Research for Development in the South: The Case of Non-Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa

By Mwangi S. Kimenyi

Background Paper Commissioned by

The International Development Research Centre in preparation of its

Corporate Strategy and Program Framework 2005-20010

August 2003

© International Development Research Centre 2003 All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the International Development Research Centre. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent those of the International Development Research Centre. Mention of a proprietary name does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for information. This document has been edited for clarity and consistency only and not to formal publication standards.

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Contents Acronyms...........................................................................................................................4 Executive Summary ...........................................................................................................5 Introduction........................................................................................................................8 Research and Development................................................................................................9 The Environment of Research .........................................................................................14

Basic data on research in sub-Saharan Africa .............................................................14 Research priorities in sub-Saharan Africa ...................................................................15 The balance between public and private research .......................................................20 Balance between national and regional research .........................................................21 Allocation of resources ................................................................................................23 Use of indigenous knowledge in research ...................................................................24 The role of foreign donors ...........................................................................................26

The Environment for Research ........................................................................................27 Social, cultural, institutional, and political environment for research.........................28 Macroeconomic policies and STA development .........................................................28 Market constraints on the development of STAs.........................................................31

Concluding Remarks........................................................................................................35 Appendix: Tables ............................................................................................................37 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................69

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Acronyms ABCF African Capacity Building Foundation ACTS African Centre for Technology Studies AERC African Economic Research Consortium ALIN Arid Lands Information Network AMREF African Medical and Research Foundation ATPS African Technology Policy Studies Network CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CODESRIA Council for Development of Social Science Research in Africa COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa DAAD German Academic Exchange Programme FDI foreign direct investment GDP GNP ICTs

gross domestic product gross national product information and communication technologies

IDRC International Development Research Centre IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture ILRI International Livestock Research Institute ITDG Intermediate Technology Development Group ITK Indigenous Technical Knowledge KEVEVAPI Kenya Veterinary Vaccine Production Institute KIPPRA Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis KIRDI Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute MCF Malignant Catarrh Fever NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development PRAIS Programme for Agricultural Information Services PRSP R&D

Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers Research and Development

SATRN Southern African Trade Research Network SSA Sub-Saharan Africa STAs Science and Technology Activities STET Science and Technology Education and Training STS Science and Technology Services TIPS Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Unesco United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WTO World Trade Organization

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Executive Summary Development is a process through which the quality of life for the majority of citizens improves over time. Development requires institutions for generating and utilizing knowledge, which in turn require an environment conducive to research and dissemination of results. This paper focuses on research for development in non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with an emphasis on the state of and environment for research. It is argued at the outset that research only contributes to development if it focuses on those aspects that are more directly related to the well-being of the population in a specific country or region. Three issues are identified as important to research for development. First and foremost, an environment conducive to research is essential. Second, the research itself must be relevant to the countries’ development needs. Finally, local capacity to utilize the research results should exist. Part 2 of this paper looks at the links between research and development, using simple tools of demand and supply. The supply side is viewed as representing the quantity, quality, and mix of research activities and outputs. It is argued that research supply is influenced by factors such as institutions, resource and human capacity, and demand for research outputs. The demand for research represents the capacity and ability to undertake research. This paper makes the distinction between “need” and “demand” and argues that since all countries face development challenges, there is by definition, a need for research that provides solutions to various developmental challenges. For instance, the development challenges facing the region can be broadly classified under the headings of Social Development; Agriculture and Animal Health; Food and Nutrition; Infrastructure; Trade and Industry; Conflicts, Security, and Natural Resources; Environment; and Institutions. Each of these challenges requires solutions and relevant research should focus on such issues. However, demand as opposed to need, is used to imply that there is a willingness and ability to buy a good or service — that is effective demand. The paper posits that the extent to which research contributes to development depends on both the supply of — and the effective demand for — research. Thus, on the one hand, it can be argued that a consistently rising supply of research (both in terms of quantity and quality), accompanied by appropriate demand necessarily translate into rapid development. On the other hand, low supply and demand for research can be expected to translate into low levels of economic development. The factors that impact on the demand and supply of research for development and which lead to what may be referred to as as failure in the market for research are discussed. Parts 3 and 4 focus on the environment of and for research in non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa. For this region, data on research activities is not readily available. There are many gaps and for some countries data is unavailable. For the countries where data is available, there are wide disparities in terms of research activities, numbers of research institutions, researchers, and so on. Thus, generalizations can be misleading, as there are

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extremes. For example, South Africa is much more advanced in research as compared to most of the other countries in the region. For all the countries in the region, the most complete data available is on agricultural research activities. Nevertheless, although quite a bit of information on research institutions, funding, and researchers exists, information on the exact research activities being carried out is not readily available. For those institutions for which data is available, the focus of research is consistent with many of the identified priorities, such as improvements in agricultural productivity and livestock, and development of new seeds. Based on the information available, it is evident that the number of researchers in Africa, particularly in the scientific disciplines, is relatively low. Few students are enrolled in tertiary level institutions, especially in science-related fields. The data also reveals that few countries have the critical mass of researchers necessary to sustain major research projects. Data seems to suggest that funding for research is generally low — less than 1 percent of Gross National Product (GNP) for the countries in the region.

The data also reveals that governments are the primary players in terms of funding and determining research priorities. In those countries for which data is available, virtually all the major research institutions are public and are funded mainly by government, albeit with considerable donor participation. The other main players in research are public universities. The few private universities in the region focus mainly on teaching as opposed to research. Private sector research usually takes the form of product development carried out by manufacturers or market research undertaken by various companies, while educational and policy research is carried out by several institutes. Most of the institutions and universities engaged in research focus on national issues. Regional research institutions are mainly involved in agricultural, medical, environmental, and policy research. Although information is available regarding the use of indigenous knowledge in the region, it is difficult to determine the extent to which it is incorporated in modern day research. By and large, there seems to be little awareness and understanding of the potential role of science and technological activities (STAs). The data available does not reveal the extent to which women are involved in research or the extent to which gender issues feature in research priorities.

Public expenditures and investments in STAs in the region are low (expenditures in research and development (R&D) are lower than 0.5 percent of GDP). This has compromised the quantity and quality of R&D, scientific and technical education and training (STET), and science and technical services (STS). Generally, macroeconomic policies such as taxes and subsidies have not been extensively used to influence STAs. In cases where such policies have been employed, the social, political, and cultural environment has tended to undermine research. In addition, a number of domestic and foreign market constraints hinder the supply of, and demand for, research activities. Various austerity measures have to some extent reduced funding for research activities. On the demand side, low per capita incomes translate into low effective demand for research, which could then contribute to subdued investment in R&D projects. As the North is the major supplier of R&D products, there is concern about the discrepancy between what the South needs and what the North supplies.

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The final section provides some general observations and thoughts on the future of research for development in the region. While there is some positive progress that is likely to lead to increased supply and demand for research, other factors may pull in the opposite direction. Given the advances that middle-income countries are making in scientific research, it is likely that Africa will continue to lag behind in scientific research for the foreseeable future.

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Introduction Broadly defined, development involves a process through which the quality of life for the majority of a country’s citizens improves over time. Quality of life is measured by proximate indicators of well-being, including access to goods and services such as health, shelter, food, and education. Both the quantity and quality of these goods and services are important determinants of quality of life. Access to such goods translates into a healthier population, reduced malnutrition, increased life expectancy, decreased infant mortality, and so on. Development also involves improvements in institutions as evidenced by the quality of governance, the establishment of peace, the advancement of civil liberties and democracy, and generally by increased participation in decision-making by all sectors of society. By definition, development as a process implies dynamism — not a static end state. At the core of the dynamics that lead to development are fundamental changes in the ways of doing things — innovations that translate into higher productivity, new products, such as drugs that deal with health problems or that conserve energy, or new seeds that are disease or drought-resistant. Development also involves the establishment of institutional arrangements that encourage creativity and minimize the risk of undertaking wealth-creating activities. Implicit in the above definition is that benefits arising from the development process should be shared by all members of society.1 In short, development is about people and the expansion in the opportunities available for them to improve their lives. During their early stages of development, many nations were able to achieve improvements in the quality of life through the exploitation of natural resources. While some countries have achieved high standards of living by exploiting their natural resources, this is not a self-sustaining development path. In a world characterized by an ever diminishing supply of natural resources, development requires more innovative approaches to the production and creation of new products than just the mere exploitation of natural resources. In fact, development today should also be seen as a process that seeks to preserve these resources and the environment. Thus, the focus should be on achieving development that is sustainable — that which emphasizes improving quality of life while at the same time conserving resources. In essence, sustainable development is largely dependent on a knowledge of effective, efficient, and environmentally friendly ways of using natural resources as opposed to their mere exploitation.

Sustainable development does not occur by accident or by chance: conscious decisions must be made and specific actions taken. Central to the development process is the generation and utilization of knowledge and information. These activities require well-defined institutional frameworks for conducting research and disseminating results, complemented by appropriate human capacities and resource endowments. These

1 Emphasis is placed on sharing the benefits of economic growth across all segments of the population —rural and urban, men and women, children and adults. It also suggests that different groups — religious or ethnic — should be full and productive participants in the decision-making processes of development. Also implicit is that individuals have rights to participate fully in the political process.

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institutional frameworks may involve elements such as national research institutes, public and private universities, national laws and regulations, including taxes and subsidy schemes, and other incentives designed to support research, such as funding procedures or systems protecting intellectual property rights and linkages between universities, research institutes, and industry. Finally, politics plays a crucial role in influencing research activities and dissemination. Peace and stability are particularly important elements of an environment conducive to research. In addition, the freedom to conduct research and self- expression without harassment is critical to nurturing creativity. Research also requires resources, particularly human resources with capacity in higher education and designated training in specific disciplines. Other key resources include time (to engage in research), and funds (for equipment, workspace, buildings, support staff, etc.).

This paper looks at issues concerning research for development in the South with a focus on non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa. The analysis provides a simple schema for analyzing the link between research and development based on tools of supply and demand. It demonstrates that the market for research is not perfect and is often characterized by market failure. The study then examines the state of research in the region, focusing on the scope of research activities and priorities. Several aspects of the research environment are examined, including research priorities, specific activities, personnel, and institutions engaged in research, funding, and regional and international collaboration. It must be noted at the outset that data availability, depth, consistency, and comparability are issues of concern and thus, much care must be exercised in interpreting the data. The environment for research, that is, the factors that influence research in the region, are explored and the final section presents some concluding remarks and observations.

Research and Development As stated earlier, sustainable development requires institutions for generating and utilizing knowledge. This requires an environment conducive to conducting research. Given this definition of development, research will contribute to development if it focuses on those issues that are directly related to the well-being of the population in a specific country or region. In other words, research should be relevant and results should tackle specific development challenges. Three important issues underlie development and research. First and foremost, an environment conducive to research is essential if research is to translate into development. Second, the research itself must be relevant to a country’s development needs. Finally, the locally capacity to utilize the research results must exist. The link between research and development can be looked at from the point of view of supply and demand. The supply side represents the quantity, quality, and mix of research activities and outputs. Research supply is influenced by such factors as institutions, resource and human capacity, and demand for research outputs. The demand for research represents the capacity and ability to undertake research. A distinction between “need” and “demand” is warranted and is relevant to the discussion that follows. To the extent

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that all countries face development challenges, there is by definition, a need for research that provides solutions for dealing with various challenges. Thus, the many development challenges facing developing countries point to a wide range of research needs.2 Thus, needs for research basically reflect development challenges for which research can provide solutions. The existence of a need does not necessarily translate into what may be referred to as “effective demand.” Demand is used to imply that there is a willingness and ability to buy a good or service — that is effective demand. Demand for research, therefore, suggests that consumers have the capacity to absorb/utilize research results and are willing to commit the necessary resources to obtain those results. Thus, demand for research is influenced by the capacity to absorb the results, resources, and a willingness to change. This section reveals the particular problem developing countries face in transforming the need for research into effective demand.

The extent to which research contributes to development depends on both the supply of and the effective demand for research. Thus, on the one hand, a consistently rising supply of research (both in terms of quantity and quality), accompanied by appropriate demand necessarily translates into rapid development. On the other hand, low supply and demand for research can be expected to translate into low levels of economic development. This situation can be identified as a low research/low development equilibrium trap. As can be expected, countries mired in this trap are likely to lag behind those in the large supply/ large demand category. Figure 1 shows possible scenarios of demand and supply for research conditions and the implications for development.

2 As is discussed in the next section, the development challenges are the basis by which research priorities are identified.

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Figure 1. Research: supply and demand.

Low Moderate Large

Low supply/low demand equilibrium (1) (low development trap)

Market failure (2)

Market failure

(3)

Market failure

(4)

Moderate supply/ moderate demand

equilibrium

(5) (Moderate development)

Market failure

(6)

Market failure

(7)

Market failure

(8)

Large supply/large

demand equilibrium

(9) (rapid development)

Supply

Low

Demand

Moderate

Large

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To simplify the analysis, we consider cases of low, moderate, and large supplies of and demand for research.

The simple demand and supply model would suggest that when demand exists, and if the market for research works efficiently, then there should be a supply response to meet the expressed demand. The assumption is that the market for research operates efficiently, such that demand and supply result in equilibrium. Thus, if that were the case, countries would tend to move from Box 1 to Box 9 in Figure 1. In reality, this does not occur and what transpires is what may be referred to as market failure in the market for research.

The term market failure is used to imply situations whereby the market does not clear (that is, balance supply and demand). In this scenario, there are only three cases where the market for research clears (Boxes 1, 5, and 9). All the others represent market failure, where supply (demand) does not trigger the appropriate demand (supply) response. Note that the state of equilibrium does not necessarily mean a “good” state of affairs from a development perspective. For example, Box 1 reflects low supply and low demand equilibrium. Given the relationship between research and development, this state is undesirable and translates into a low development trap. In essence, Box 1 is a case whereby research needs are not translated into effective demand and supply. Box 9 reflects the most ideal situation where the market operates efficiently (supply responds to demand) and needs are adequately translated into effective demand. Such a result can be expected to translate into rapid development. All the other cases imply situations where supply exceeds demand, or vice versa. Thus, in analyzing research for development, two issues become important. The first has to do with market failure and the second is the failure to translate need into effective demand. Appendix A attempts to classify various countries based on the demand and supply conditions.

A number of factors could explain these failures.

Risk. Research involves a fair degree of risk in that the probability of success is often low. It takes time and resources for research to come to fruition. For example, research leading to new product development can take years and consume large amounts of both human and financial resources. The fact that success is not guaranteed suggests that research is risky and thus lowers the supply. Public good nature of research. More often than not, research is characterized by the common pool problem. While the costs of research fall primarily on specific firms, individuals, or institutions, the benefits are shared widely. In other words, costs are concentrated while benefits are diffused. The free rider problem associated with public goods is real and can lead to suboptimal supply. As in other cases of market failure associated with public goods, government participation is crucial in those countries with low public investment in research. Thus, we can expect that the supply of research will be much lower than demand. It is important to note that there are different types of public goods depending on the extent to which benefits are shared — local, national, regional, and global. Regional and global public goods imply that the benefits spill over

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national boundaries. In such cases, markets may fail because no country is willing to invest in research, given that the benefits are shared by others. These types of public goods call for collaboration by all the countries involved. Research may be a local, national, regional, or even a global public good. Institutional weaknesses. At the national level, institutions that support research are critical. These could involve favourable laws and regulations, patent and copyright legislation, and other means of protecting intellectual property rights. Other factors include taxes and subsidies that are specifically designed to encourage research. Countries without supportive institutional frameworks for research are likely to be associated with suboptimal research activity. Competition. Competition generally results in increasing the supply of goods and services. In regard to research, poor countries face a disadvantage in that more advanced countries produce new products and technologies at much lower costs. Consumers in poor countries are more likely to import these new products and technologies, resulting in lower demand for locally produced products and technologies.3 Low supply of researchers. A key factor in research activities has to do with human capital. Those engaged in research are generally individuals with at least tertiary level education. The fact that many poor countries have only a small proportion of such individuals implies that, compared to developed countries, the supply of researchers in these countries is relatively low. Weak demand. This has to do with capacity to use research results. For demand to be effective, consumers of research results (such as governments and firms) must have the capacity to absorb and utilize the research. Lack of capacity in poor countries suggests that there is also weak demand for new ideas, products, and technologies. Weak demand translates into low supply. Unwillingness to change. Many governments may be unwilling to change and thus may not be interested in research results that propose change, as these changes may involve redistribution of benefits and costs. Government officials who benefit from the status quo are likely to resist change if it will affect their privileged positions. This is particularly relevant to research which calls for institutional reforms. Small markets. The supply of research will increase if there is a market for results. The small size of African markets and the low incomes implies that markets are small which discourages supply.4

3 This raises the issue as to whether the focus should be on basic research or adapting research and technologies from the developed countries. 4 Opening markets through regional integration and removing trade barriers, as has been the case over the last few years, has helped increase the size of markets.

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Weak links between research institutions and industry. Strong links between industry and suppliers of research encourage research production. In most poor countries, this link is weak. Low return to researchers. The supply of research could also be impacted by the wages that researchers command. Low salaries (an indication of low demand for their services) can result in researchers shifting to other, more remunerative activities. Poorly developed private sector. The private sector is one of the primary consumers of research results. In poor countries where the private sector is less developed, demand for research will also be low. This is particularly the case in countries with low levels of industrialization. Weak linkages across countries. Research costs will be lower where wide networks of collaboration and information exchange exist. More often than not, poor countries have limited linkages in terms of research. Poor economic performance. Poor economic performance influences research from both supply and demand sides. On the supply side, poor economic performance implies limited resources allocated for research while on the demand side, it implies low incomes and thus less effective demand. The analysis in this section provides an understanding of the state of research in non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa. The analysis is also a guide to policy on research and development. Evidently, there are cases where supply is a problem in which case supporting research is the appropriate policy. On the other hand, the analysis shows that there are cases where policy should focus on translating needs into demand.

The Environment of Research In this section, the state of research in non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa is examined. Various elements of the supply side of research are identified, including the type of research activities, researchers, and institutions.

Basic data on research in sub-Saharan Africa Appendix Tables 1-17 present data on research in the region. They include data on research and development expenditures, researchers engaged in various scientific research activities, the scope of activities undertaken by national research institutions, and tertiary level enrolment in sciences. Appendix Table 18 provides a summary of various regional research institutions and their activities. Appendix Table 19 provides a summary of various research activities being undertaken by universities in sub-Saharan Africa.

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Observations 1. Data on research activities is not readily available. As is evident from the Appendix

tables, there are many gaps and for some countries, no data is available. Thus, any interpretation of the data, particularly an analysis of trends and comparisons, must be done with caution.

2. The region is not homogenous. There is a wide spectrum of research activities,

institutions, researchers, and so on. Generalizations can be misleading. For example, South Africa is much more advanced in research as compared to most of the other countries in the region.

3. The most complete data is on agricultural research activities. Despite the presence of

this data on research institutions, funding, and researchers, information on the terms and nature of research activities is not readily available for most of the countries. For those institutions for which data is available, the focus of research is consistent with the agricultural priorities identified earlier. Although some research is being carried out on biotechnology, the number of researchers involved is very few and the scope of research is quite limited.

4. Based on the information available, it is evident that the number of researchers in

Africa, particularly in the scientific disciplines is quite low. There are relatively few students enrolled in tertiary level institutions and the numbers enrolled in sciences is even lower. Looking at the data on the number of researchers involved in specific areas, it emerges that few countries have the critical mass of researchers necessary to sustain major research projects.

5. Data in Appendix Table 14 seems to suggest that funding for research is generally

low — less than 1 percent of GNP. Little data is available to judge funding trends. For agriculture, funding increased during the 1960s and 1970s but then reached a plateau, with only marginal increases thereafter. In all countries, donor funding plays an important role and in some cases almost equals funding from governments.

Research priorities in sub-Saharan Africa To better understand the state of research, it is helpful to first identify the key research priorities in the region. In the previous section, it was implied that research for development must be related to a country’s or region’s development issues. In other words, research priorities should be based on the key developmental challenges. Table 1 identifies key development challenges in the region. These challenges are grouped into

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thematic areas. For each of the challenges, the key problems as they relate to quality of life are identified and then research issues are derived.5 Research priorities can be expected to vary across the various countries, depending on the seriousness of a particular development challenge. Generally, however, the development challenges are fairly similar across the region. Within the East African region, for example, a number of research priorities in science and technology have been articulated and cover most of those listed in Table 1. They include improving agricultural productivity, tackling livestock and crop diseases, use of medicinal plants, developing drugs for AIDS and malaria, alternative energy sources, rural energy technology, and so on. These priorities are linked to the key development challenges in the region. How does the existing research compare with the research priorities of the region? In attempting to answer this question a few points can be noted.

Some research has been carried out on conflict. One case in point is research carried out by the African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), Improving Tools and Techniques for Crisis Management: Ecological Sources of Conflict: Experiences from Eastern Africa, and Ecological Sources of Conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Policy Research, Information Dissemination and Capacity Building Project are two examples of the Centre’s work. This research is extremely relevant to the region. Much more needs to be done, however, especially in areas such as the nonecological sources of conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa and what can be done to minimize them.

5 Government documents often contain many statements concerning national priorities, which can then be used to identify research priorities. This could be a problem if development challenges are not fully articulated in those policy priorities. The case of the former Soviet Union is illustrative. To a large extent, though there was a large array of researchers and research activities undertaken, many of the USSR’s development challenges were not prioritized.

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Table 1. Development challenges and research priorities in the region. Development challenge

Problem/Issue Research focus

1. Social Development 2. Agriculture and Animal Health

- Many deaths due to diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, waterborne diseases, etc. - Lack of access to quality health care, safe water, quality education, and affordable housing (especially in the urban areas) by the majority of the poor - High cost of social services such as education, health, and housing (especially in urban areas) - High and increasing levels of poverty - Poor performance in science and mathematics at the school level - Low agricultural productivity - Poor marketing of agricultural and animal products - Lack of access to agricultural inputs and markets - Crop and animal diseases -Production of primary products with low value-added

- New drugs and prevention measures for diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and waterborne diseases - Vaccine for diseases such as malaria and HIV/AIDS - Effective ways of increasing access to quality social services such as health and education - Ways of reducing health care and education costs (in particular science and technical education) - Cheap building materials - Effective methods of teaching science and mathematics - Effective methods of alleviating poverty in all its forms -Effectiveness of medicinal plants and traditional treatments and ways of integrating them into the national health sector -Biotechnology, new seeds development - Effective and efficient ways of increasing productivity in agriculture - Effective methods of controlling and preventing crop and animal diseases - Effective strategies for marketing agricultural and

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3. Food and Nutrition 4. Infrastructure 5. Trade and Industry

- Starvation/famine - Malnutrition, especially in small children - Poor roads - Lack of access or inadequate supply of electricity - High cost of power - Lack of access to communication facilities such as telephones, Internet, etc. - Low productivity in industry - High cost of compliance with international trade agreements - Noncompetitiveness of locally produced products in international markets

animal products - Effective ways of increasing access to markets for agricultural and animal products - Effective methods of making agricultural inputs available to farmers, especially small-scale producers - Effective ways of transforming primary into value-added products - New foods of high nutritional value - Food storage systems - Non rain-dependent food production methods - Alternative energy sources - Ways of reducing the high cost of power - Effective and efficient ways of increasing access to electricity and communication facilities - Causes of low productivity in industry and solutions - Effective and efficient methods of reducing compliance costs of international trade agreements - Ways of increasing the competitiveness of locally produced products in

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6. Conflict, Security and Natural Calamities 7. Environment 8. Institutions

- Massive loss of lives in civil, tribal and clan conflicts - Destruction to property and loss of lives due to terrorist activities - Theft, robbery - Loss of lives and property due to flooding, landslides, and other natural calamities - Loss of biodiversity - Soil degradation due to erosion, activities of mining and quarrying, and farming activities - Pollution - Poor governance - Corruption - Incompetent judiciary

international markets - Effective personal and property security systems - Root causes and solutions to conflicts - Effective ways of preventing and controlling exported terrorism - Early warning systems for calamities and mitigation methods - Nonchemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides - Ways of reducing environmental impacts of mining and quarrying activities - Environment-friendly production techniques - Environment-friendly energy sources -Conservation and management strategies usable at the community level to halt the loss of biodiversity - Effective ways of enhancing integrity and increasing efficiency of various arms of government -Effective and efficient methods of detecting, controlling, and curbing corruption both in the public and private sectors

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Several studies have been carried out on the roots of poverty and on strategies to alleviate and reduce it. Most of the countries in the region have prepared National Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), as a condition set out by the Bretton Woods Institutions, prior to funding. These studies are extremely relevant to the region. Few studies, however, are investigating the efficiency of public service delivery in health, education, and security. Studies on education in Kenya, especially by the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis (KIPPRA), offer a picture of the state of the education sector as well as solutions to particular situations. These studies are limited to primary education. More work must be done in the area of secondary and tertiary education, as well as science education. Few studies have been conducted on efficient health delivery. A forthcoming paper from KIPPRA reviews Kenya’s health sector. Studies focusing on security issues (mainly internal security) are almost nonexistent. Research into the root causes of crime (such as unemployment and poverty), and on how to improve the responsiveness of security and police forces would be extremely relevant. Health issues have attracted attention from researchers. Several studies, including several impact studies, on HIV/AIDS have focused on the disease’s economic burdens. One of the more relevant studies is the Kenya AIDS Vaccine Initiative, being undertaken by the University of Nairobi Medical School in conjunction with Oxford University. Further study is warranted, especially on the impact of HIV/AIDS on education. Numerous studies focusing on malaria are being carried out by organizations such as the Malaria Centre, Malaria Consortium, Malaria Foundation International, and Malaria Research and Reference Reagent Centre. The malaria studies are highly relevant to the region and it is hoped that their findings will assist in the battle against the disease. In addition to AIDS and malaria, other serious diseases plague the region, although not at epidemic levels. Impact studies on Ebola, tuberculosis, asthma, breast cancer, bilharzia, etc., would also be useful. As stated earlier, the majority of research in the region centres on agriculture. Related studies, however, could explore effective marketing of agricultural produce and sources of finance for farmers.

The balance between public and private research In terms of supply of research, the available information reveals government as the primary player in terms of funding and influencing research priorities. Virtually all major research institutions are public and are funded mainly by governments, with considerable donor participation. For example, most of the region’s agricultural research institutions are affiliated with government ministries (e.g., Ministry of Agriculture). This is also true for medical research institutions and other technology research institutes. The other main

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suppliers of research are universities and most are publicly funded and managed. The few private universities in the region have low enrolments and their focus is mainly on teaching as opposed to research. Private sector research is concentrated mainly on product development carried out by manufacturing firms, or marketing research carried out by various companies. Unlike the developed countries, where most scientific research is conducted by private firms, or where there are strong links between universities and private firms, non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa’s research linkages are weak or nonexistent. In general, there is little collaboration between the public and private sector on research. Collaboration does occur in research dissemination, especially with regard to policy research.

Balance between national and regional research By and large, most of the institutions and universities engaged in research focus on national issues. For example, most universities and national research institutions focus on research on the development challenges facing particular countries. For example, agricultural research in East Africa focuses on key crops such as coffee, tea, and maize while research in other countries in the region concentrates on other crops indigent to their region. Data on social sciences also shows that most of the research conducted in the various countries focuses primarily on those policy issues affecting their individual countries. Detailed information is available about regional research institutions, including their range of activities (Appendix Table 18). From Appendix Table 18, it is clear that the agricultural sector is the prime hub of research activities in the region. Other notable research areas include the health, environment, social, and economic sectors. Agricultural research ranges from production issues (e.g., dry land agricultural research by Arid Lands Information Network (ALIN) based in Kenya, to marketing issues, researched by FOODNET with offices in Uganda and the Programme for Agricultural Information Services (PRAIS) based in South Africa. Several agricultural research institutions are involved in training and knowledge transfers, including Inforeach, based in South Africa, and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) has a strong presence in livestock research. ILRI’S activities cut across R&D, STS, and STET. Its research activities are also synergistic, as much of ILRI’s health research is applied in human health research. In human health or medical research, the African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) implements health development programs in nine countries in East and Southern Africa, providing training, consulting, and distributing health materials throughout the continent. On environmental issues, among the regional bodies conducting research in biological diversity, climate change, desertification, and agroforestry are the African Centre for Technology studies (ACTS) and the Zero Regional Environment Organisation. Strong networking is evidenced by the existence of the 41-nation federation, the Forestry Research Network for SSA, headquartered in Ghana. Member countries in turn belong to subregional forestry research networks.

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The African Economic Research Consortium (AERC) promotes research on socioeconomic issues in SSA so as to inform policy. It engages in capacity-building and training programs. The Council for Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) tackles a much wider area of social science research. CODESRIA promotes research-based publishing and knowledge sharing. Analysis of the key activities undertaken by regional research institutions shows that they generally focus on crosscutting developmental challenges. In almost all cases, regional institutions have large donor participation. Most of the research institutions in the region can be broadly classified in the following groups:

Medical Research Institutes. These institutes carry out medical research and also publish their findings in their various publications, e.g., the National Medical Research Institute (Tanzania) and Kenya Medical Research Institute. Agricultural Research Institutes, These bodies carry out agricultural research and also publish their findings in various publications, e.g., the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Institute of Agricultural Research (Ethiopia), and National Council for Scientific Research (Zambia). Policy Research Institutes. These carry out research on various policy issues and publish their findings, e.g., Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis, the Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis, the Centre for Policy Analysis (Ghana), and Namibian Economic Policy Research Unit. Universities. These conduct training of professionals such as scientists, doctors, engineers, social scientists, and economists, e.g., the University of Nairobi and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (Kenya): Makerere University (Uganda), University of Cape Town (South Africa), and University of Ghana, Legon (Ghana). Some of these universities also engage in agricultural research, for example, the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

Some research organizations are national in nature but end up serving regional demands. This is the case of the Kenya Veterinary Vaccine Production Institute (KEVEVAPI), which serves the larger East African region. At the regional level, efforts to improve research skills have primarily come from the creation of professional networks. Examples include one network of economists engaged in policy-oriented macroeconomic research, coordinated and supported by the African Economic Research Consortium (AERC), the Africa Environmental Economics Network, consisting of environmental economists and CODESRIA, of social scientists.

National institutes have improved their skills through participating in regional networks and by studying best practices made available through region-wide research. A body like South Africa’s Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies (TIPS) does not limit its mandate to

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South Africa, but has a wider responsibility at the Southern African regional level. It is actively involved in program management for the Southern African Trade Research Network (SATRN) and is in a joint venture with the Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis. Funded by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC), SATRN is well on its way to enabling Southern African countries to participate more effectively in the global trading system, and in particular, the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Allocation of resources Based on the information available, it is evident that for sub-Saharan Africa, the principal area of research focus has been agriculture. Except for South Africa, all other countries have more agricultural research institutions than for any other area of study. Appendix Table 4 reveals few national research organizations engaged in areas outside of agriculture. African countries have for some time endowed agricultural development as a main engine of economic growth and have devoted much effort in promoting this agenda. Historically, the colonial powers were also primarily interested in agriculture and its outputs, and were in fact responsible for establishing several agricultural research institutes. During the early years of independence, many new nations heavily invested in establishing and funding such bodies. Many factors, ranging from professional skills to funding, are required for research programs to achieve success. In particular, shortfalls in human capacity are obstacles to research opportunities within countries in non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa. To address this challenge, specific programs have been developed to build capacity in research. Donor bodies like AERC, the African Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF), German Academic Exchange Programme (DAAD), Ford Foundation, and the World Bank direct enormous resources to capacity-building in research institutes and institutions of higher learning. The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) supports some 16 research centres, actively studying such areas as major food crops, livestock, forestry and agroforestry, water management, and institutional and policy development, with an increasing emphasis on cross-centre program collaboration.. Table 2 shows South Africa’s R&D Expenditure by Major Research Field

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Table 2. South Africa’s R&D expenditure by major research field. Field 1989

Nominal Rand (‘000)

% of 1989 Total

1991 Nominal Rand (‘000)

% of 1991 Total

1993 Nominal Rand (‘000)

% of 1993 Total

Astronomy and Surveying Agriculture, Biology and Forestry Chemistry Earth Sciences Engineering Mathematical Sciences Medical Sciences Physics Technology Philosophical, Social and Human Sciences Economic Sciences Political Sciences Languages Arts Future Studies

43 650 276 519 125 989 108 623 533 276 50 133 18 497 69 910 140 425 158 204 70 537 10 283 33 306 14 803 291

2.46 15.58 7.10 6.12 30.05 2.83 7.81 3.94 7.91 8.91 3.98 0.58 1.88 0.83 0.02

18 382 393 396 219 579 166 077 938 696 123 043 192 981 137 768 212 430 215 096 83 624 18 643 48 115 17 366 890

0.66 14.12 7.88 5.96 33.69 4.42 6.93 4.94 7.62 7.72 3.00 0.67 1.73 0.62 0.03

16 151 336 348 158 568 119 670 1 037 939 78 238 182 238 148 259 227 215 158 654 63 360 29 218 30 248 7 987 14

0.62 12.97 6.11 4.61 40.01 3.02 7.03 5.72 8.76 6.12 2.44 1.13 1.16 0.31 0.0006

Source: Unesco 1998. World Science Report 1998 and author’s calculations. From Table 2, it can be seen that South Africa’ largest research expenditures were in Engineering followed by Agriculture, and Biology and Forestry. The area attracting the least was Future Studies.

Use of indigenous knowledge in research Johnson (1992) defines indigenous knowledge as a body of knowledge created by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with nature. Grenier (1998) defines indigenous knowledge as the unique, traditional, and local knowledge existing within and developed around specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographical area. According to McCall (1996), indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) embraces people’s knowledge of tools and techniques for the

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assessment, acquisition, transformation, and utilization of resources, which are specific to a particular location. Much of ITK is the result of deliberate adaptation and local experimentation. In East Africa, many cases have been reported of farmers’ deliberate experiments with crop breeding, crop mixes, or protective measures. On a more epic scale, there are the major adaptations from nomadic to sedentary pastoralists or from shifting forest cultivation toward intensive or agroforestry systems. Farmers’ technical knowledge encompasses many crop husbandry techniques:

• Soil conservation and soil husbandry: embracing indigenous knowledge of soil classification, the use of catena, cropping indicators, and the maintenance of soil organics, as seem in Unyamwezi and Iringa in Tanzania, Ruhengeri in Rwanda, and northern Zambia

• Soil moisture and water harvesting, including agrometeorology, as used in the Kerio Valley and Baringo in Kenya, central Tanzania, and Bay region of Somalia

• Intercropping and mixed cropping in Uganda, Ethiopia, and Zaire • Field pest and disease management in southern Malawi, Zimbabwe, and

Machakos, Kenya • Crop storage methods in Tanzania, and Moru and Darfur in Sudan

The extent to which indigenous knowledge is incorporated in modern day research is difficult to determine, as there are no comprehensive data sources for the region. The following, are, however, examples of the use of indigenous knowledge in the region:

• The use of plants for the treatment of various human ailments (such as headaches, stomach worms and other stomach ailments, colds, venereal diseases, chest complaints, skin diseases, etc.) by the Maasai in Kenya (Kipuri 1996). Ailments are treated with the leaves, roots, or bark of various plants. The part of the plant to be used often depends on the prevalence and size of the particular plant species. The roots of a rare, slow-growing tree would rarely be used, if at all, so as to ensure a sustainable supply of the medicine.

• Methods to detect and cure livestock diseases, as well as methods of preventing

animal health problems among the Maasai in Kenya, derived from their extensive knowledge of chemical substances found in various flora (Kipuri 1996). The diagnosis of animal diseases is made on the basis of symptoms, as well as the course and known vectors of the disease. One case has seen the blending of the Maasai’s indigenous knowledge of animal diseases and modern science. This is the case of Malignant Catarrh Fever (MCF). While the Maasai had no cure for MCF, they isolated livestock away from the wildebeests and from surface drinking water during breeding season. Through their observations, the Maasai were convinced that the wildebeest was a silent carrier of MCF. They believed the

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disease was contained in the fetal membrane fluids of calving wildebeests. Science has recently concurred with this pastoralist view (Miaron 1994). Further scientific work has determined that the virus is also carried in the nasal mucus of the wildebeest. According to Kipuri, despite the effectiveness, convenience, and safety that modern drugs offer for veterinary purposes, the problems of cost, availability, and accessibility pose serious constraints in remote and marginal pastoralist areas. This isolation, however, tends to ensure the resilience of indigenous knowledge systems for prophylactic and therapeutic treatments.

• The use of trees, birds, and animal behaviour as measures of environmental

change by the Shona people of Zimbabwe (Mararike 1996). Trees were used as indicators of soil fertility, water tables, and change of seasons. The abundance of wild fruits was used as a harbinger for a good rainy season. Some forest birds are used as indicators of certain events. For instance, when a haya bird sings in a particular way, rain comes within a few days; the shezhu (the honeyguide) is well known among the Shona for guiding hunters to a beehive.

• Use of grass, star patterns, birds, and insects as environmental indicators among

the Langi of Uganda (Angura 1996). Among the Langi, grass growing in a particular area is an indicator of the level of soil fertility. Tall, large-leaved spear grass and elephant grass (agala) indicate fertile soil, while short, thin-leaved spear grass shows deterioration in soil quality. The alignment of the stars indicates either rainy or dry weather. Stars, which are concentrated and divide the sky equally into two patterns indicate a normal, “balanced” wet and dry season, while a band of stars more to the east or west indicates the onset of the dry season. The coming of the white migratory birds in January is usually followed by an invasion of armyworms, which can destroy young millet crops. If the armyworms are followed by heavy rains, the harvest will be good, because the rains kill the armyworms, which in turn fertilize the soil. If, however, the advent of armyworms is followed by little or no rain, there will be famine, because crops, especially millet, will be destroyed. The phenomenon of the armyworms alerts people to the possibility of famine so they can take appropriate action, by economizing their food resources (for instance, eating just one meal a day). An invasion of locusts is known among the Langi as certain tragedy. This is because the insects destroy not only the crops but also every single plant they encounter.

The role of foreign donors

In virtually all sub-Saharan countries, donors play a significant and in some cases dominant role. There are three ways in which donors support research: Direct funding. For most of the countries, donors contribute a substantial share of the research budgets. Donor support has been declining, yet a large number of national institutions rely on these funds. In some countries, such as Uganda, funding from donors is dominant.

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Technical Support. Research institutions in Africa continue to benefit from the support of donors through technical assistance. Training/capacity-building. One important area where donors support research in sub-Saharan Africa is capacity-building. The most common approach is through the sponsorship of researchers for advanced studies. The most active donors in the region in capacity-building are the ACBF and AERC. Table 3. Average donor funding for agricultural research as a percentage of total agricultural research expenditure. Year % of funding 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

31.63 45.85 40.7 51.06 49.73 48.53 42.61 33.7

Source: Extracted from Appendix Table 9. Table 3 shows that for those countries where data is available, donors have contributed significant amounts of the expenditures in agricultural research. The available data does not state the form of the donor support.

The Environment for Research Given that sub-Saharan African countries are now moving toward regional integration, there is a need for research to inform this process. Other developments in the world economy also necessitate research. For instance, globalization has a tremendous impact on the way people live, affecting employment, incomes, and consumption, as well as the capacity of governments to deliver services. Other important developments requiring study are biotechnology, competitiveness, and democratization. The following section discusses whether countries in the region possess the requisite conditions for research. It focuses on the sociocultural, political, and economic environment for research in SSA; how macroeconomic policies have impacted on research; and market constraints on research in SAA.

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Social, cultural, institutional, and political environment for research

It is clear from the data (see Appendix) that the various indicators of technological capabilities rank SSA countries at the bottom of the technological development ladder. Based on S&T indicators, such as science enrolment in secondary, vocational, and tertiary institutions, number of research institutions, number of scientists per 10,000 people, national spending on S&T education, spending by universities, and enrolment in tertiary institutions and R&D expenditure, it is clear that science and technology research institutions and scientific education (physical, biological sciences) are low priorities for the region. This is also true for S&T outputs. Non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa in particular, and Africa in general, have very few scientific publications, technological innovations, and patents (Adeboye 1998). Why? A number of factors contribute to this situation. First, more than half of the countries in the region have experienced political instability, which has had a profound negative impact on research. Civil unrest has eroded the research infrastructure and led to a “brain drain” from the region. Even in countries that did not experience civil unrest, the political leadership has been undemocratic. In these contexts, major public policy decisions have not been based on objectively researched policies but on the influence of interest groups. Secondly, the marginalization of women, especially in denying them access to education and other opportunities, has severely limited their potential to contribute positively to scientific knowledge. Given that women outnumber men, their exclusion in effect means that more than half of the population is marginalized. Other characteristics of non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa are the lack of awareness and understanding of the potential for STAs; a low capacity to manage, apply, and disseminate information; and low investment in STAs. Few countries possess a cross-country information and telecommunication network that allows reliable communication with users in other countries.

However, the situation has been improving in many countries. In East Africa several private and public research institutions are undertaking research in agriculture, fisheries, forestry, economic, technology, and energy policy. In particular, several institutions in Kenya are now actively promoting technological capacity. Among this group are the African Technology Policy Studies network (ATPS), African Center for Technological Studies (ACTS); Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG); and the Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute (KIRDI). In addition, sub-Saharan Africa has a large pool of relatively well-educated youth who could grasp and adapt new ideas and ways of working to promote STA development.

Macroeconomic policies and STA development Macroeconomic policies have not been conducive to STAs. Throughout SSA, huge public borrowing requirements have pushed up interest rates to unsustainable levels, discouraging private investment. Credit constraints make it very difficult for entrepreneurs to commercialize STAs with the potential for revenue generation. It is also

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difficult and costly to invest in developing, acquiring, adopting, and mastering technology. High tariff barriers which act to protect inefficient domestic production tend to discourage private investment. Restricting imports has not promoted domestic STAs as hoped, but in fact has impeded technological capabilities, especially in cases where research institutions cannot import computers and other critical equipment. This has been the case in Kenya, where up until June 2003 imported computers were taxed. The June budget, however, zero-rated computers. The public good nature of research output (knowledge) and other forms of market failure, imply that public expenditures become important drivers for research and development in any country. Further, R&D expenditures have been identified as a major engine of growth by recent endogenous growth models (Olsen 1996; Romer 1994). It has been pointed out that any public expenditures below the 1 percent threshold are a waste (Unesco 1998). Be that as it may, government expenditures in SSA have been directed to other areas with few funds allocated to R&D. Many SSA countries spent less than 0.5 percent of their GDP on research, compared to the standard practice of 2 percent of GDP in developed economies. For example, Finland and South Africa have the same-sized economies. Finland spends 1 percent of its GDP on R&D, whereas South Africa (a leading African spender) only designates 0.29 percent of GDP on research. Investments in scientific R&D are estimated at 0.2 percent of regional (i.e., Africa’s) GNP (Unesco 1999). These low public expenditures and investments in STAs have profound implications for development in the region. The quality and quantity of R&D is compromised, especially in public institutions. This is reflected in many ways, including a dilapidated S&T infrastructure and the difficulty of retaining top level scientists, engineers, and technologists in light of low salaries and poor working conditions. In their study of PhD holders in SSA, Fine, Lyakurwa, and Drabek (1994) report low job satisfaction due to poor working conditions (including low pay). They note that professionals cannot live on their salary alone. Remuneration has adversely affected the time allocated to work. Most staff spend considerably less time on research than do their counterparts in developed countries (Michelsen et al. 1997 and Nienke, Pardey, and Roseboom 1998).6 The quality and quantity of scientific technical education and training (STET) is also compromised. Public support for higher education in SSA has grown but is still low when compared to international standards (Nienke, Pardey and Roseboom 1998). Expenditure per student (measured in units of GNP per capita) declined in 10 of 15 countries for which data was available7 (World Bank 2001). Dwindling resources during a period of growing enrolments8 has had a sharply negative impact on the quality of education in

6 Nienke, Pardey, and Roseboom (1998) report that the majority of African university faculties spent less than 20% of their time doing research in 1991. Michelsen et al. (1997) surveyed academic staff at a limited number of faculties of agriculture in six African countries and reported that faculty spent between 29 and 35% of their time doing research during the mid-1990s. 7 In Zambia for example, expenditure per student fell by more than 50% between 1986-96. 8 In 1960, Africa (excluding South Africa) had six universities with fewer than 30,000 students. In 1995 the region supported nearly 120 universities with an enrolment approaching 2 million.

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African universities (ADEA 1999; World Bank 1999). Despite the fact that formal R&D is intensive in human capital, tertiary gross enrolment rates remain low in Africa. Unesco (1998) reported a gross enrolment rate of 3.9 in 1997. Bebczuk (2002), using a Unesco database for 88 countries, found that the simple correlation between R&D expenditures and the number of researchers per million inhabitants is very high (0.83). The implication is that SSA stands to lose from its low training levels and capabilities. At the primary and secondary levels of education, Africa is the only region with 1995 enrolment rates lower than its 1980 figures (World Bank 2000). This provides a pessimistic picture for the immediate prospects of STAs as R&D requires a steady supply of new human-capital specialization. Science and technology services (STS), specifically publishing activities are suppressed. Markets in SSA are small and dominated by state enterprises. State publishers face enormous problems related to their funding needs. They are unable to attract high calibre staff due to fixed wages. Apart from direct public expenditures, taxes and subsidies can be used to influence STAs. An important objective of tax incentives in this region is the transfer of technology, mainly through foreign direct investment (FDI). Theoretically, incoming FDI has an ambiguous impact on R&D expenditures. By bringing new technology and capital goods, FDI may create positive externalities exploitable by other domestic firms. On the other hand, firms receiving FDI are likely to compete with other domestic producers with lower technological capabilities, that may be driven out of business. The 2002 UNCTAD global survey of tax incentives and foreign direct investment revealed that only a few countries offer direct domestic tax incentives that encourage R&D activities. Two of those countries were Uganda and Nigeria, where research and development expenses are tax deductible. The survey also included Ghana, Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, and South Africa which did not offer tax incentives related to STA development. The region has not experienced significant changes in FDI flows and empirical literature is divided on whether FDI flows can bring about sustainable growth in STAs that will lead to development. Tax incentives may be rendered less potent by the disincentive effects of institutional, social, and demand factors (Morriset forthcoming).

Within non-Francophone sub-Saharan African countries, it has been observed that the tax regime has curtailed research activities. In this region, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are mainly imports. ICTs are essential for information flow and have revolutionized STAs, especially STET in other regions. Yet import duties have made these tools less affordable and accessible in many countries, like Kenya (Government of Kenya, 2002).

To take advantage of the new knowledge economy, Africa needs physical connections as well as well-trained scientific, technological, and processing personnel.

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Market constraints on the development of STAs It has long been accepted that in certain fields of science and technology, private agents responding to market forces cannot be relied upon to invest in science and technology, which is socially desirable. This line of argument was accepted at an early stage in relation to agriculture. Arrow (1962) argued further that markets would fail to produce satisfactory results in investment and knowledge. The crux of the argument is that information (or knowledge) is a public good. Its use by one agent does not in principle diminish its availability to others. Accordingly, its optimal social price should be zero — aside from any specific costs in transferring it from one use to another. This, however, is practically untenable. Private agents will not create knowledge unless they can cover their costs (which of course they could not if it were freely available to all). This is essentially a reflection of the Schumpeterian theory of innovation from a somewhat different perspective. The development of science and technology in non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa faces various impediments. They range from low government expenditure, exchange rates, taxation regimes, trade patterns, and a lack of human and financial resources, among others. The following section looks at the various market constraints which hamper STA development in the region. Cuts in government expenditure for science and technology Cuts in public expenditure hinder and damage technological progress. The general environment of economic instability has not been favourable for STAs. Data on official expenditures on science and technology is notoriously scarce in SSA countries, and the situation is no better among the non-Francophone SSA states. Consequently, there is a major gap in the knowledge of the effect that financial stringency has had on state-financed science and technology activities. Cuts in capital expenditure have affected the supply of equipment to research and development survey institutions. It is reasonable to expect that cuts in real current expenditures have also had an impact (probably through staff reductions and reduced real salaries and wages). Politically, reducing expenditures for STAs is easier than cutting transfer payments or spending that has immediate impacts on the welfare of a large portion of the population. In times of political difficulty, STAs rank high on the list of expenditure cuts (Cooper 1992). Cuts in government capital expenditures may have other direct implications for scientific and technological activity. Large state-financed investment projects usually require considerable support from engineers, designers, contractors, resource survey teams, and others. In general, only some of these inputs are purchased locally. Fall in demand and output on science and technology in productive sectors Since the 1980s, most African governments have been under pressure to restrain domestic demand, so as to cope with the balance-of-payments effects of the fall in trade

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earnings. Output has declined in many sectors of the economy, especially in industry. The fall in demand and output has in some cases resulted in failures and bankruptcy, and in others in very low levels of capacity utilization. Faced with persistent underutilization of capacity, firms will be forced to reduce overhead costs, which could result in cutting certain technological activities, which are not crucial to production. Firms with small foundries, repair shops, or quality control departments may cut these services. Although the underlying theory on R&D focuses on supply side considerations, demand factors also have a role to play. Bebczuk (2002) identifies per capita income and real GDP growth as probable determinants of market size for future inventions, which in turn is used to forecast a project’s profitability. Per capita incomes among non-Francophone sub-Saharan Africa countries are low and the resultant low effective demand may explain the low investment rates (both domestic and foreign) in otherwise potentially lucrative R&D projects, such as malarial vaccine research.

Demand factors also affect other STAs, that is, STET and STS. Low incomes imply that only a few can actually afford education. Low per capita income partly explains the low enrolment rates at all levels of education. Science and technology service providers, for example, publishers, face limited market demand for their outputs and may have difficulty breaking even. In addition to low incomes, demand is further reduced by language barriers, high illiteracy rates, and mass poverty. This hinders the growth of domestic and regional publishers and has a bearing on information flow and the growth of R&D. Lack of human and financial resources Reliable data on human and financial resources devoted to science and technology in developing countries in general, and in SSA in particular, is very limited. In biotechnology, a study conducted by Falconi (1999) established a number of agricultural biotechnology research indicators for the period 1985-96 which include structure, organization, human resources, expenditure, and financing. The study found that Kenya and Zimbabwe spent US$3.0 million and US$3.5 million, respectively on agricultural biotechnology research. This compares to the US$18.7, US$20.4, and US$640 million spent by Indonesia, Mexico, and the United States, respectively. Falconi also established that there are few dedicated agricultural biotechnology research institutions, and that in most cases, biotechnology is used to complement and target more accurately traditional plant and livestock breeding programs. In many countries, agricultural biotechnology research is conducted mainly in public institutions, which accounted for 92 percent of research expenditures, with private expenditures providing a mere 8 percent. In the four countries in Falconi’s study, research focused mainly on crops, with little effort devoted to livestock research programs. With respect to human resources, in Kenya the number of researchers more than doubled in the period under review; the number of PhD degree holders nearly tripled. In Zimbabwe, the number of researchers quadrupled, with at least a fivefold increase in PhD

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holders. At the same time, research expenditure declined in all countries. Kenya and Zimbabwe are mostly reliant on donor funding (67 and 50 percent, respectively) but few expatriate scientists are employed.

Low levels of R&D Low levels of R&D in sub-Saharan Africa, combined with the difficulty in tapping foreign research output contributed to market constraint. The region is in a vicious cycle that relegates it as a low producer of R&D. Countries have relatively little stock of accumulated knowledge to begin with. The theoretical framework stresses that innovation is dependent on the accumulated stock of knowledge (Caballero and Jaffe 1993; Romer 1990). The underlying premise is that researchers build on previous technologies to create new ones. As a result, the more advanced the initial technology, the more productive researchers are, and hence more resources are likely to be devoted to R&D. A relatively low stock of knowledge, therefore, (given the poor infrastructural realities) may be argued to constrain the supply of R&D in the region.

SSA trade patterns The trade patterns of SSA may further support the above argument. Bebczuk (2002) argues that manufacturing exports, as compared to most service and agricultural exports, are relatively technology-intensive. The SSA countries mainly export agricultural goods; as a result, the bias toward nonmanufactures ensures that SSA has less demand for R&D expenditures.

In addition, policies implemented by the Northern countries inhibit manufacturing in developing countries, particularly the high punitive tariffs placed on the manufacturing process in poor countries. One such distorting policy is tariff escalation (the higher the degree of processing of a product, the higher the tariff levied). There are no tariffs on tropical fruits but there are very high tariffs on jam and marmalade.

Monopolies verses privatization One major constraint to the development of STAs is (was) state ownership of sectors that could be better managed by the private sector. This includes telecommunications. In SSA, state monopolies were not required by law (as they were in the North) to plough back their profits in R&D. Utilities were viewed as cash cows by bureaucrats. Under government ownership, corporations were mainly loss-making entities and often required large cash infusions from government. In some countries/sectors, privatization has paid great dividends. Foreign ownership is common among privatized utilities and the resultant R&D goods are mainly imports. For example, mobile phones, computers, and other telecommunications accessories are mainly imports. Some state monopolies have made great impacts in supporting local knowledge and inputs. For example, Telcom Kenya at its Gilgil plant, manufactures phone components which are then exported to the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) region. However, misappropriation and corruption have hampered this effort.

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Price of research and development products The cost of R&D products may be too high. A study on transgenic virus-resistant banana plants in Kenya (Quaim 1999) examines the case of pathogen-free banana plants. Currently, the price of tissue-cultured plantlets is high, around seven times higher than the price of conventional suckers. Despite the high yield increase potential9 and improved income projections, an initial high cost outlay is likely to deter resource-poor farmers from investing in the new technology. Foreign markets SSA remains an importer of R&D products from the North. The nature of the international markets becomes important insofar as meeting the R&D needs (products, processes, etc.) of the region is concerned. The exchange of R&D products is marked by market failure in the international market place. One form of market failure concerns the discrepancy between what the market-driven major suppliers (the North) supply and what the South actually needs. The needs and drive for STAs in Africa are quite different from those of industrial countries. The SSA agenda is based on an urgent need for technological change to enhance food production and to alter the course of widespread poverty, food shortages, and disease. Industrial countries, on the other hand, are driven by market and profit. The underlying cause of the demand/supply discrepancy may be the absence of effective demand in SSA, which is inhabited by the poorest of the poor. Nicola (2002) observed that very little research is done by pharmaceutical companies in developing drugs to combat neglected diseases that are common in poorer populations.

Some contributors argue that patents have distorted markets by conferring monopolistic power over the production and distribution of products. Patents drive up prices of imported products and encourage exorbitant prices. The effect of patents and monopolies on prices is demonstrated by data which compares prices of patented or branded products and those of generic products. The Indian generic manufacturer Ciplas offered to sell a combination of three anti-AIDS medicines at US$350-600 for a year’s supply, as compared to the price of US$10,000-15,000 for the branded medicines marketed by Boehringer Ingelheim, a US manufacturer.10 Weak links between science and industrial activities Finally, local industries generally purchase technology related know-how from abroad rather than from local producers. At the lower end of the development spectrum, there is almost total disjuncture between research and industry. 9 For the larger farms, an average yield increase of 93% would be anticipated. This would increase to 150% and 132% for smallholders and medium-scale farmers, most of whom are women. 10 Patents and monopoly prices (http://www.twnnside.org.sg/title/twr131b.htm)

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Concluding Remarks One general observation arising from this paper is that a study of research for development in the region must contend with the problem of data. Given the importance of comprehensive and accurate data on research activities, one suggestion for governments in the region is to prioritize establishing systems for gathering and compiling data. This is an area where IDRC and other development partners can play an important role. There is no doubt that research for development in SSA lags behind other developing countries. The reasons have been outlined earlier in this paper. It is clear that, for Africa to achieve sustained development, relevant research that feeds into policy is necessary. This requires an increase in the supply and demand of research. What then are the prospects for an enhanced research environment? The prospects for increased supply and demand for research for development largely depend on a number of factors. First is the establishment of durable peace. Unless peace and stability are achieved, research will remain a low priority. Without peace and stability, the supply of research will be reduced and researchers will continue to leave for more developed countries where conditions for conducting research are better. Recent trends in democratization in Africa shed some hope that many countries are moving toward peace. However, the situation in some countries remains uncertain. Second, democratization, by creating more free societies, can be expected to result in improved conditions for researchers and to foster a willingness among policymakers to use research results. Third, progress in regional integration and a reduction in trade barriers are likely to improve conditions for research from both the supply and demand sides. Increased competition and larger markets necessitate an improved ways of doing things and better products — that is innovation. Globalization, however, poses various threats as products from developed countries displace lower-quality goods from developing countries. One possible result of globalization is that poor countries will focus on adopting technology from developed countries to local circumstances rather than focusing on research for new product development. Fourth, African nations are increasingly aware that many of their most serious development problems, such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, drought, animal and plant diseases, etc., cut across borders. Cost-effective approaches to such problems are those that take a regional approach. As such, there is likely going to be increased emphasis on regional research. It is in fact advisable for development partners to emphasize such approaches. Institutions such as the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and the African Union are likely to play an important coordination role for regional research initiatives.

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Fifth, the role of donors remains important in research. Unfortunately, “donor fatigue” is likely to translate into reduced funding which may leave a vacuum that may be hard to fill, at least in the short run. Finally, I am not optimistic about major improvements in research for development in Africa in the near future, relative to other countries. Given the advances that other economies continue to make, Africa is likely to lag behind in research and overall development for a long time. Middle-income countries are making great strides in scientific research, thus further widening the gap between them and Africa. The current pace of scientific research in Africa cannot be expected to close this gap unless there are major concerted efforts to revamp the research infrastructure — sort of a “Marshall Plan” targeted at research.

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Appendix: Tables Appendix A. Research and development.

Low Moderate Large

Angola Congo (DRC) Uganda (1980)

Kenya (2002)

Nigeria

(3) Tanzania

Mauritius

Kenya (2003)

Ghana

Botswana

South Africa

Uganda (2003)

Korea

Supply

Low

Demand

Moderate

Large

This classification is based on the author’s judgment based on data and other information about the countries and should only be taken as illustrative. However, classifying countries depending on supply and demand can be useful in the design of policies.

37

Table 1. R&D Expenditure (selected countries).

Country Nigeria South Africa Year 1987 1991Total R&D expenditure (US$) 21481574 1009085838R&D as % of GNP 0.1 1R&D expenditure per capita (US$) 0.3 26.4Annual average expenditure per scientist and engineer (US$) 16055 83382Source: Unesco, World Science Report. 1998. Table 2. Scientists and engineers engaged in higher education and general services (selected countries, full-time equivalent). Country Nigeria South Africa Year 1987 1991Scientists and engineers (higher education) na 5984Scientists and engineers (general services) 1338 2723Technicians (higher education) na 289Technicians (general services) 6042 1932Auxiliary staff (higher education) na 260Auxiliary staff (general services) 5500 2556Total (higher education) na 6533Total (general services) 12880 7211Source: Unesco, World Science Report. 1998. Note: na = not available.

38

Table 3. R&D Personnel in national research centres (selected countries), 1995.

Country Total Researchers Support

professionals Technicians Auxiliary staff Unallocated

staff Angola 211 17 114 20 60 0Botswana 367 92 31 122 122 0Cape Verde 89 17 13 9 50 0Ethiopia 5553 2473 142 570 2316 52Ghana 5871 436 514 280 4620 21Kenya 5832 797 692 656 3223 464Lesotho 24 10 5 0 9 0Liberia 245 34 118 54 39 0Malawi 2293 185 210 344 986 568Mozambique 599 21 53 29 187 309Namibia 67 24 3 7 33 0Nigeria 7913 937 1005 1991 3980 0Sierra Leone 10 4 1 0 5 0South Africa 16946 3799 1199 2678 4196 5074Sudan 1565 83 100 882 500 0Swaziland 219 32 15 73 84 15Tanzania 6069 916 1212 703 3238 0Uganda 566 136 107 64 259 0Zambia 1861 315 186 470 853 37Zimbabwe 4369 528 74 761 3006 0

Source: Unesco, World Science Report., 1998.

39

Table 4. National research centres (selected countries), 1995.

Country Total AFAF Health & nutrition

EGM Manufacturing Environment Basic sciences

SHS Multi-disciplinary

Angola 3 1 na 1 na 1 na na naBotswana 7 2 na na 2 na na 1 2Cape Verde 1 1 na na na na na na na Ethiopia 42 25 10 1 na 1 3 2 na Ghana 23 9 2 na 3 3 na 5 1Kenya 29 14 4 na 4 2 1 3 1Lesotho 2 na na na na na na 2 na Liberia 4 1 1 na na 1 1 na Malawi 20 18 na 1 na na na 1 na Mozambique 4 1 1 na 1 na na na 1Namibia 3 na na 1 na 1 na na 1Nigeria 35 21 2 2 4 6 Sierra Leone 3 1 na 1 na na na 1 na South Africa 172 30 31 11 21 6 17 37 19Sudan 9 1 3 na 1 1 na 2 1Swaziland 6 3 na 1 1 na na 1 na Tanzania 36 19 5 1 3 1 4 3Uganda 5 2 1 na na 1 1 na Zambia 21 7 2 2 2 2 na 5 1

Source: Unesco, World Science Report, 1998. Note: AFAF: Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries; EGM: Energy, Geology and Mining; SHA: Social and Human Sciences na = not available

40

Table 5. Tertiary natural and applied science enrolment (% of total tertiary). Country 1990 1992 1995Botswana 22 28 24Swaziland 36 43 na Ghana 41 32 na Kenya 32 22 na Zambia 29 25 na Nigeria 43 36 41Sudan 21 16 na Tanzania 62 na 39Malawi 25 36 18Uganda 22 15 13Angola 40 30 na Mozambique 60 39 50Ethiopia 40 43 36Sierra Leone 17 15 30Namibia na 3 5Zimbabwe 27 25 23Liberia 39 na na Lesotho na 16 25South Africa na na 57Source: UNDP, Human Development Reports, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999. Note: na = not available. Table 6. Scientists and technicians (per 1,000 people). Country 1988-92 1988-95 1990-96 South Africa 0.4 na 1.2Nigeria 0.1 na 0.1Source: UNDP, Human Development Reports, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999. Note: na = not available.

41

Table 7. Total agricultural research expenditure (millions of 1985 PPP Dollars). Country 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Kenya 22.364 23.387 24.341 25.914 25.68 31.625 35.533 35.943 40.914 41.731 49.689South Africa 74.911 82.23 84.336 94.681 104.39 110.619 111.447 116.799 117.954 127.729 140.474Swaziland 1.052 1.239 1.441 1.657 1.889 2.139 2.611 2.372 2.135 1.898 2.867Lesotho 0.248 0.372 0.495 0.619 0.743 0.743 0.954 1.171 1.392 1.62 1.852Malawi 8.113 8.623 9.081 9.542 10.512 10.666 14.442 18.224 18.258 17.879 17.359Zambia 4.379 4.85 5.453 5.388 7.234 8.936 10.357 10.968 11.331 12.676 17.688Sudan 12.992 13.475 16.998 19.368 19.479 23.793 23.875 24.168 25.981 32.533 34.936Ethiopia 1.9 2.42 2.68 3.3 3.858 4.75 6.359 10.337 8.723 9.087 9.194Nigeria 42.151 58.252 59.201 64.828 88.667 87.347 83.379 82.652 86.555 82.661 92.074Ghana 12.152 12.607 13.368 14.484 16.209 16.161 16.598 17.237 18.439 20.001 17.915Zimbabwe 13.609 14.718 15.827 16.936 17.304 20.47 20.588 19.975 20.388 25.197 26.434Cape Verde na na na na na na na na na na na Total 193.871 222.173 233.221 256.717 295.965 317.249 326.143 339.846 352.07 373.012 410.482 Table 7 continued

Country 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982Kenya 59.096 59.838 51.172 53.045 53.051 56.073 65.884 66.427 57.673 62.277 64.44South Africa 128.842 113.932 119.727 130.985 123.798 131.093 131.499 108.607 107.369 140.166 136.092Swaziland 2.66 2.453 2.246 2.039 1.832 2.488 2.866 1.692 1.787 3.526 10.87Lesotho 2.101 2.542 2.485 2.629 2.764 2.89 3.008 3.118 3.375 3.49 3.595Malawi 21.053 20.566 18.435 17.526 18.367 18.179 22.901 20.912 26.464 21.95 23.453Zambia 15.915 14.412 14.203 17.22 18.653 18.333 18.093 17.475 19.358 19.815 24.256Sudan 38.176 38.29 37.643 36.587 36.156 35.503 32.413 29.613 49.402 39.903 37.087Ethiopia 12.231 10.918 13.675 11.998 15.518 15.603 17.26 17.916 18.968 21.141 22.085Nigeria 111.534 132.06 126.266 180.647 209.383 240.957 169.264 164.057 177.753 211.858 188.401Ghana 20.577 21.401 22.08 20.44 21.363 20.887 20.49 17.682 14.34 13.544 11.778Zimbabwe 27.876 29.451 27.829 29.56 29.298 29.796 28.225 28.537 27.976 33.646 32.462Cape Verde na na na na na na na na na na na Total 440.061 445.863 435.761 502.676 530.183 571.802 511.903 476.036 504.465 571.316 554.519

42

Table 7 Continued Country 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992Kenya 66.23 66.237 65.32 67.659 73.527 80.3 80.46 81.781 93.505 naSouth Africa 133.588 149.27 156.851 160.759 153.502 148.915 166.292 155.723 163.927 187.716Swaziland 11.97 10.864 9.571 8.445 8.286 7.165 7.179 5.744 5.885 5.003Lesotho 3.69 3.81 4.166 2.824 2.975 3.35 3.064 2.714 3.123 3.309Malawi 26.575 26.696 21.272 24.72 33.384 27.69 28.623 28.243 27.576 naZambia 23.864 24.747 20.212 18.69 17.866 20.658 20.903 16.947 24.013 15.032Sudan 33.305 31.504 26.69 23.676 37.308 26.487 22.221 23.288 21.463 naEthiopia 21.419 25.263 25.441 32.315 50.002 54.007 48.672 49.339 40.522 naNigeria 154.023 122.686 110.887 109.054 82.171 93.566 80.981 82.154 86.902 81.169Ghana 9.872 12.642 19.584 28.668 34.082 32.53 33.988 36.806 35.388 naZimbabwe 28.774 34.074 35.564 39.813 41.525 41.975 43.196 46.411 43.252 38.608Cape Verde na na 4.876 4.979 3.181 4.863 3.352 3.571 4.648 na Total 513.31 507.793 500.434 521.602 537.809 541.506 538.931 532.721 550.204 330.837Source: International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) Indicator Series Project: Phase II

Note: na = not available

43

Table 8. Number of professionals involved in marine or freshwater research and management. Country Angola 38Cape Verde 6Eritrea 10Ethiopia 6Ghana 14Kenya 141Mozambique 32Namibia 31Nigeria 67Sierra Leone 1South Africa 208Tanzania 112Total 666Source: African Directory of Marine and Fresh Water Professionals, 2001.

44

Table 9. Sources of funding for agricultural research (%). Year Source Kenya Ghana Zambia Sudan South

Africa Lesotho Swaziland Malawi Average

1985 Government na 64.3 na na na na na na 64.3 Sales na 6.8 na na na na na na 6.8 Donor na 28.9 na na na 38.5 na 27.5 31.63

1986 Government 65.1 59.3 21.8 na na na 17.2 na 40.85 Sales 6.2 5.4 na na na na na na 5.8 Donor 19.6 35.3 78.2 na na 25.8 82.8 33.4 45.85

1987 Government na 65.8 15.2 na na na 19.8 na 33.6 Sales na 2.7 na na na na na na 2.7 Donor na 31.5 84.8 na na 26 80.2 64.1 57.32

1988 Government na 70.3 27 na na na 24.8 na 40.7 Sales na 2.6 na na na na na na 2.6 Donor na 27.1 73 na na 24.3 75.2 55.7 51.06

1989 Government 49.7 70.3 18.5 na na na 28 na 41.625 Sales 4.1 2.4 na na na na na na 3.25 Donor 30.1 27.2 81.5 na na 25.1 72 62.5 49.73

1990 Government 48.4 58.4 22 na na 28.8 na 39.4 Sales 5.7 1.6 na na na na na na 3.65 Donor 32.8 40 78 na na 26.1 71.2 43.1 48.53

1991 Government 45.8 62.1 21.1 51.1 na na 78.7 na 51.76 Sales 4.8 2 na na na na na na 3.4

Donor 37 35.9 78.9 48.9 na 22.9 21.3 53.4 42.611992 Government na na 21.5 na 90.4 na 100 na 70.63

Sales na na na na na na na na na Donor na na 78.5 na 0 22.6 na na 33.7

1993 Government na na na na 83.9 na na na 83.91994 Government na na na na 82.6 na na na 82.6

na

Source: International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) Indicator Series Project: Phase II Note: na = not available

45

Table 10. Total number of full-time equivalent agricultural researchers. Country 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971

Kenya 120.8 129.4 136.7 142.7 160 190.9 211.3 217.6 252.1 281.6 325.9South Africa 736.8 751.3 767 782.7 801.3 827.6 688.1 883.5 896.3 921.8 956.8Sudan 48 50 52.1 54.3 56.5 58.7 60.9 71.4 81.8 109.3 125.2Nigeria 136 155.8 158.4 174.7 209.9 235 253.5 278.6 297.4 328 364.4Zambia 25.7 29.5 34.3 33.7 47 57.3 67.3 69.3 70.6 79.9 100.8Swaziland 6 6.6 7.2 7.8 8.4 9.1 11.1 10.2 9.3 8.3 12.4Lesotho 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3 3.8 4.6 5.4 6.2 7Namibia na na na na na na na na na na na Ethiopia 14 18 20 24.6 28.5 35.1 38.7 45.3 59.6 59.3 65.9Ghana 56.6 64.4 74.3 86 110.8 114.5 118.9 125.1 134.6 146.4 131.7Malawi 30.2 32.2 34 35.8 39.5 41.5 51.5 60.9 76.5 82.4 80.8Total 1175.1 1238.7 1286 1344.8 1464.9 1572.7 1505.1 1766.5 1883.6 2023.2 2170.9 Table 10 continued

Country 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982Kenya 377.9 365.9 371 388.7 380.1 392.4 407.4 435.7 430.5 483.6 522.5South Africa 955 943 950.6 961.5 970.8 977 994.9 1040.5 1082.9 1139.7 1168.5Sudan 145.9 166.6 186.5 206.4 226.3 246.5 249.7 253.1 262.2 324 315Nigeria 432.4 473.1 515.4 612.5 749.6 830.3 877.7 924.2 958.7 944.3 1012.3Zambia 120.6 120.3 122.6 137.4 143.6 146.7 143.4 148.2 165.1 174.5 196.9Swaziland 12.6 12.7 12.9 13.1 13.2 13.4 12.9 5.4 3.9 5.4 21.1Lesotho 8.1 10 10 10.8 11.6 12.4 13.2 14 15.8 16.8 17.7Ethiopia 73.6 77 83.9 66.7 67.1 63.5 106.4 111.5 121.1 153 182.2Ghana 150.3 157.9 166 175.5 189 190.6 188.4 186 178.9 180.1 182.6Malawi 91.8 91.3 81.5 88.8 96.2 106.9 115.4 127 120.5 126.2 133.1Total 2368.2 2417.8 2500.4 2661.4 2847.5 2979.7 3109.4 3245.6 3339.6 3547.6 3751.9

46

Table 10 continued Country 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991

Kenya 571.1 605.5 630 673.8 701.1 693.6 728.2 736.9 818.6South Africa 1204.5 1244 1274.5 1268.5 1301 1289.1 1233.7 1313.2 1339.1Sudan 325.2 331.9 338.8 344.2 349.6 353 369 371.8 424.4Nigeria 1070.4 1039.1 980.2 935.4 955.5 946.1 950.6 989.7 1012.8Zambia 223 239.6 250.8 248.6 246.7 252.4 263.7 260.8 267.1Swaziland 21.3 22.4 23.6 25.3 20.6 18.9 20.3 21.8 19.9Lesoptho 18.7 19.7 21.9 24.2 26.8 26 25 25.5 27.5Namibia na na 2 5.3 8.7 18 28 46 59Ethiopia 204.9 228.8 244.7 261.3 319.2 345.9 345.1 363.2 386.8Ghana 198.7 206.9 200.4 211.4 207.8 235.6 255.4 268.6 277.8Cape Verde 20 21.5 23 18 26 27 31 36 na Malawi 146.7 155.9 144.8 145.9 146 152.5 171.2 177.8 184.9Total 4004.5 4115.3 4134.7 4161.9 4309 4358.1 4421.2 4611.3 4817.9Source: International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) Indicator Series Project: Phase II.

Note: na = not available Table 11. Researchers per million inhabitants.

Country 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1991 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997Nigeria 24 23 19 20 15 South Africa 270 324 359 298 349 1031 Uganda 17 19 20 20 21Source: Unesco, Statistical Yearbook. 1999.

47

Table 12. Technicians per million inhabitants. Country 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1991 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Nigeria 140 132 87 78 76 South Africa 164 197 175 138 145 315

Uganda 13 14 16 15 14Source: Unesco, Statistical Yearbook. 1999.

Table 13. Number of technicians per researcher.

Country 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1991 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997Nigeria 5.8 5.9 4.6 4 5.3 South Africa 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 Uganda 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.6Source: Unesco, Statistical Yearbook. 1999.

Table 14. Expenditure for R&D as a percentage of GNP.

Country 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996Nigeria 0.24 0.17 0.12 0.12 0.09 South Africa 0.88 0.93 0.84 0.77 0.93 0.7 Uganda 0.58 0.6 0.66 0.6 0.57Source: Unesco, Statistical Yearbook. 1999. Table 15. Per capita expenditure for R&D (in national currency).

Country Currency 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995Nigeria Naira 2 2 2 2 2 South Africa Rand 27 36 42 54 81 72 Uganda Shilling 887 1267 1553 1660Source: Unesco, Statistical Yearbook. 1999.

48

Table 16. Annual average expenditure for R&D per researcher (in national currency). Country Currency 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1991 1993 1994 1995 1996

Nigeria Naira 77857 60371 58335 53582 75809

South Africa Rand 96919 108316 115889 178894 230217 69750 Uganda Shilling 76003725 83044826 86802293 90327798Source: Unesco, Statistical Yearbook. 1999. Table 17. Cross-domestic expenditure on R&D (in national currency).

Country Currency 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1996Nigeria Naira 86270 South Africa Rand 769439 1077305 1329126 1774447 2786086 2594107 Uganda Shilling 34866530Source: Unesco, Statistical Yearbook. 1999.

49

Table 18. Regional research institutions. Institution Location Activities 1. Arid Lands Information Network

(ALIN) 2. Association for Strengthening

Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA)

3. Ecoregional Program for the Humid

and Subhumid Tropics of Sub-Saharan Africa (EPHTA)

Kenya Uganda Nigeria

- Develops, through research and support, an active information network of community development workers in dry land Africa. - Disseminates information through a publication, “BAOBAB,” published three times a year. - Enhances agricultural productivity in Eastern and Central Africa through regional collaboration in agricultural research. - Formalizes and strengthens close collaboration among national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES), international agricultural research centres (IARCs), international and regional research and development organizations, and relevant stakeholders, for implementing holistic ecoregional research and development activities encompassing benchmark areas, resource management domains, farmer participation in technology development, and innovative technology transfer mechanisms.

50

Institution Location Activities 4. FOODNET 5. Inforeach 6. International Centre for Research in

Agroforestry (ICRAF) 7. International Institute of Tropical

Agriculture (IITA)

Kampala, Uganda South Africa Nairobi, Kenya Ibadan, Nigeria

- Conducts market research and identifies market opportunities. - Conducts postharvest research and implements commercial agro-enterprise activities. - Supports transfer of appropriate technology, skills, and knowledge in the field of agriculture, health and nutrition, water and soil conservation, pest management, and livestock care, using the most effective media available. - Enhances environmental resilience by replenishing soil fertility, conserving the soil, enhancing biological diversity, sequestering carbon and reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. -Conducts research, germplasm conservation, training, and information exchange activities in partnership with regional bodies and national programs including universities, NGOs, and the private sector.

51

Institution Location Activities 8. International Livestock Research

Institute (ILRI) 9. Programme for Agricultural

Information Services (PRAIS)

Nairobi, Kenya South Africa

- Produces a wide range of publications (an annual program report, an annual highlights report, external newsletter, proceedings of scientific meetings and expert consultations, manuals, training materials, and administrative documents) to meet the needs of a wide range of audiences, including policymakers, scientific collaborators, extension agents, and end-users. - Promotes the use of information in order to enhance sustainable agriculture and rural development and improving food security in Southern Africa. - Identifies user needs on issues pertaining to the world marketplace (including international trade commodities, legislation, and research) and to identify appropriate sources of information to match these needs, especially publications from countries in the region.

- Enhances the diverse and essential contributions livestock make to smallholder farming.

52

Institution Location Activities 10. Southern African Centre for

Cooperation in Agricultural Research (SACCAR)

Gaborone, Botswana

- Fosters regional integration in agricultural research and training by assuming coordination and catalytic functions and delivering relevant services. - Promotes regional research networking and integration, forging of global partnerships, human capital development, resource mobilization, and information and technology exchange. - Coordinates regional research in natural resource utilization and conservation and establishes mechanisms for integrated research in all food, agriculture, and natural resources (FANR) disciplines. - Information science unit engages in publishing a newsletter distributed free to subscribers; publishes the peer-reviewed Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural Research; distributes free to libraries and affiliated researchers books on subjects of regional interest; disseminates SACCAR publications to interested scientists and libraries.

53

Institution Location Activities 11. International Labour Organization –

Advisory Support, Information Services and Training (ILO-ASIST)

12. International Centre of Insect

Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE)

Nairobi, Kenya Nairobi, Kenya

- Provides advisory support, information services, and training to projects, consultants, policymakers, donors, training institutions, and others involved in the promotion and application of labour-intensive technologies and rural transport. - Provides a technical inquiry service to respond to specific information requests and maintains a network database of contact persons and institutions involved in this area. - Actively gathers, synthesizes, and disseminates relevant published and unpublished information on, and related to, labour-based technology and employment. - Prime concerns are research into methods of managing arthropod (insects, ticks, mites, etc.) pests and disease vectors of plants, livestock, and humans. - Supports capacity-building through its Africa regional post-graduate program in insect science (ARPPIS), a collaborative MSc and PhD-level training program conducted in partnership with 20 African universities. - Maintains an active publishing program that includes official documents and reports,

54

Institution Location Activities 13. AFREPREN (African Energy Policy

Research Network) 14. African Centre for Technology

Studies (ACTS)

Nairobi, Kenya Nairobi, Kenya

tertiary-level textbooks, and technical manuals on insect science, scholarly works (especially those by African scientists and academics), and various public relations and promotional material. - Hosts the secretariat of Insect Science and its Application, the international journal of tropical insect science. - Main objective is to strengthen local research capacity and harness it in the service of energy policy-making and planning. - Research program investigates renewables and energy for rural development, energy services for the urban poor, energy sector reform, and special studies of strategic significance for energy sector development in Eastern and Southern Africa. - Research findings are disseminated through major publications, working papers, newsletters, workshops, and seminars, national policy seminars, and its website. Publications are distributed on an exchange basis. - ACTS is an international, intergovernmental policy research and training organization.

55

Institution Location Activities 15. Environment Liaison Centre

International (ELCI)

Nairobi, Kenya

- Activities focus on biological diversity, climate change, and desertification. - Contributes to the building of national capacity in public policy analysis in Africa in environment and technology by offering training to government, private sector, and NGO officials, and through providing affiliation and fellowships to researchers. - Undertakes public policy research in international environmental agreements, technological change, industrialization, and the environment, economic reform, and environmental management, and local/community natural resource management systems. - Actively publicizes research results by outreach activities which include publication of books, monographs, and magazines, national and regional seminars and consultations, international conferences, and other forums. - Responsible for projects of the Africa/Europe regions. - Main functions include providing member organizations with mechanisms for the exchange of information concerning activities and experiences of other organizations working on similar issues; carrying out needs assessments and documenting the technical capacity,

56

Institution Location Activities 16. Managing the Environment Locally

in Sub-Saharan Africa (MELISSA)

Pretoria, South Africa

priorities, and aims of local, regional, and global NGOs and community-based organizations; bridging the gap and fostering a bottom-up approach through facilitating information exchange between local organizations and those working at the policy level. - Publishes Ecoforum, an environmental magazine which deals with many aspects of the universal habitat, and some of the threats facing the environment today. - Its goal is to support and facilitate the improvement of the local environment through partnership development and knowledge management. - Collaborates with national governments, academic, and training institutions, nongovernmental and community-based organizations, international support organizations, and the private sector. - Key activities include action learning for knowledge acquisition in partnership with specific local authorities, networking for knowledge dissemination with a range of stakeholders, and building capacity to facilitate knowledge absorption. - Key products and services include advisory services to network members, including technical assistance, a helpline

57

Institution Location Activities 17. Pesticide Action Network Africa

(PAN Africa) 18. Southern Africa Environment

Dakar, Senegal South Africa

and clearing house; partnership facilitation for environmental improvement through participation, policy dialogue, and advocacy; and development of knowledge resources, through the website, staff exchange, thematic working groups, case studies, publications, study tours, training, and databases. - Publications are divided into three main categories: Knowledge Expertise Resource Network (KERN) Proceedings; KERN InfoBrief; KERN Papers. - Informs and sensitizes on hazards and problems related to pesticides used in agriculture and disease vector control; works toward the understanding complex questions and issues related to the indiscriminate use of pesticides; at all levels of society, works toward the consolidation and dissemination of methods, techniques, and adapted local technologies as alternatives to hazardous and expensive chemical pesticides; and promotes protection of the environment and sustainable agriculture based on sound management and development of local resources. - Publishes Pesticides & Alternatives, a newsletter on pesticides news, alternatives to chemicals, integrated pest management,

58

Institution Location Activities Project (SAEP)

19. United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP)

Nairobi, Kenya.

and sustainable agriculture three times a year. - Educational programs include workshops, conferences, and an internship program. - To take advantage of the opportunities provided by digital technology to close existing gaps in information and education, SAEP is involved in instituting a number of environmental education programs involving these technologies, of which the most important is the Southern Africa environment page on the Internet. - Hosts a number of programs and secretariats and operates through regional offices worldwide. - Regional Office for Africa (ROA) is located in Nairobi and its major function is to coordinate UNEP’s program of work in the region. - ROA promotes collaboration and partnerships with organizations active in sustainable development in Africa. - ROA provides a wide range of advisory services using either UNEP staff or consultants through an umbrella project known as Regional Advisory Services (RAS). RAS advises on environmental

59

Institution Location Activities 20. ZERO Regional Environment

Organisation

Harare, Zimbabwe

machinery and technical requirements, reviews project proposals, and recommends action by governments and other organizations. - ROA publishes a quarterly newsletter, ROA News, which reports on developments in the region. The newsletter is distributed free to governments and NGOs. - NGO registered in 1987 to contribute to environment and development solutions in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries. - Undertakes applied research, policy analysis, advocacy, collaboration, and partnerships, and information documentation and dissemination. - Disseminates information in the form of newsletters, technical documents, outreach materials (e.g., T-shirts, caps, posters), and holds workshops and seminars throughout Southern Africa and globally. - Since ZERO’s inception, has published books, working papers, special papers, and reports, energy and sustainable development working/discussion paper series, training manuals, newsletters on energy and environment issues, perspectives on land reform in Southern Africa, and posters on wind energy. These are distributed free or at

60

Institution Location Activities 21. Forestry Research Network for Sub-

Saharan Africa 22. Africa Pulse

Accra, Ghana Johannesburg, South Africa

a minimal cost at exhibitions such as the Zimbabwe International Trade Fair and the Zimbabwe International Book Fair. New publications are distributed to all members of the network at the national and regional levels. - Federation of research institutions from 41 sub-Saharan African countries, who are members of the following three sub-regional forestry research networks: AFREA (the Association of Forestry Research Institutions of Eastern Africa); CORAF-FORET ( the network of the West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development); and SADC-FSTCU (Forest Research, representing research institutions in SADC states). - Goal is to strengthen forestry research in sub-Saharan Africa for greater impact on management, utilization, and conservation of forests and tree resources for sustainable development. - Aims to develop an easy-to-use, Internet-based information service relating to social and economic development in the Southern African region. - Intends to keep development workers and local communities informed and up to date.

61

Institution Location Activities 23. AFRILINE 24. Southern African Non-

Governmental Network (SANGONeT)

25. ODINAFRICA (Ocean Data and

Information Network for Africa)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Johannesburg, South Africa Mombasa, Kenya

- Compiled an extensive, searchable database of human development websites for the region. There are 14 SADC countries to choose from and 12 categories, which include land, agriculture and food, and environment and natural resources. - Aims to put Africa’s emerging IT-literate society in the driver’s seat of an African vehicle on the information superhighway. The AFRILINE eBulletin is a twice monthly electronic newsletter with news and information promoting African civil society organizations and networks, and disseminating information of use to African organizations. - A facilitator in the effective and empowering use of ICT tools by development and social justice actors in Africa. - Kabissa-Fahamu-Sangonet Newsletter provides a vehicle to publicize their work, events, publications, and concerns, and is open to any organization committed to the goal of social justice. - Project involves 20 African countries

62

Institution Location Activities

working together toward establishing a network of ocean data and information centres providing services and products for decision makers, researchers, students, the private sector, and the general public. - Website seeks to provide information about the project as well as access to a wide range of ocean-related data and information services; endeavours to be a one-stop-shop for information about oceanography in Africa. - Activities of the ODINAFRICA project office include: i) AFRILib – goal is to make library materials in each region accessible locally through the creation of a collective catalogue of cooperating institutes’ library holdings within the region. The catalogue (AFRILib) is available on the ODINAFRICA website. ii) AFRIPub – publicizes articles published by experts from the region by making them available in a database on the website (AFRIPub), as well as ensuring they are entered in the Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts (ASFA). iii) AFRICurrent – the project subscribes to a number of periodicals. Table of Contents are circulated to cooperating institutes and is posted on the ODINAFRICA website. iv) AFRIDir – to facilitate communication, the project has developed a database of

63

Institution Location Activities 26. African Medical and Research

Foundation (AMREF) 27. African Development Forum ’99

(ADF)

Nairobi, Kenya Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

information on marine scientists in Africa. v) WINDOW – the project’s newsletter is published two to four times a year. vi) Document delivery – scientists from the region are able to access literature not available in their institutions using the document delivery service provided by ODINAFRICA. - AMREF implements health development programs in nine countries in East and Southern Africa and provides training, consulting, and appropriate health education, and promotion materials throughout the continent. - Activities include international training program, capacity-building for Ministry of Health personnel and NGO staff, private sector health initiatives, operational research programs, publications program, and AMREF flying doctors outreach services. - Aim is to present key stakeholders in African development (governments, civil society, the private sector, researchers and academics, intergovernmental organizations, and donors) with the results of current research and opinion on key development issues in order to formulate shared goals and priorities, draft action programs, and define

64

Institution Location Activities the environment that will enable African countries to implement these programs.

Nairobi, Kenya

Dakar, Senegal

28. African Economic Research

Consortium (AERC) 29. Council for Development of Social

Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA)

The Forum meets annually on a different development issue. - Role is to support locally based researchers in their efforts to conduct economic research, to promote retention of such capacity, and to encourage its application in the relevant policy context. - Networking is the key strategic instrument for implementing AERC’s activities. Individual researchers in the region are networked, and supported by resource persons. - Its constituencies are African research institutes, social science faculties of African universities, as well as professional organizations. - Principal objectives are to facilitate research, promote research-based publishing, and create multiple forums geared toward the exchange of views and information among African researchers. - Research results are disseminated through a range of publications such as Africa Development, CODESRIA Bulletin, and several monograph series. - Collaborates with, and supports other regional and subregional research

65

Institution Location Activities organizations.

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Table 19. University research in sciences. Area Research activity Users Physics

Mathematics

Experimental Condensed Matter Physics Electronics and Instrumentation

Theoretical Physics Applied Nuclear and Radiation Physics

Group Screening Designs

Spatial Distribution of Agricultural Pests. Stochastic Models for Educational and Manpower Planning

Coding and Analysis of Entropy for African Languages. Operator Theory.

Econometric and Time Series Modelling. Random Search Models

Computational Fluid Dynamics Applied Regression and Response Surface Designs

Applied Dynamical Systems Stochastic Models for Studying the AIDS Epidemic

Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)

Laser Physics

Geophysics

Mathematical Models for Vector and Pest Control Studies

Wind Energy Analysis.

Sasakian Manifolds

Asymmetric Factorial Designs

Differential Geometry and General Relativity

Parametric Survival Frailty Models

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Agriculture

History and Philosophy of Mathematics/Statistics

Plant Genetic Resources

Order Statistics and Robust Estimation

Land Tenure Reforms and Conflict (prevention) in the Arid and Semi-arid Lands.

Community Health

Multicentre Study on Factors Determining the Differential Spread of HIV Infection in African Towns Socio-economic Indicators of Land Degradation Assessment and Response of Reproductive Health Needs of the Youth Health Care Delivery Health Policy Research and Training Water Supply and Sanitation Quality Management in Health Institutions Use of Insecticide Treated Eave Curtains for Malaria Control at Community Level

Farmers Research Institutes

National Plant Genetic Resources Programs

Universities

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