection particularly

used by big business houses I modern time: Warranty cards, Distributor or storeaudits , Pantry

audits, Consumer panel, Use of mechanical device, Project techniques, Depth interviews,

Contact analysis

Qu. 4 Discuss with example Exploratory Research and DescriptiveResearch.Ans. Exploratory Research : It is also termed as formulative research studies. The main

purpose of such studies is that formulating a problem for more precise investigation of

developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in

such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate

for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different

aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the

research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning

in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for

gathering relevant data.

Methods: Generally, the three following methods in the context of research design for such

studies are explained:

(a) Survey of Literature: The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple

and fruitful method of formulating the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis

stated by earlier researchers may be reviewed and their usefulness be valuated as a basis for

further research. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already

done by others, but in case where hypothsises have not yet been formulated, his task is to

review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it.

(b) The Experience Survey : Those people who are already in a specific field acquire

experience with practical problem faced by them in the field. For example, a share broker has a

first hand knowledge about ups and down in his field. So by interviewing such people we can

gather more information within less time and cost.

(c) Analysis of Insight-stimulating: The sample selected method should be faithful in method

of insight stimulation. The attitude of an investigator in social science should be one of alert

receptivity, of seeking rather than testing. He should realies that his investigation is constantly

in process of reformation and redirection as new information is obtained. Besides, the

bibliographical survey of studies, already made in ones area of interest, may as well be made

by the researcher for formulating the problem. He should also make an attempt to apply

concepts and theories developed in different research context to the area in which he himself is

working. Sometimes the work of creative writers also provides a fruitful ground for hypothesis

formulation and such may be looked into by the researchers.


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Descriptive Research: Descriptive studies aim at portraying accurately the characteristics of a

particular group or situation. One may take a descriptive study about the work in factory, their

age distribution, their community-wise distribution, their educational level, the state of their

physical health and so forth. Descriptive study may be concerned with the attitudes towards

anything e.g. attitudes towards presidential form of Government, Right to strike, capital

punishment etc.

Procedure: A descriptive study involves the following steps:

(a) Formulating the objectives of study: It is the first step to specify the objectives with

sufficient precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done carefully,

the study may not provide the desired information.

(b) Designing the methods of data collection: The technique for collecting the information must

be devised. Several methods such as observation, questionnaire, interviewing, examination of

the records etc, with their merits and demerits, are available for the purpose and the

researcher may use one or more of these methods.

(c) Defining the population and selecting a sample: In most of the descriptive studies the

researcher takes out samples and then wishes to make statements about the population on the

basis of the sample analysis. Researcher has to select a sample design to be used in his study.

Usually one or more forms of probability sampling or random sampling are used.

(d) Collection of Data: To obtain data free from errors, checks may be set up to ensure that the

data collecting staff perform heir duty honestly and without prejudice.

(e) Processing and Analysising of data: The data collected must be processed and analyzed.

This includes steps like coding the interview replies, observation, etc, tabulating the data andperforming several statistical computations.

(f) Reporting the Findings: This is the task of communicating the findings to others and

researchers must do it in an efficient manner. The layout of the reports needs to be well

planned so that all things relating to research studies may be well presented in simple and

effective style.

Q 5 Describe the layout of research report, covering all relevant points

in brief.Ans. Meaning: Research report s the oral or written presentation of evidence and findings in

such detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the reader and so to enable

him to verify the validity of the conclusions. It also helps the researcher himself to evaluate the

success of his research efforts in this process, to clarify and check his own thoughts.


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Type: Research reports are of several types. This is because research reports vary greatly in

length and type. For example, business firms prefers report in letter form just one or two pages

in length. There are two types of reports:

(a) Technical Report: It emphasis on (i) the method employed (ii) assumptions made inthe course of study (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings, their limitations and

supporting data.A technical report can be outlined as below:

Summary of results

Nature of the study

Methods employed

Data

Analysis of data and presentation of findings

Conclusions

Bibliography

Technical appendices

Index.

It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report simple presentation and

ready availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such liberal use of

charts and diagram is considered desirable.

(b) Popular report: The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity andattractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimizing of

technical, particularly mathematical,details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive

layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is

another characteristics feature of the popular report.

General outline of popular report is as follows:

The findings and their implications: It emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most

practical interest and on the implications of these findings.

Recommendations for action: It is on the basis of the findings of the study is made in this

section of the report.

Objective of study: A general review of how the problem arises is presented along with the

specific objectives of the project under study.

Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques

used, including a short view of the data on which study is based, is given in this part of report.

Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the studyare presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such

as charts, diagrams and like ones.

Technical appendices: More detailed information on method used, forms, etc. is presented in

the form of the appendices. But theses appendices are often not detailed if the report is

entirely meant for general public.

There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The only


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important thing about such report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy implications

from the operational point of view.

Steps: Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. Thesteps involved in report writing are:

(a) Analysis of subject matter: This is the first step primarily concerned with development of

subject. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connection and association

between one thing and another by means of analysis.

(b) Final outline preparation: It is the next step in writing the report Outlines are the

framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical

organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

(c) Preparing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal

writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The

researcher should see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion,

does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like marble arch? Or doesit resemble an old wall of moldering cement and lose bricks. He should check the mechanic of

writing- grammar, spelling and usage.

(d) Preparation of final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of

bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of

books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. The entries in bibliography

should be made as follows:

For books and pamphlets

Name of the author, last name first.

Title, underlined to indicate italic.

Place, publisher, and date of publication.

Number of volumes.

Example: Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikash PUBLISHING House Pvt Ltd.,

1978.

For magazines and newspapers:

Name of the author, last name first.

Title of article, in quotation marks.

Name of the periodical, underlined to indicate italics.

The volume or volume and number.

The date of issue.

The pagination.

Example: Robert V., Coping with Short-term International Money Flows, The Bankers,London, September, 1971, p.995.

(e) Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a

concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expression such as it

seems, there may be and like ones. Illustrations and examples based on common

experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in

communicating the research findings to others. It must be remembered that every report


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should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of

a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

Layout: The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain. Acomprehensive layout of research report should compromise of following:

(A) Preliminary Pages: The preliminary page of a report should carry the following:

(a) Title Page: The title page should carry:

The name of the topic

The relationship of the report to a course

The name of the author

The name of the institution where the report is to be submitted

The date of presentation of the report.

(b) Preface: The preface should be started with the brief introduction. It may include reasons

why, in the first place, the topic was selected by researcher. Preface should also contain theobjective of the research, sources of data for research study.

(c) Acknowledgement: The acknowledgements are written to thank those who have helped

the researcher for a variety of reasons. Preface/acknowledgement is usually signed or initiated

by its writer. All pages in the preliminary section are numbered with Roman numerals.

(d) Table of Contents: Table of content provides an outline of the content of the report. It

appears after the preface/acknowledgement. It may contain only a list of chapters and their

appropriate Roman numerals, followed by page numbers on which each chapter begins.

(B) The Main Body or Text: The main text of the report should have following sections:

(a) Introduction: The introductory chapter normally includes the following:

Statement of problem

Objectives/purpose of the study

Review of literature

Justification for the present study

Scope of the study

Conceptual framework

Methodology adopted

Limitations of study

(b) Statement of Findings and Recommendations: After introduction a research report must

contain statement of finding and recommendation in non-technical language so that it can be

easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to extensive, at this point they

should be put in summerised form.


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(c) Results: A detailed presentations of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the

form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the

main text of report. All relevant results must find a place in the reports. All the results should

be presented in a logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable section.

(d) Implications of then results: Towards the end of the main text, the researcher should againput down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should state the implications that

flow from results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for

understanding the human behaviour. Such implications have three aspects:

A statement of inference drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in

similar circumstances.

The condition of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalization of

the inference drawn from the study.

The relevant questions that still remains unanswered or new questions raised by study along

with suggestions for kind of research that would provide answers for them.

(e) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief

summary, resting in brief the research problem, methodology, the major findings and major

conclusions drawn from the research results.

(C) End Matter: At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all

technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the

like ones.

(i) Bibliography: Bibliography of the sources consulted should also be given. It is list of

documents, books, periodicals, and manuscripts etc. which have some useful information of the

given subject matter.

(ii) Glossary: It contains explanation or sample definition of technical terms used in a particular

paper.

(iii) Appendices: An appendix is used for additional or supplementary material used which has

not found place in the main text.

(iv) Index: Index should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in

the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for contents in the report.

Format: There are definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation ofthe research report. The following points are to be taken care of while formatting a research

report:

(a) Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8/12 x 11 in

size. If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue black ink should be used. A margin of at

least one and one-half inches should be allowed at left hand at least half an inch at right side of


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the paper. It is to be typed in double spacing on one side of the page only except for insertion

of the long question.

(b) Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered.

(c) Layout: Keeping in view the objectives and nature of the problem, the layout of the report

should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted.

(d) Treatment of Quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation mark and doublespaced forming an immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length

then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an inch to the right of the normal text

margin.

(e) The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep the following in view:

The footnotes serves two purposes viz, the identification of material used in quotations in the

report and the notice of material not immediately necessary to body of research report text but

still of supplemental value. The modern tendency is to make minimum use of footnotes.

Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or quotation which

they identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customary separated from the textual

material by a space of half an inch and a line.

Footnotes should be numbered, usually beginning with 1 in each chapter separately.

Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one another by

double

space.

(f) Documentary style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given

work should be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition

used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence.

(f) Punctuation and abbreviations: The first item after the number in footnote is authors

name, given in the normal signature order. This is given by a coma. The punctuation and

abbreviations should be used correctly.

(g) Use of Statistics: A judicious use of statistics in research report is often considered a virtuefor it contributes a great deal towards the clarifications and simplification of the material and

research results. Statistics are usually presented in the form of tables, charts, bars and line-

graphs and pictograms.

Q. What do you mean by sampling design? What points should be taken into consideration

while developing the sampling?

Ans. Definition: A definite plane for obtaining a sample from a given population is called

sample design. It is a technique of selecting items for the sample. It lay down the number of

items to be included in the sample. It should be reliable and appropriate for the research study

of the researcher. It is determined before data are collected.While developing a sample design, the following points must be taken into consideration:

(a) Type of Universe: In developing any sample design, the first step is to define the universe

i.e. the set of objects to be studied. The universe may be finite or infinite.

(b) Sample Frame: It contains the names of all items of a universe. It should be a

representative of the population and should be appropriate, reliable, correct and

comprehensive.


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(c) Sample Unit: It is to be decided before selecting the sample. Sampling units may be

geographical, constructional, social and individual.

(d) Sample Size: This refers to the number of items to be selected from a universe to form a

sample. Sample size should not be very large or too small. It should fulfill the requirements of

reliability, efficiency, flexibility and representativeness. While deciding the size of sample, the

researcher must consider the population size, the parameter of interest in research study andthe budgetary constraints.

(e) Parameters of Interest: While determining a sample design, the specific population

parameters, which are of interest, must be taken into account by the researcher. For instance

the researcher may be interested in estimating the portion of persons with some characteristic

in the population or he may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure

concerning the population. A sample design is generally affected by all this.

(f) Budgetary Constraints: The size as well as the type of sample depends upon the cost

consideration.

(g) Sampling Procedure: Finally the researcher must decide about techniques to be used in

selecting the items for the sample i. e. he must decide the type of sample. This technique

stands for the sample design itself. He should select the sample design in such a way that for a

given sample size and for a given cost, the sample design has a smaller sampling error.

Q .What is sampling, expain different types of sampling techniques?

SAMPLING: According to Goode and Hatt, A sample as the name applies, is a smaller

representative of a large whole. According to Pauline V Young, A statistical sample is a

miniature of cross selection of the entire group or aggregate from which the sample is taken.

According to Bogrdus, Sampling is the selection of certain percentage of a group of itemsaccording to a predetermined plan.

Feature of Sampling Techniques: The sampling techniques have following good features and

these bring into relief its value and significance:

(a) Scientific Base: It is a scientific because the conclusion derived from the study of certain

units can be verified from other units. By taking random sample, we can determine the amount

of deviation from the norm.

(b) Economy: The sampling technique is much less expensive, much less time consuming than

the census technique.

(c) Reliability: If the choice of sample unit is made with due care and the matter under survey is

not heterogeneous, the conclusion of the sample survey can have almost the same reliability as

those of census survey.

(d) Detailed study: Since the number of sample units is fairly small, these can be studied

intensively and elaborately. They can be examined from multiple of views.


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(e) Greater Suitability in most Situations: Most of the surveys are made by the techniques of

sample survey, because whenever the matter is of homogeneous nature, the examination of

few units suffices.

Methods of Sampling: The methods of selecting a sample are as follows:(a) Purposive sampling: In this method the investigator has complete freedom to choose his

sample according to his wishes and desire. To choose or leave an item for the purpose of study

depends entirely upon the wishes of investigator and he will chose items or units which in his

judgment are representative of the whole data. This is a very simple technique of choosing the

samples and is useful in cases where the whole data is homogeneous and the investigator has

full knowledge of the various aspects of the problem.

Advantage:

More representation is possible in this method.

As sample is small in size, the method is less expensive and less time consuming.

The utility of this method increases when few units of universe have special importance.

When units are less in number, sample is profitable

Disadvantages:

Units are selected by researcher at his will. Hence sample is biased.

The error of the sample can not be detected.

Researcher is unable to understand the whole group.

Those hypothesis on which inference of error of sample is attributed, are less used.

(b) Random Sampling: Off all the methods of selecting sample, random sampling technique is

made maximum use of and it is considered as the best method of sample selection. Random

sampling is made in following ways:

(i) Lottery Method: In this the number of data are written on sheet of paper and they arethrown into a box. Now a casual observer selects the number of item required in the sample.

For this method it is necessary that sheet of paper should be of equal dimensions.

(ii) By Rotating the Drum: In this method, piece of wood, tin or cardboard of equal length and

breadth, with number 0,1 or 2 printed on them, are used. The pieces are rotated in a drum and

then requisite numbers are drawn by an impartial person.

(iii) Selecting from Sequential List: In this procedure units are broken up in numerical,

alphabetical or geography sequence. Now we may decide to choose 1, 5, 10 and so on , if the

division is alphabetical order we decide to choose every item starting from a, b, c and so on.

(iv) Tippets Number: On the basis of population statistics, Tippet has constructed a random

list of four digits each of 10, 400 institutions. These numbers are the result of combining41,600 population statistics reports.

Advantages;

Due to impartiality, there is possibility of selecting any unit as sample.

Units have the characteristic of universe, hence units are more representative.

Simplicity of method makes no possibility of error.

Error can be known easily


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It saves money, time and labour.

Disadvantages:

The selector has no control over the selection of units. The researcher can not contact the far

situated units.

He can not prepare the whole field when the universe is vast.

If units have no homogeneity, the method is not appropriate. There is no question of alternatives. The selected units can not be replaced or changed.

(c) Stratified Sampling: This method of selecting samples is a mixture of both purposive and

random sampling techniques. In this all the data in a domain is spilt into various classes on the

basis of their characteristics and immediately thereafter certain items are selected from these

classes by the random sampling technique. This technique is suitable in those cases in which

the data has sub data and having special characteristics. For example if we wish to collect

information regarding income expenditure of the male population strata on the basis of

shopkeeper, workers, etc. From these we shall select randomly some units for study of income-

expenditure statistics.

Process of Stratifying: The stratification of domain or data should be with great care, because

the success of the technique depends upon successful stratification. Following points should be

born in mind:

We should process extensive information of all items including in a domain and should know

which item make a coherent whole on the basis of similar traits and which others re different

from them and why?

The size of each stratum should be large to enable use of random sampling technique.

In stratifying it must be kept in mind that various strata should have similar relation to the

domain and should be themselves homogeneous.

The various strata should differ from each other should be the same as the proportion ofstratum from the domain. Suppose a domain has four strata, accordingly the proportion of

each stratum of domain is . Now if the number of total items of the sample is 64, we shall

select 16 items from each stratum and thus the proportion of selected items from each stratum

will be .

Advantage:

Neither group nor class of importance is totally neglected as units of each are represented in

the sample. If different classes are divided properly, selection of few units represents the whole

group. On the classification of regional basis, units are not in contact easily. This leads to

economy of time and money. There is a facility in substitution of units. If someone is not

contacted easily, the other person of the sameclass can be substituted for him. Such inclusionresult will not show any contradicting.

Disadvantages:

The sample does not become representative if selected sample has more or less units of a

class.

If the sizes of different group are different, no equal proportional quality can be viewed.

Non-proportional selection leads to more emphasis in the end. During such time researcher

can be biased, hence samples will not representative.


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If group is not expressed properly, the difficulty is seen about the unit to be kept under which

group or class.

(d) Quota Sampling: This method of study is not much used. In this method entire data isspilt into as many as there are investigators and each investigator is asked to select certain

items from his block and study. The success of this method depends upon the integrity andprofessional competence of investigators. If some investigators are competent and others are

not so competent, serious discrepancies will appear in the study.

(e) Multi-Stage sampling: This is not a favoured procedure of sampling. In this items are

selected in different stages at random. For example, if we wish to know per acre yield of

various crops in U.P., we shall begin by studying a single crop in one study. Here we shall begin

by making at random selection of 5 districts in the first instance, and then of these 5 districts,

10 villages per districts will be chosen in the same manner. Now in the final stage, again by

random selection 5 fields out of every village. Thus we shall examine per acre yield in 250 farms

all over U.P. this number can increased or decreased depending upon the opinion of experts.

(f) Extensive sampling: This method is virtually same as census except that irrelevant or

irascible items are left out. Every other item is examined. For instance, if we are to study the

educational levels of Indians, we may leave foreigners living in India from our study. This

method has all the merits and demerits of census survey and is very rarely used.

(g) Convenience Sampling: This is hit or miss procedure of study. The investigator selects

certain item from the domain as per his convenience. No planned efforts are made to collect

information. This is method by which a tourist studies generally the country of his visit. He

comes across certain people and things, has transaction with them and then tries to generalize

about the entire populace in his travelogue. This is essentially unscientific procedure and has

no value as a research technique.

Summary: The selection of sampling procedure from the above mentioned techniques depends

upon the nature, scope, number of units etc in a domain. Also another factor determining our

choice is amount of accuracy and refinement desired.

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