research methods booklet -tes version
TRANSCRIPT
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
1/38
TOPIC 3 (Unit 1)
RESEARCH METHODS
An Intro to the Topic
What are Research Methods?
All of us have our own personal theories about why people
think and behave in the ways they do. However,
psychologists differ from lay people in that they develop
scientific theories, which they then test by carrying out
carefully designed research studies. The main methods
used by psychologists to carry out their research include
experiments, correlation techniques, observational
techniques, case studies and self-report techniques
including interviews and questionnaires. Psychologists use
research methods to gather and make sense of the data
they produce.
SECTION 1:
Research Methods and Techniques:
Area of Specification Being Covered:
- 1 -
Research Methods: (i) Methods and Techniques, candidates will beexpected to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following research
methods, including their advantages and weaknesses:
Experimental method, including laboratory, field and naturalexperiments.
Studies using correlational analysis.
Observational techniques
Self-report techniques including questionnaire and interview.
Case studies
TIP: remember that all that you learn in research methods informs your critical thinking in relation to everythingelse you study in psychology. When you are evaluating a theory you should look to the evidence that supports the
theoryuse your knowledge of research methods to judge the credibility of the evidence offered. This willsignificantly enhance your use of analytic and evaluative skills.
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
2/38
Research Methods and Techniques:
1) What are experimental methods?
Experimental methods provide the most precise way of testing hypotheses
because they seek to establish cause and effect relationships. A true
experiment has three key features:
1. Manipulation of the independent variable: the independent variable
(IV) is directly manipulated to produce a change in the dependent
variable (DV).
2. Randomisation: a true experiment requires that
participants are randomly allocated to conditions or thatthe participants take part in each condition of the
independent variable.
3. Control: All variables other than the IV and DV need to
be controlled in an experiment. These other variables are known as
extraneous variables (EVs), the aim is to minimise the impact of
these variables on the results of the investigation.
NOTE: Where EVs are important enough to impact on the results
of a study these variables become Confounding Variables.
One way to ensure control within an experiment is to have a control group.
This is the group of participants who do not receive the experimental
treatment or condition so that they can act as a comparison to the
participants who do.
What are the different types of experiments?
A) Laboratory Experiment:
A laboratory experiment is an experiment that is carried out in a
controlled environment, its typical features include:
Direct manipulation of the independent variable.
Control of all other extraneous variables.
Participants are randomly allocated to conditions.
- 2 -
Pgs 106-107
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
3/38
(ii) Advantages and disadvantages of Lab experiments:
Advantages: High levels of control, both the IV and Evs are controlled,
therefore easy to establish cause and effect. Easy to replicate- which means it is easy to ensure that the
results are reliable as study can be replicated. This may also
mean that it could easily be applied to different groups of
people particularly to other cultures/ settings increase the
population validity of the study.
Disadvantages: Laboratory experiments lack ecological validity as they do not
approximate real life situations. High chance of investigator and participant effects (demand
characteristics). This means that the internal validity of the
study may be compromised as people may behave differently
(consider screw you effect).
They lack mundane realism (situations are very artificial),
therefore results cannot always be generalised to other
situations.
An example of a lab experiment is Ainsworths strange situation.
B) Field Experiment:
A field experiment is an experiment that takes place in a natural
environment. The typical features of field experiments include:
a. Direct manipulation of the independent variable.
b. Participants are not necessarily randomly
allocated to conditions.
(ii) Advantages and disadvantages of field experiments:
Advantages: Can conclude cause and effect.
Higher levels of ecological validity than lab experiments, which
means that results can be applied to real life conditions.
Reduced demand characteristics, which means that internal
validity is not compromised.
- 3 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
4/38
Disadvantages: Field experiments have less control over extraneous variables,
so it will be harder to establish cause and effect compared to
Lab experiments. Often more time consuming than laboratory experiments, which
means that they will be harder to replicate.
Random allocation to conditions is difficult.
An example of a field experiment is that by Hofling et al (1966) who
studied obedience levels in nurses.
C) Natural Experiment:
A natural experiment is a quasi- experiment, where the researcher
takes advantage of a naturally occurring variable. The typical features
of natural experiments include:
a. A Natural occurring independent variable (NOT controlled by
researcher).
b. No random allocation of participants to conditions
(ii) Advantages and disadvantages of natural experiments:
Advantages:
Useful where it is unethical or impossible to manipulate the
independent variable.
High levels of ecological validity which means that results can be
applied to real life scenarios.
Disadvantages:
Problems with internal validity as many extraneous variables cannot be
controlled therefore cause and effect cannot be established. There is no random allocation to conditions.
Low control over the experiment (therefore reliability and validity may
be compromised).
An example of a natural experiment is that by Campbell et al (2000)
who looked at the effects of day-care on sociability in children.
- 4 -
TIP: You should learn at least two advantages and two disadvantages of the different experiments. Remember that if
two or three marks are available then mere identification of the advantage/ disadvantage would only gain you one
mark; you need to elaborate to gain full marks.
E.G. if claiming that lab experiments lack in ecological validity you would gain 1 mark, for more marks you wouldneed to elaborate and state that this is due to the artificiality of the situation and that as a result of the low ecological
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
5/38
2)Studies using correlational analysis:
What is meant by correlation?
A correlation refers to the measurement of a relationship between
two or more variables. The variables measured are known as co-
variables.
There are two types of correlations:
A) Positive correlation:As one variable increases so does the other variable, for
example as the level of secure attachment increases thenumber of smiles a child gives also increases.
B) Negative Correlation:As one variable increases the other variable decreases, for example, as
the number of hours spent in day care increase, the less
cooperative children were.
(ii) Recognising and measuring correlations:Correlational relationships are identified and demonstrated through the
use of statistical techniques. This means that the variables need to be
operationalised, that is given a numerical value.
Using the example above, the amount of time children spend in day care is
quantitative as it can be measured in hours/ days/ weeks. However, the
amount of cooperation they display cannot be counted in any form of
measurement, so they would need to be operationalised by scoring them on
a rating scale, eg: 1 = no pro-social behaviour and 10= extreme pro-social
behaviour. Correlational studies rely on quantitative data because they
measure the strength and direction of the relationship between two
variables.
- 5 -
Pgs 116- 117
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
6/38
(ii) Correlation Co-Efficients:
A correlation co-efficient is a numerical representation of the strength
and direction of the relationship between two variables. A correlation
coefficient can range between -1.0 and +1.0. The number indicates thestrength and of the relationship ie- the extent to which the variables are
related.
The sign + or indicates the direction of the relationship and
whether the correlation between the variables is positive (+) or
negative (-) .
+1 indicates a perfect positive correlation as shown in the graph
above and -1 a perfect negative correlation as shown above. 0 means
there is no correlation.
The nearer the number is to +1 or -1, the stronger the correlation!
E.G. +0.7 would mean a strong positive correlation, whereas -0.8
would be a strong negative correlation (+0.2 would be a weak positive
correlation and -0.22 would be a weak negative correlation).
NOTE: you will not be asked to calculate a correlation
coefficient, only to interpret it
(iii) Using correlational analysis has advantages and
disadvantages:
The advantages of using a correlational study are:
They can establish a relationship between two variables.
They allow researchers to statistically analyse situations that
could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical orpractical reasons (e.g. the relationship between time spent in daycare and sociability in children).
The disadvantages of using a correlational study are:
Correlation does not establish cause and effect; it only
establishes a relationship between two variables. There may
be a third variable that has not been identified that is
creating the relationship.
- 6 -
For example, in the relationship between stress and illness, it may not be that stress causes illness but insteadthat people under stress have less healthy lifestyles and it is this which in turn causes the illness.
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
7/38
Disadvantages continued
Correlations only identify linear relationships not curvilinear.
3) Observational techniques:
What are observational methods?
The observations in a scientific study will focus precisely on particular categories
of behaviours or events. Secondly, these observations would be part of a research
plan that would include clear operational definitions of the behaviours or events to
be observed. It is also likely that a hypothesis would have been formulated to
guide the observationsthis is a sharp contrast to casual observations when we
often find ourselves people watching.
Observational methods can be used for data collection within
experiments as well as in purely observational research. The type ofobservation used will depend largely upon the investigation and
whether the latter is based on a true experiment (with manipulation
of the IV) or not.
What are the different types of observations?
There are two main types of observations, these are Naturalistic
observations and Controlled observations.
Naturalistic Observations:
These are observations where the researcher observes naturally occurring
behaviours. This type of observation cannot be used in a true experiment
where the researcher manipulates the independent variable to observe the
effect on the dependent variable. However, naturalistic observations can
be used in quasi-experiments such as natural experiments.
- 7 -
For example, the relationship between temperature and aggression is a curvilinear
relationship. The relationship between temperature and aggression is only positive
up to a point, since at very high temperatures aggression begins to decrease.
Pgs 112-114
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
8/38
Controlled observations:
These are observations where the researcher attempts to control certain
variables. Controlled observations can be carried out in a laboratory, a good
example is Ainsworths strange situation (1970), where children were studied
under laboratory conditions where she could control all other variables andobserved how infants reacted to separation from their mother.
When discussing observations, further distinctions can be made along three main
dimensions:
i) Participants V non-participant observation.
Participants observation requires the researcher to actually join the group or
take part in the situation they are studying. On the other hand, non-
participant observation, is when the researcher observes from the outside or
from a distance.
ii) Disclosed (or overt) and undisclosed (or covert)
observation
A disclosed observation is an observation in which the participants
are aware that they are being observed. Alternatively, undisclosed
observations are observations in which the participants are
unawarethat they are being observed.
iii) Structured and unstructured observations
A structured observation is where the researcher has already determined
precisely what behaviours are to be observed and will use a standardisedchecklist to record the frequency with which those behaviours are observed
within a specified period of time. Unstructured observations on the other
hand, follow no checklist and the researcher will simply record anything he/
she finds interesting or relevant to the study.
(ii) Using observational methods has advantages anddisadvantages:
A major problem faced by observational studies is observer bias. This happenswhen an observer makes their own particular interpretation of the behaviour they
observe. People can interpret behaviour differently according to expectation and
social stereotypes. As a result, if an observer is expecting to see something, then
their observations may be biased to the extent that they find it in what they see.
This bias would affect the overall reliability of the research. To prevent this,
some strategies can be used, such as the use of double blind techniques,
where the observer (who acts on behalf of the researcher) and the
participants are both unaware of the hypothesis being tested.
- 8 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
9/38
See table below for the advantages and disadvantages associated with
each type of Observation!
Type of
observation
Advantages Disadvantages
Naturalistic High levels of ecological validity.
Participants may be unaware that they are being
observed and therefore they may behave more
naturally.
No control over E.Vs
If the participant is unaware that they are
observed, then this may raise ethical issue
lack of informed consent.
Controlled Higher levels of control over E.Vs Participants may be affected by the factthey are being observed.
Behaviour may not be natural; this impacts o
ecological validity of the research.
Participant Very high ecological validity
Rich qualitative data can be collected by the
research (consider general advantages of this type ofdata)
Easier to understand what the observees
behaviour actually means.
A relationship based on trust can be established
between those being observed and the observer.
The researcher has to rely on memory ascannot take notes (unreliable).
Observer may become too emotionally inv
with the observees, meaning that observ
can become subjective rather than objective.
The presence of the observer may chang
group dynamics.
Non-
participant
Observees may not realise that they are being
observed meaning that behaviour may not be
changed by the presence of the observer.
The observer may be more objective as they are
less likely to become emotionally involved with
the participants.
The observer can record their observations as
they occur making them more reliable in terms of
memory.
The actual meaning of the behaviour may n
so clear from a distance.
A relationship is not formed between
observer and the observee with the conseq
that there may be less trust.
Disclosed
observation
Reduction of ethical issues- the observee knows
they are being observed and thus has given their
consent to the researcher doing so.
Increases the trust between researchers and
the public
Increase in reactivity as the observee may c
their behaviour as they know they are
observed. There will be an increase in de
characteristics.
Undisclosed
observation
Reduction of reactivity as the participant does
not realise they are being observed, meaning that
there are less demand characteristics.
Ethical issues raised about the observation (eg co
When the observee realises they have been obs
they may come to distrust psychologists in future.
- 9 -
IP: You may be asked to identify two factors that could affect the validity of an observation. For this focus on confounding variables thatould affect the research orobserver bias (explain what this is- Observer bias can also reduce the reliability of the data, you would need touggest ways in which observer bias could be reduced.) You could also focus on the positive aspects, such as naturalistic observations being
gh in ecological validity because the behaviour is occurring in a natural environment.
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
10/38
4 ) Self report techniques including questionnaires (or
surveys) and interviews.
Questionnaires:
A survey or questionnaire involves asking a large
sample of people for information on specific topics
and specific moments in time. The questionnaire
places a lot of emphasis on selecting a representative
sample of participants. This is because the researcher
will want to make generalisations about their findings
that is that the findings obtained will also apply to
the rest of the population being looked at. When
designing questionnaires, there are a few keyconsiderations to be taken into account. These involve:
Type of questions: open or closed questions.
Open questions allow respondents to answer in full and produce
qualitative data eg: What are your views on
Closed questions are fixed choice questions and require participants
to choose an answer from a list provided eg: Do you use the internet?
YES/ NO/ Sometimes
Ensure that questions and instructions are easy and simple to follow.
Keep the amount of information asked for to a minimum- only
questions directly related to the research need to be asked, if
asking for age and gender, then this would have to tie in with the
research somehow.
Ethical considerations- ensure that questions asked are not invasive
or inappropriately personal questions.
Pilot studies may be needed and where appropriate changes would be
made.
- 10 -
Pgs 118-120
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
11/38
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
Questionnaires/ survey methods?
Advantages/ strengths:
Open ended questions can provide rich and detailed qualitative data,
they allow the respondent to express what they really think and are
much more realistic (consider advantages of qualitative data here
too).
Closed questions provide quantitative data which can be statistically
analysed and are therefore less subject to bias interpretation.
Questionnaires can be used to question a large sample of people
relatively quickly- this can increase population validity if different
groups are targeted at once. They are easy to use and require no previous training.
Can be used to collect large amounts of data about what people
think as well as what they say they do.
The researcher does not have to be present while the participant
completes the questionnaire, which can reduce investigator effects
as there is a reduction in the influence of interpersonal factors eg:
answering in the way that the respondent thinks the researcher
wants the question to be answered, this judgement is often based
on looks/ age of researcher etc therefore if the researcher isnt
there, these effects are reduced.
Disadvantages/ Limitations:
Open ended questions that collect qualitative data can make the
data difficult to analyse and more prone to investigator bias.
Closed questions can be artificial and not realistic, reducing the
ecological validity of the data collected. In addition, it could be
unclear how the respondent has interpreted the question which in
turn may influence the overall validity and reliability of the
questionnaire.
Social desirability effects- people may give untruthful answers to
appear socially desirable, in particular with sensitive issues such as
parenting styles/ alcohol abuse etc. If the authenticity of the
responses cannot be guaranteed then the validity of the data is
seriously threatened!
Only those who can read and write can take part, therefore,
findings cannot be generalised to the entire population- consider
the effect on the population validity of the study, especially in
countries where literacy rates are low.
- 11 -
Social
desirability:
The tendency ofhumans to present
themselves in thebest possible light.
There may be adifference in what
people say they doand what they
actually do!
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
12/38
Difficulty phrasing questions clearly may result in different
interpretations of questions and therefore inaccurate responses
obtained (again consider reliability and validity issues here).
Interviews:
Interviews are an alternative method for asking
questions, they differ in their face-face nature. They are
particularly useful for gathering more detailed
information and enabling a more natural and flexible
approach. In interview methods, the interviewer normally
has a schedule or structure of topics they wish to
explore. Interviews can be structured to yield
quantitative data (similar to how this is done for
questionnaires) or unstructured to produce more
qualitative data.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
Interview methods?
Advantages/ Strengths:
Detailed information can be obtained (qualitative). This allows the
interviewer to clarify the meaning and significance of the
information being provided.
Allows the participant to freely express themselves.
Unstructured interviews may encourage participants to be honest
and this may raise new lines of research.
Disadvantages/ Limitations:
Statistical analysis can be difficult if the interview is unstructured
and the data collected is qualitative in nature. More time consuming than a questionnaire.
Greater chance of interpersonal variables affecting the responses
ie- increased risk of investigator effects.
Social desirability effects are increased as the interview takes
place face to face and the participant might not want the
researcher to view them in a negative light (Consider validity of the
data).
- 12 -
TIP: In the exam you may be asked to construct a question that yields qualitative data, an easy way to do this is to ask an
open question beginning with explain or What are your views on
If asked to construct a question to yield quantitative data then limit the choices participants would have to answer thequestion and explain that you would then calculate how many people picked a particular choice (eg: Do you drink
alcohol? Often Sometimes Never).
Pg 121
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
13/38
A case study is an in-depth study of one individual
or a group of people. The fact that it focuses on a
single case means that it is idiographic in nature.
Normally, a case study involves the production of acase in history. A case study can be longitudinal or
retrospective and by nature are individualistic,
case studies normally share the following features:
The method is descriptive and data
collected is qualitative.
Research is often very focused on a particular aspect of behaviour.
Genie, the case of the Czech twins, and the case of KF (cognition)
are examples of case studies we have looked at.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of case
studies?
Case studies provide an effective way of gaining insight into the personal
experiences of the person under study and for suggesting new avenues of
research. Although many scientists reject case studies claiming these are
not scientific, it is a very rich method that has been known to challenge
established thinking in psychology Eg: Genies case study challenged
established thinking that human beings could learn to talk even past a
certain age.
Advantages/ strengths: Produces rich meaningful data (qualitative, what are the advantages
of qualitative data?).
High in mundane realism/ ecological validity (Why exactly is this a
strength?).
Can challenge established thinking and lead to new psychological
insights.
Disadvantages/ Limitations: Difficult to replicate, therefore difficult to establish the reliability
of the data.
Due to their idiographic nature, it is difficult to generalise the
results beyond the individual or group being studied- low in
population validity.
The possibility of researcher bias is high, which further calls into
question its scientific credibility.SECTION 2:
- 13 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
14/38
Investigation Design:
Area of Specification Being Covered:
Intro to the topic:
The first steps in designing a research investigation involves identifying a
topic or issue to study and carrying out a search and review
of the existing or background literature on the area. When
these initial stages have been completed, the researcher is
in a position to identify the aim and hypothesis of their
investigation.
- 14 -
Research Methods: (ii) Investigation Design candidates should be familiarwith the following features of investigation design/;
Aims
Hypotheses, including directional and non-directional.
Experimental design (Independent groups, repeated measures and
matched pairs)
Design of naturalistic observations, including the development and
use of behavioural categories.
Design of questionnaires and interviews
Operationalisation of variables, including independent and dependentvariables.
Pilot studies
Control of extraneous variables
Reliability and validity
Awareness of the British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethics
Ethical Issues and ways in which psychologists deal with them
Selection of participants and sampling techniques, including random,
opportunity and volunteer sampling
Demand characteristics and investigator effects.
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
15/38
What are the Aims of a study?
Research investigation always needs an aim to give it a clear focus. The
aim of a study is a general statement about the purpose of the
investigation.
EG- AIM: To investigate the relationship between stress and illness.
What is a hypothesis ?
A hypothesis is a precise, testable statement about the expected
outcome of an investigation. The hypothesis should be expressed as a
very specific statement or prediction about the outcome of theinvestigation. Usually, the hypothesis is based on some previous
observations, such as noticing how children at a nursery behave before
and after their morning snack break.
Investigations normally have two hypotheses to be tested:
The experimental hypothesis, that is the one predicting a relationship
between variables.
The null hypothesis, which states that there will be no relationshipbetween the variables being tested.
In addition, there is also the alternative hypothesiswhich refers to
any hypothesis which is not the null hypothesis. In addition, Alternative
hypotheses can be experimental at the same time, but this is not always
the case, where a hypothesis does not predict cause and effect it is an
alternative hypothesis but not an experimental hypothesis.
EXAMPLES:Experimental Hypothesis: Participants who read digits out loud will
later recall a greater number of digits than participants who read the
digits sub-vocally.
Null hypothesis: There will be no difference between the number of
digits recalled by participants who read digits out loud and those who
read them sub-vocally.
Alternative hypothesis: There will be an association between parenting
style and infant emotional development.
- 15 -
Pgs 90- 91
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
16/38
What is a directional and non-directional hypothesis ?
In addition, you also need to understand that an experimental and
alternative hypothesis can be directional or non-directional. Look at the
table below for definitions and examples of these:
Experimental/
alternative
hypothesis
Definition Example
Directional A directional hypothesis is more precise than a non-directional hypothesis and specifically states the
direction of the results. This is sometimes known as a
one-tailed hypothesis because it predicts the nature
or the direction of the outcome.
Participants who read digits o
later recall a greater number
than participants who read
sub-vocally.
(the direction is clearly statmore digits will be recalle
condition).
Non- directional A non-directional hypothesis is one in which thedirection of the results is not predicted. This is also
known as a two-tailed hypothesis because the
direction of the result is not specified but could go in
either direction- that is it could be more or less.
There will be a difference in t
of digits recalled in the readi
condition compared to the
condition
(the direction is not stated
hypothesis only states that th
a difference but it has not s
which condition more or less direcalled).
Null Hypothesis This tends to state that there will be no differencerelationship between the variables being
investigated. A null hypothesis is used because it
makes a very precise prediction (nothing will happen)
than can be easily disproved, thereby providing
evidence to support the alternative hypothesis.
There will be no differenc
number of digits recalled in t
out loud condition compared t
vocal condition.
- 16 -
TIP: When asked to write or to identify a directional hypothesis look out for indicatorwords such as more, less, increased, decreased etc. These words all indicate a
direction to the results. Alternatively, words such as difference or affect indicate a non-
directional hypothesis, so you are saying there will be a difference but you havent stated inwhat direction the difference will be.
Tailed (directional)
hypothesis!
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
17/38
Experimental designs: Independent groups, repeated
measures and matched pairs.
In a basic experiment there are two conditions the experimental condition andthe control condition. A decision has to be taken as to whether a participant will
take part in both conditions or whether they will only participate in one. The
decision taken will determine the experimental design. At AS you are expected
to know the following experimental designs:
A) Repeated Measures Design
B) Independent groups design
C) Matched pairs design
A) Repeated measures design:
In a repeated measures design every participant will take part in both conditions of
the independent variable, in effect each participant acts as their own control. Thus if
we were investigating the effect of organisation on memory, the participant would
take part in both the organised and the unorganised condition.
B) Independent groups design:
In an independent group design the participants take part in either the
control or the experimental condition.
C) Matched pairs Design:
In this design each participant in one of the experimental conditions is matched as
closely as possible with a participant in the other condition. Examples of variablesthat they could be matched on include age, gender, intelligence and personality traits.
When the matching pairs have been established they are randomly allocated to one or
other of the conditions.
SEE table below for advantages and disadvantages of the
different experimental designs as well as when each should be
used.
- 17 -
Pgs 106-108
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
18/38
- 18 -
Design Description When should it
be used?
Advantages Disadvantages Controls
Repeated
measures
design.
The same
participants are
used in bothconditions
When there is only
a small number of
participants- thesame participants
can be used for
both conditions.
Participant variables
are eliminated.
Uses fewer
participants: it is
sometimes difficult
to get people to
participate in
research.
Identifying
participants can be
time consuming.
Order effects
can occur eg-
fatigue, learningor boredom.
Increased
chance of
demand
characteristics
occurring
Cannot use the
same stimulus
materials.
Order effects
can be
counter-balanced.
Demand
characteristics
can be reduced
using single
blind
techniques.
Independe
nt groups
design
Participants are
randomly allocated
to either one or
other of the
conditions
When you have lots of
participants. This
design is not affected
as much by the
number of
participants, although
in a small sample
theres a risk that any
differences between
conditions could be
due to individual
differences.
No order effects.
Reduced chance of
demand
characteristics.
Can use the same
stimulus materials.
Least effective
design for
controlling
participant
variables
More
participants
required
Absolutely
essential that
participants
are randomly
allocated to
the different
conditions.
Matched
pairs
design
Participants are
matched as closely
as possible with
another
participant and
then the pairs are
randomly allocated
to either one or
the other
conditions.
When you have a lot
of time, money and
participants as they
need to be carefully
matched.
No order effects
Good attempt at
controlling
participant variables.
Difficult to
match
participants
exactly
More
participants
required.
Identical twins
provide
researchers
with a very
close match
for participant
variables.
Order Effects: An effect that can occur when a repeated measures design is employed. If the participants always complete one
condition first, by the time they get to the second condition they may experience order effects, such as practice, boredom and fatigue.
This could then affect their performance in the second condition.
Counterbalancing: The method used to balance order effects in the repeated measures design. Half the participants would complete the
experiment in one sequence- for example condition A first followed by condition B. The other half would do condition B first followedby condition A- the easy way to remember is ABBA.
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
19/38
How are Naturalistic observations designed?
Naturalistic Observations:
These are observations where the researcher observes naturally occurring
behaviours. This type of observation cannot be used in a true experiment where
the researcher manipulates the independent variable to observe the effect on the
dependent variable. However, naturalistic observations can be used in quasi-
experiments such as natural experiments.
A key design issue with naturalistic observational studies is deciding
how to sample the behaviour to be studied. The possibilities include:
i) Time interval sampling: Observing and recording whathappens in a series of fixed time intervals (eg: every 10
minutes or other suitable time interval).
ii) Time point sampling: Observing and recording the
behaviour which occurs at a series of given points in time
(eg: Meal Times).
iii) Event sampling: Observing and recording a complete
event, such as a teacher encouraging a pupil.
Further consideration also needs to be given to behavioural categories, that is,
the way in which data are organised and recorded. Possible methods include
preparing notes, producing a checklist or tally chart, or using a rating scale.
BELOW: AN EXAMPLE OF COLLECTION OF DATA CONCERNING AN
OBSERVATION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR IN CHILDREN.
Child Hits or
shovesunprovoked
Hits or
shovesfollowing
peers
Hits or
shoves inretaliation
Shouts at
othersunprovoked
Shouts at
othersfollowing
peers
Shouts at
others inretaliation.
A III II I II
B I III III
C IIII I I
- 19 -
Pgs 112-113
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
20/38
Operationalisation of the dependent and independent
variable.
What are variables?A variable is simply the precise, technical term that
psychologists use for something. These can include a quality,
such as attractiveness, a characteristic such as weight or height
or an action such as behaviour. Variables can change or vary.
What are dependent and independent variables?The dependent variable (DV) is the variable that is affected by changes in
the independent variable (IV).
The independent variable (IV) is the variable that the researcher
manipulates and which is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent
variable (DV).
EXAMPLE: If you study for your exams you are likely to get good results.
Therefore, studying time would be the IV here and results the DV as your
grades are likely to be influenced by amount of time spend studying.
NOTE: IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO UNDERSTAND THAT AN
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE AND A DEPENDENT VARIABLE ARE ONLY USED
IN AN EXPERIMENTAL HYPOTHESIS.
How do we operationalise variables?
Operationalising is the process of devising a way of measuring a
variable. What this means is that the exact nature and method of
measuring or observing the variables must be defined. When thevariables have been defined clearly and objectively, the
researcher is said to have produced operational definitions. This is
needed in order to test the hypothesis.
If for example the hypothesis stated that:
Participants who read digits out loud will later recall greater number of
digits than participants who read the digits sub-vocally.
In the above example, you could operationalise memory through thenumber of digits recalled, otherwise how else would memory be measured?
- 20 -
Pg 95-96
Pg 91
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
21/38
In addition, the researcher would need to define clearly what reading out-
loud means and what sub-vocally means. The researcher would also need to
identify how they intend to observe and measure the incidence of each of
these variables in the investigation, when all this has been done, the
hypothesis is testable!
What is a pilot study?
A pilot study is a trial of the experiment. During
the pilot study the researcher needs to test the
reliability of the data collection tool and make
any necessary changes before carrying out the
full investigation. The researcher would also testthe validity of the data to be collected.
What are extraneous (confounding) variables and how
can we control them?
Extraneous variables (EVs) is the term for any variables other than theI.V that might affect the DV. Where EVs are important enough to provide
alternative explanations for the effects, they become confounding
variables.
Evs need to be controlled to ensure that any effect on the DV is a direct
manipulation of the IV, if confounding variables are not controlled then the
study will lack in internal validity.
There are a number of different types of confounding variables that need
to be taken into account when designing or investigating research, these
include the following:
A) Situational variables: these refer to variables related to the
research situation eg: Temperature, instructions, time of day and
lighting, materials used in the investigation are all situational
variables. Situational variables are controlled through
standardisation; that is that the only thing that differs between
the two conditions is the IV.
- 21 -
Pg 106
Pg 96
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
22/38
B) Participant variables: These refer to variables that are connected
with the research participants eg: intelligence, age, gender and
personality. Participant variables can be controlled through the
research design such as match pairs design where participants in
one condition are matched with participants of similarcharacteristics in the second condition eg: someone of similar age,
intelligence etc.
What is meant by reliability and validity?
Reliability means that two or more measurements or observations of
the same psychological event will be consistent with each other. For
example, imagine two researchers are observing the same person at
the same time in the same situation and are rating the
persons behaviour using an observation checklist.
There must be a high level of consistency between
the two sets of observations. The key word to
emphasise when talking about reliability is
consistency i.e. the same or similar results are obtained with
different measuring tools or every time a study is replicated.
Validity means that we are actually measuring what we claim to be
measuring. There are two broad categories of validity; Internal
validity and external validity.
Internal validity: a research study has high internal validity if the
outcome of the study is the result of the variables that are
manipulated in the study (all confounding variables must be
controlled).
External validity: The extent to which the
findings can be generalised to the wider
population and to different situations.
This relates to population validity- do thefindings apply to different groups of people?
This can also relate to ecological validity- do the
findings apply in different settings (ie- does the
study approximate to real life situations?).
- 22 -
Pg 92
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
23/38
Below are three ways of measuring validity:
Method of assessingvalidity
Explanation
Face validity This method involves a quick eyeball test, that is doesit looks like the study/ instrument/ experiment is
measuring what it claims to be measuring?
Concurrent validity This involves comparing the results from the new testwith one from an older test known to have reliability eg:
if a participant scored 148 on an old well established IQ
test but only 113 in a new IQ test, then questions would
be raised about the validity of the new test.
Predictive validity This is the ability of the test to predict performance infuture tests. If it can do this then it is said to have good
predictive validity eg: are GCSEs good predictors of A-
Level grades?
Ethical guidelines and Ethical issues in research:
Why do we need ethical guidelines?
Ethics in the conduct of research is extremely important. Researchcan directly or indirectly cause psychological, cultural or physical
harm to a person, a community or a culture if it disregards the best
interests of those who participate. To avoid hostility between
possible participants and researchers, the BPS code of ethics
highlights nine different ethical guidelines which should help to
protect participants.
- 23 -
TIP: When asked to evaluate a new study, always consider the sample used- does it have high or low
population validity? What kind of design does it use, does the study have high ecological validity?
Also consider the internal validity of the study by thinking about possible demand characteristics/
investigator effects and confounding variables as these can all impact on the results of the study and
thus reduce internal validity. You might also want to consider the reliability of the study.
Pg 92
Pg 100-102
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
24/38
British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethics:1) Consent: Participants need to be provided with the aims of the research
study and of anything that might influence their willingness toparticipate in a study before they can give their fully informed
consent to participate. In addition, children under the age of 16 or
anyone with mental or learning difficulties would need to obtain
consent from a parent/ guardian prior to participating in research.
2) Deception: Information must not be withheld from participants, nor should
they be misled, if they are likely to object when debriefed at the end of
the procedure. Alternative to deception should always be considered.
3) Debriefing: following an investigation, participants should be fully informed
about the nature of the research. The participants experiences of the
research should be discussed. Debriefing following an investigation does
not justify the use of unethical procedures.4) Withdrawal from investigation: participants have the right to withdraw at
any time, regardless of whether or not they were paid for their
participation. They are allowed to withdraw at any point during the study
and in this case the researcher would need to destroy any data collected
on the participant.
5) Confidentiality: participants have the right to
confidentiality. If confidentiality cannot be
assured, then this must be disclosed to participants
before they consent to participate. The Data
Protection Act requires you to maintain the
confidentiality of those people about whom you
have collected information.
6) Protection of participants: psychologists have a
responsibility for protecting their participants
from physical or mental harm, including undue
stress. The risk of harm to participants must not exceed that of their
every-day life.
7) Observational research: observational studies must protect the privacy
and psychological well-being of those observed. Where consent for
observation has not been obtained, privacy is an important issue.
Participants should not be observed in situations where they would notexpect others to observe their behaviour.
8) Giving advice: psychologists are not allowed to give advice to their
participants unless they are fully qualified to do so, instead they must re-
direct participants to a more appropriate source.
9) Colleagues: where you feel a colleague might be following an unethical
procedure, you are under the obligation of raising the concern with the
colleague and encourage them to re-evaluate their study.
- 24 -
TIP: There is a difference between an ethical issue and ethical guidelines. The guidelines
tell the researcher what to do and the ethical issue occurs when there is a conflict betweenwhat the researcher wants to do for the research and the rights of the participants.
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
25/38
PTO for how to deal with Ethical issues
Ethical Issues and ways in which psychologists deal with them:
Ethical issue Why is it an ethical issue? Methods for dealing with ethical issues
Deception Deception is an ethical issue because it
prevents that participant from giving
informed consent and they may find
themselves in research against their wishes.
It is also an issue because the participants
may start to become distrustful of
psychologists in the future, which can createproblems for future researchers.
Debriefing: informing the participant of
true aims of the study after the study has b
conducted, this is to restore the participant
the state they were in prior to the resea
taking place.
Retrospective informed consent/ right
withdraw form the study: once the tnature of the experiment is revealed,
participants have a right to withdraw their d
from the study.
Informed
Consent
Lack of informed consent means that
participant has not agreed to take part in the
study, this can also apply to volunteers who
might have not been fully informed about the
aims of the study, it is an ethical issue
because it breaks ethical guidelines and
because it could also lead to distrust of
researchers.
Prior general consent: This involves obtain
the participants consent to be involved i
research study involving deception. O
obtained, it can be safely assumed that t
would apply to future studies too.
Presumptive consent: asking a random sample
the population whether they would consentparticipate in a study involving deception;
they consent then it can be assumed t
participants would also consent.
Children: the consent of the childs paren
guardians or those in loco parentis such
teachers could give consent on their behalf.
Protection of
participants
Participants have the right to not be harmed
as a result of participating in research
studies. The participant should always leave
an experiment in the same psychological and
physical state in which they first began it. If
they are harmed they could suffer long-term
damage that might impact on their future
lives.
The researcher should remind participants t
they can withdraw at any point during the st
should they become overly stressed.
The researcher should terminate any resea
where participants may be suffering more t
originally anticipated.
Debriefing is an important aspect of ensur
protection of participants.
Milgrams study violated all of the above ethical guidelines!
- 25 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
26/38
Selecting your participants for the research study
How does a researcher choose his/her
participants?The first step is deciding who your target population will be. It is
important that the sample is representative of the entire
population so that the findings can be generalised to the rest of
the population. Sampling is a key consideration when considering
the validity of the study, in particular, population validity.
The three sampling techniques are Random, Opportunity and
Volunteer sampling.
Definition Method Population validity
Random A sample in which every member
of the target population has an
equal chance of being selected.
Every member of the target
population is identified and a
random sampling technique is
employed to select the
sample.
EG: names drawn from a hat
High in population val
because it is
representative sampl
the entire t
population.
Opportunity A sample that consists of those
people who are available to the
researcher.
The researcher would
approach people and ask them
to take part in the research.
The researcher takes
advantage of whoever
happens to be available and is
willing to participate.
EG: A teacher gives her
students a questionnaire to
complete and then uses this
as her sample.
High chance that
sample will be bi
leading to low popul
validity.
Volunteer A sample where the participants
self-select. That is they
volunteer to take part in the
research.
The researcher would
advertise their research and
the people who respond would
be the sample.
Research has found t
particular type of pe
is likely to volunteer
research; thus this
of sampling has a
chance of bias, leadin
low population validity.
- 26 -
Pg 98-99
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
27/38
What are Demand characteristics?
Demand characteristics are cues in the environment that help the
participant work out what the research hypothesis is. This can lead to
social desirability effects, where the participant behaves in a way that the
hypothesis will be supported or the screw you effect where the
participant will purposefully disrupt the research.
Demand characteristics could lead to low internal validity as often people
change their behaviour to conform to what they think are theexperimenters expectations, these are fuelled by cues in the environment
and can have a negative impact on the study by affecting the results of the
study and as a consequence, lead to low internal
validity.
Demand characteristics can be controlled by using
a single-blind technique, this is when the researcher
knows the hypothesis but the participants do not.
What are investigator effects?
Investigator effects relates to the influence of the researcher whereby
their expectations of what the research outcome should be could lead to a
self-fulfilling prophecy. The researcher may at an unconscious level behave
in such a way as to bring about their own prediction. Investigator effects
relate to the aspects of the investigators appearance or behaviour that
could also lead participants to act in a particular way.
Investigator effects can also lead to low internal validity as it can mean
that participants are not behaving naturally, this in turn impacts on the
results of the study leading to low internal validity.
Investigator effects can be controlled by using a double-blind
technique; this is when the researcher gets an assistant to act on their
behalf. The assistant does not know the hypothesis of the study and
neither do the participants
- 27 -
TIP: When considering the validity of a study think hard about the sample used, is the sample
representative of the entire target population? Was a random method used? By answering these questions
you can assess the external validity (population validity) of a study.Pg 96-97
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
28/38
SECTION 3:Data analysis and presentation:
Area of Specification Being Covered:
Understanding data:In research there are two types of data that a researcher can
collect, these are qualitative and quantitative data. The type of data
collected will have an impact on how you present and analyse your
findings. Quantitative data refers to numerical data, whereas
qualitative data refers to data obtained from unstructured
interviews/ observations etc.
Type of data Advantages Disadvantages
Quantitative Allows for a broader study, involving a greater numberof participants, and therefore increasing population
validity and generalisation of results.
Can allow for greater objectivity and accuracy of
results, less subject to investigator bias and
interpretation.
The research can be replicated, and then analysed andcompared with similar studies. Quantitative methods
Results are limited as they provide numerical
descriptions rather than detailed narrative and
generally provide less elaborate accounts of hu
behaviour or ideas.
The research is often carried out in an unnatura
artificial environment, meaning that studies oft
lack ecological validity.
Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how
- 28 -
Research Methods: (iii) Data analysis and presentation: candidates
should be familiar with the following features of data analysis,
presentation and interpretation:
Presentation and interpretation of quantitative data including
graphs, scattergrams and tables. Analysis and interpretation of quantitative data. Measures of
central tendency including median, mean, mode. Measures of
dispersion including ranges and standard deviation.
Analysis and interpretation of correlational data. Positive and
Negative correlations and the interpretation of correlation
coefficients (Included in section 1)
Presentation of qualitative data
Processes involved in content analysis.
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
29/38
allow us to summarise vast sources of information and
facilitate comparisons across categories and over time.
people really feel about a subject and in some
cases might just be the closest match.
Qualitative Provides depth and detail : looks deeper thananalysing ranks and counts by recording attitudes,feelings and behaviours .
Creates openness: encouraging people to expand on
their responses can open up new topic areas not
initially considered
Simulates people's individual experiences: a detailed
picture can be built up about why people act in certain
ways and their feelings about these actions
Attempts to avoid pre-judgements: if used alongsidequantitative data collection, it can explain why a
particular response was given
Usually fewer people studied: collection ofqualitative data is generally more time consumin
that quantitative data collection and therefore
unless time and budget allows it is generally
necessary to include a smaller sample size, mean
that validity is compromised.
Less easy to generalise: because fewer people
are generally studied it is not possible to
generalise results to that of the population
(Population validity).
Difficult to make comparisons: for example, ifpeople give widely differing responses that are
highly subjective.
Open to investigator effects: due to the close
interaction between researchers and participant
there is a greater chance of investigator effect
occurring, these would compromise the validity o
the data obtained.
What are data tables:
When data is collected as a result of research it is important for the
researcher to present their findings in an accessible form. This allows
patterns to be seen clearly; an easy way of doing this is to present your
findings in a table:
Measure of central
tendency
Condition 1
(organised condition)
Condition 2
(unorganised
condition)
Mean 7.8 6.2
Median 9 7.0
Mode 10 7.0
In the above table, it is clear that the numbers are referring to the
number of words recalled and the finding that more words are recalled
when information is organised is clearly visible.
- 29 -
Pg 123- 124
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
30/38
What are m easures of central tendency:
There are three measures of central tendency, the mean, the median and
the mode. Identifying the central tendency in a set of data tells a
researcher where the average is in a set of data.
Measure of
Central
Tendency
What is it? Advantages Disadvantages
Mean * The mean is the statistical or
arithmetic average.* It can be calculated by adding up all
the scores in a set of data and then
dividing by the number of scores.
The mean is the most
sensitive measure of centraltendency, taking all scores
into consideration.
The mean can be dis
by extreme scores wiconsequence that
becomes unreprese
of the data.
Median * This is the middle score after the
data is organised according to size.
* The median is calculated by first
putting the data in order and then finding
the middle score. If there is an even
number of scores you should add the two
in the middle and then divide by two.
The median is unaffected by
extreme scores, thus in a
data where extreme scores
exist this would be a more
appropriate measure of
central tendency than the
mean.
Unlike the mean, the
only takes one or two
into accountthe
value(s)
Mode * This is the most frequently occurring
score.
* It can be calculated by a frequency
countquite simply analyse your data and
see which score occurs the most.
Similar to the median, the
mode is unaffected by
extreme scores.
Can be ef
dramatically by the
in one score, making
unrepresentative mea
When should we use each of the different measures of
central tendency?
Generally the arithmetic mean will give a good indication of central
tendency or the typical mean score unless the data contains
extreme scores that distort it.
Should there be extreme scores then the mean can be
misleading and shouldnt be used. The median, in contrast,
wont be affected by extreme scores and can easily be located
as the middle item in a data set.
- 30 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
31/38
However, the median may still not tell us what the typical or most frequent
scores in a set of data. If we want to know this, the mode would be the
best measure of central tendency to use.
What are measures of dispersion?
Measures of dispersion describe the spread of the data, or its
variation around a central value (i.e. How spread out are the
data?). The two measures of dispersion that we look at in AS are
Standard Deviation and the Range.
RANGE: the range is simply the difference between the highest
and the lowest score and is calculated by subtracting the lowest
score from the highest score.
STANDARD DEVIATION: The SD measures how widely spread the values
in a data set are around the mean. The standard deviation allows us to see
the consistency with which the IV impacted on the DV.
Standard Deviation What this tells us about the data:
Large A large standard deviation tells us that there was much variationaround the mean.
Small A small standard deviation tells us that the data was closely
clustered around the mean.
Zero All the data values were the same!
The advantages and disadvantages of the different measures of
Central Dispersion are summarised below:
Measure of
dispersion
What is it? When should it be used? Advantages Disadvantages
Range The differencebetween the
highest and the
lowest score in a
set of data.
When you wish to make a
basic measure of the
variation within the data and
the data is consistent. If
there are extreme scores the
range is inappropriate as it
will be a distorted measure
of variation.
Easy to calculate The range can b
easily distorted b
extreme scores.
- 31 -
TIP: A common exam question is to ask you to identify and justify an alternative measure of central tendency to the one given inthe stimulus material. For example, if the measure used in the stimulus material is the arithmetic mean an alternative would be themedian or the mode. The most common mistake is to explain what it is rather than to say why you would use this instead. EG: I
would use the median as an alternative to the mean as there are some extreme scores in the data which would distort the mean,making it unrepresentative. The median would have the advantage that it is unaffected by these extreme scores, making it a more
suitable measure of central tendency.
Pg 126-127
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
32/38
Standard
Deviation
A measure of
dispersion that
indicates the
spread or
dispersion of the
data around acentral value.
When you wish to make a
very sensitive measure of
dispersion.
Takes account
of all scores.
It is a sensitive
measure of
dispersion
Harder t
calculate than th
range.
Graphs:
Statistics such as those discussed previously provide one way of describing
and representing patterns in a quantitative data set. Another way, is
through the use of statistical graphs. These have the advantage of
providing a visual representation of the data set that allows us to
see the patterns in a data set in an easy to understand way.
Histograms:
A histogram is often used in data analysis to provide a visual
illustration of the distribution of data items in a data set. A
histogram consists of vertical bars of equal width, which represent
the frequencies of the variable placed on the X axis. The major
features of the Histogram can be summarised as follows:
1) All categories are represented.2) Columns are of equal width per equal category
3) No intervals are missed because they are empty
4) Column areas are proportional to the area represented.
Bar Charts:
Bar charts like line charts, are useful for comparing classes or
groups of data. A bar chart can represent frequencies or single
statistics such as the mean of a sample or the percentage ofproportion. There is no need to show all the frequencies on the
X-axis, only the ones you are interested in displaying.
Scattergram:
A scattergram gives a good visual picture of the relationship between the
two variables and aids the interpretation of the correlation coefficient.
Each piece of data contributes to one point on the scattergram, on which
points are plotted but not joined. The resulting pattern indicates the type
- 32 -
Pg 129-130
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
33/38
and strength of the relationship. Points to consider about a scattergram
are:
1) The more the points tend to cluster around a straight line, the
stronger the relationship between the two variables (the strongerthe correlation).
2) If the line around which the points tends to cluster runs from lower
left to upper right, the relationship between the two variables is
positive.
3) If the line around which the points tends to cluster runs from upper
left to lower right, the relationship between the two variables is
negative.
SEE PAGE 5 FOR EXAMPLES OF SCATTERGRAMS AND POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE CORRELATIONS.
Qualitative data and analysis
Qualitative analysis involves the analysis of non-numerical data. This
can include speech, books, magazines, videos, television, pictures and
computer games, as well as reflections and accounts of personal
experience. If participants complete an interview or questionnaire using
open ended questions then it will produce some qualitative data.
Content analysis:Content analysis is the way in which qualitative data is sometimes
converted into quantitative data to make interpretation easier to
understand. Depending on your research, you can decide what elements
of the answers you are going to count before you see any data to
prevent your own ideas influencing how you code the data. In any case,
appropriate categories would have to be identified.
Below is an example from imagined accounts of a bank robbery,
participants were asked to imagine a bank robbery, here are the
answers from some of the participants:
1) I imagine a crowded room with lots of people in queues in front of
the cashiers. Then I imagine two men bursting in wearing balaclavas
and brandishing guns. The whole thing is over very
quickly, they tell the customers to lie on the floor
and keep still; they force the cashiers to hand over
bags of money and they run out as you hear the
police sirens in the distance.
- 33 -
Pg 131-132
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
34/38
2) I think of three or four men with masks on running into a bank with
guns, shouting at everybody to get down on the ground. Lots of
scared bystanders. They get into the vault, fill up a bag with money
and then make a quick exit in their car.
3) I imagine men dressed in stripy shirts with black trousers and black
eye masks and black beanie style hats and black gloves. I imagine
that there are three of them and that they rush through the door
with hand-held pistols and force the cashier to give them money at
gun point. There are people screaming in the background and sirens
begin to wail, they stuff money into bags and run out into a black
Cadillac car.
4) Guns, Swag bags, masks, murky CCTV footage, shouting, fear,
running, speeding getaway car, creaming tyres. TV news item.
5) People queuing, masked men, wearing black running in and shouting
everyone get down on the floor waving guns. Someone going to the
cashiers with a briefcase and demanding they fill it with the cash
and open the safe. Then all running out and someone behind the cash
desks pressing the alarm.
Looking through the answers, the following categories are formed and
whenever someone mentions one of these is it counted:
1) The bank robbers are male- IIII
2) The bank robbers wear some kind of disguise- IIII + I
3) The bank robbers wear dark clothes- II
4) The bank robbers demand money from the cashiers- IIII
5) The bank robbers have a getaway car waiting outside the bank- II
6) The getaway car has a driver in it- 0
VALIDITY:
One of the main problems with using content analysis is that of validity. It
is vital that the classification procedure is reliable in the sense of being
consistent. Also, the practice of constructing a category system involves
the risk of an investigator imposing his or her meaning-system on the data
content, rather than taking it from the content. In content analysis
studies, it is often desirable for multiple coders (investigators) to set
about the task of negotiating categories and quantifying the featurespresent within a given text.
- 34 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
35/38
Pure qualitative analysis:
This approach rejects the conversion of qualitative data to quantitative
data like above, instead it aims to present the findings of the research in a
purely verbal form. Analysis attempts to organise the data not by reducing
them to a number but by identifying and categorising recurrent themes.
The process of achieving this level of analysis involves:
1) The data collected being transcribed (EG write out theanswers given in an interview in the exact form in which
the interviewee gave them).
2) Once transcribed the data would be read through
repeatedly in an effort to identify recurrent themes.
3) All data is read and re-read until all emerging themes
have been identified that account for all data collected.
- 35 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
36/38
GLOSSARY:
KEY TERM: Definition:
Hypothesis A precise testable statement about the expected outcome of a
investigation.
Aim A general statement about the purpose of the investigation.
Experiment A research investigation in which one specific variable is manipulated t
observe its effects, if any, on another specific variable, while keeping a
other variables controlled. In a true experiment, participants are randomlallocated to conditions or take part in all conditions.
Variable A measurable characteristic or value that can differ from one perso
to another or have multiple values.
Experimental
Hypothesis
A hypothesis used in the context of an experiment.
Alternative
Hypothesis
Any hypothesis other than the null hypothesis.
Correlational
study
An investigation into the possible association of two variables.
Operationalising The process of devising a way of measuring a variable.
Internal Validity A research study or experiment has internal validity when the outcome o
the study is the result of the variables that are manipulated in the study.
External
validity
The extent to which findings can be generalised to settings other tha
the research setting. This includes population validity, which is th
question of whether the findings can be generalised to other peopl
and ecological validity, which is the question of whether the result
can be generalised to other settings.
Independent
Variable (IV)
The variable that the researcher manipulates and which is assumed t
have a direct effect on the dependent variable.Dependent
Variable (DV)
The variable that is affected by changes in the independent variable.
Extraneous/
Confounding
variables
This is a general term for any variables other than the IV that might hav
an effect on the DV.
Ethical issues These occur when there is a dilemma between what the researche
wants to do in order to conduct the research and the rights an
dignity of the participants.
Control group This is the group of participants who do not receive the experimenttreatment or condition so that they can act as a comparison to th
- 36 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
37/38
participants who do.
Laboratory
experiment
An experiment that is carried out in a controlled environment wher
the independent variable is manipulated.
Mundane Realism The extent to which a study matches the real-world situation to which i
will be applied.Field
Experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural environment: th
independent variable is manipulated.
Natural
Experiment
The researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring variable. Not
true experiment as variations in the IV can occur naturally rather tha
through being manipulated by the researcher.
Ecological
Validity
The extent to which the methods, materials and setting of th
experiment approximates the real-life situation being studied.
Experimental
design
The method of control imposed by the experimenter to control fo
participant variables. This is one of the major methods employed in a
experiment to control Extraneous Variables.Order effects A confounding effect that can occur when a repeated measures desig
is employed. If the participants always complete one condition first
by the time they get to the second condition they may experienc
order effects, such as practice, boredom and fatigue. This could the
affect their performance in the second condition.
Counterbalancing The method used to balance order effects in the repeated measure
design. Half the participants would complete the experiment in on
sequence- for example condition A followed by condition B. the other hal
would do condition B first followed by condition A. The easy way t
remember this is ABBA.
Observer Bias This happens when an observer makes their own particula
interpretation of the behaviour they observe.
Participant
observation
Requires the researcher to actually join the group or take part in th
situation they are studying.
Non-Participant
Observation
Based on observations made from a distance or from outside the grou
or situation being studied.
Disclosed
observation
An observation in which the participants are aware that they are bein
observed. Sometimes known as overt observations.
Undisclosedobservations
An observation in which the participants are not aware that they arbeing observed. This is also known as covert observation.
Structured
observation
Before the research begins the researcher determines precisely wha
behaviours are to be observed and will use a standardised checklist t
record the frequency with which those behaviours are observed within
specified time period.
Unstructured
observation
The researcher uses direct observation to record behaviours as the
occur; there is no predetermined plan about what will be observed.
Observational
schedule
Usually a structured form or grid that is completed in line with th
researchers instructions or guidance by an observer.
Inter-observer The extent to which a data collection tool used by a group o
- 37 -
-
7/29/2019 Research Methods Booklet -TES Version
38/38
reliability observers produces similar data.
Social
desiribility
The tendency of humans to present themselves in the best possible ligh
Responses to questionnaires may be influenced by this tendency. There i
a difference between what people say they do and what in fact they do!
Idiographic Relating to individual cases or events.Qualitative data Analysis that focuses more on words (what people say) rather tha
numbers.
Quantitative
data
Analysis that uses numerical data.
Coding The procedure employed to transform raw data into a format that can b
used for data analysis purposes. This is necessary to allow the conversio
of qualitative data to quantitative data. Coding qualitative data involve
identifying recurrent words, concepts or themes.
Quasi
experiment
An experiment that takes place in a field setting but the independen
variable is already set, ie: is not controlled by the investigator.