research-based best practices
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LiteracyRecommendation How to Implement
Provide explicit vocabularyinstruction (What WorksClearinghouse)
Dedicate a portion of regularclassroom lessons to explicitvocabulary instruction
Provide repeated exposure to newwords in multiple contexts (Xin andReith, 2001)
o Example : exposing themto vocabulary/conceptsusing films, music, visuals,varied texts, writing, etc.
Provide students with strategies tomake them independent vocabularylearners
o Example 1 : Mnemonic
Keyword Method, whichinvolves student firstlearning a concrete wordthat sounds like the targetword, and then creating animage linking the targetwork to its definition. Forexample, for angler, akeyword could be angeland the interactive imagecould be an angelcatching a fish.
o Example 2 : Teaching
students how to usecontext cues to infermeaning of challengingvocabulary (Gee, 1995, p.5)
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o Example 3 : Giving
students an opportunity topick up on and usevocabulary as bothlisteners and learners
during discussion-basedactivities
Provide direct and explicitcomprehension strategyinstruction
Show students howto apply thestrategies they are learning todifferent texts
o Examples : summarizing,
asking and answeringquestions, paraphrasing,finding the main idea,combining textualinformation and
background knowledge todraw inferences, andthinking about the types ofquestions they are beingasked to answer
Make sure that the text isappropriate for the reading level ofstudents
Do think-a-louds while teaching
students new strategies
Increase or decrease the amount oftime allotted for guided practicedepending on the difficulty of thestrategies that students are learning
Provide opportunities for extendeddiscussion of text meaning andinterpretation (What WorksClearinghouse)
Select engaging materials anddevelop stimulating questions(avoided closed questions)
Ask follow-up questions that helpprovide continuity and extend thediscussion
Provide a task or discussion formatthat students can follow when theydiscuss text in small groups
Example :
Recommendation continued... How to Implement continued...
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Assign students to read selectionstogether and practice using thecomprehension strategies that havebeen taught and demonstrated. ingroups, students can take turns
playing various roles, such asleading the discussion, predictingwhat the section might be about,identifying words that are confusing,and summarizing. Meanwhile, otherstudents can then respond withother predictions, other things thatare confusing, or different ways ofsummarizing the main idea.
During activity, the teacher shouldactively circulate among the groupsto redirect discussions that havegone astray, model thinkingstrategies, or ask studentsadditional questions to probe themeaning of the text at deeperlevels.
Develop and practice the use of aspecific discussion protocol
o Example : Set ground rules
for discussion
Phonemic awareness Teach students how to manipulatephonemes using letters
Teach students to convert lettersinto sounds and then blend the
sounds to form recognizable words,and then analyze and blend largersubparts of words and phonemes.
Most effective phonemic awarenessprograms involve teaching wordrecognition skills for 1.5 hours aweek for more than 8 weeks.
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Differentiating reading materials(Swanborn & de Glopper, 2002)
Match reading level of assignedtexts to students reading levels toincrease comprehension
Provide intensive, systematicinstruction on up to threefoundational reading skills in smallgroups (or to students who scorebelow the benchmark on universalscreening)What WorksClearinghouse site
Have students meet between 3-5times a week, for 20-40 min
Recommended one-on-oneintervention: Reading RecoveryProgram
Provide Feedback on Writing Pairing students or holding student-teacher conferences to facilitateexchange of constructive feedbackregarding writing process
Using rubrics that are wellunderstood by all students so thatconstructive feedback is even moremeaningful/focused
Teach skills through reciprocalteaching method
Support student mastery of skillsthrough modeling strategies beforeallowing them time to practice andthen engaging in a dialogue with
students as you work collaborativelyto gain meaning from text.
Use images to supportcomprehension (Levie and Lentz,1982, p. 206)
Incorporate visuals (especiallyanimations) to reinforce points
Have students examine directlyrelevant pictures while reading orinclude them in text
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Special EducationRecommendation How to Implement
Combine direct instruction andcognitive strategyinstruction (Swanson
et al., 1999, p.218; Swanson, 2000;Forness and Kavale, 1985)
Recommended direction instructiontechniques:
o Drill-repetition-practiceo Segmenting information into
parts or units for latersynthesis, controlling taskdifficulty through prompts(scaffolding)
o Directing students to ask
questions/Socratic teachingo Using technology
o Making use of small
interactive groupso Providing students with
extended practice
Recommended cognitivestrategies toteach:
o Literacy: word recognition,
decoding, letter awarenesso Cross-content: planning, self-
questioning, drawinginferences, thematic
understanding, verbalrehearsal (repeatingsomething aloud tothemselves)
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Mathematics
Recommendation How to ImplementUse data-driven mastery framework toinform instruction
Establish benchmarks based on thecritical foundations for algebra tosystematically gain mastery of keytopics.
Regularly use formative assessmentsto target and differentiate instruction.
Use a combination of instructional
methods for students experiencingmathematical difficulties, includingexplicit instruction, multiplerepresentations, and additionalmaterials.
Differentiate instruction formathematically gifted students (bylevel, complexity, breadth, and depth)and ensure that its developmentallyappropriate and taught at an
accelerated rate.
Interlacing modeling with work time Teaching problem, then allowingstudents to work on problem thatassesses mastery, and then repeatingprocess again.
Maintain high expectations forperformance
Monitoring and evaluation (Hattie, 2009) Get students to think about nature andquality of their work
Encourage students to testmathematical ideas and discoverymathematical principles
Explicitly teaching students problem-solving strategies/approaches
Example: Teaching ways to solveproblems using the following heuristic
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(Mellinger, 1991) methodso Understand the problem
o Obtain a plan of the solution
o Carry out the plan
o Examine the solution
obtained to determine thesolution
Use comprehensive instructionalapproach that helps students developconceptual understanding,computational fluency, and problem-solving skills (Doing What Works website)
Simultaneously develop studentsconceptual understanding, proceduralfluency, and problem-solving skills
Provide adequate practiceopportunities to develop fluency witharithmetic facts and standardalgorithms
Encourage students to apply effort,and to persist in developingconceptual understanding,computational fluency, learning offacts, and solving problems.
Teach major topics in algebra that arerecommended by the NationalMathematics Advisory Panel (DoingWhat Works site)
Build understanding of major algebratopics and connections: symbols andexpressions, linear and quadraticequations, functions, algebra of
polynomials, combinatorics and finiteprobability.
Develop students' proficiency insolving problems, which includesproblem formulation, problemtranslation, transformation ofequations, and explanation of thesteps in problem solving.
Enhance teacher understanding of thetopics of algebra, the links amongthose topics, and how to teach thosetopics, including strategies foraddressing student misconceptions inlearning algebra
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Encourage Girls to Pursue Mathematicsand Sciences (Doing What Works site)
Teach students that science andmathematical intelligence is malleable(can be increased with practice)
o Teach students that the brain
grows when new material is
learnedo Remind students that the
mind grows stronger withuse; over time and withcontinued effort,understanding may geteasier
o Encourage students to keep
seeking challenges to furtherdevelop their brainconnections
Provide prescriptive, informationalfeedback on strategies and effort
o Provide students with
feedback on learningstrategies
o Praise effort, not ability
o Avoid using general praise,
such as good jobo Offer multiple opportunities
for students to receive
feedback on theirperformance
Show students female role models tocounter gender stereotypes
o Assign biographical readings
o Highlight achievements of
women in the newso Talk about the number of
women who receive degreesin math and science relateddisciplines
o Introduce students to
mentoring programs
Spark curiosity and foster long-terminterest in math and science
o Embed mathematics and
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sciences in contexts that areinteresting, especially to girls(e.g., for middle schoolchildren and older, usingreal-world problemssuch
as figuring out how to buildan effective skateboard rampgiven a limited budgetcanbe motivating and supportlearning)
o Capitalize on novelty:
Project-based learning,group work, innovating tasks,and technology to sparkinitial interest
o Encourage students to
examine their beliefs aboutwhich careers are typicallyfemale-oriented and whichare typically male-oriented
Teach students spatial skills such ashow to visualize and manipulate formsand shapes
o Encourage young girls to
play with building toyso Encourage older girls to use
spatial information whensolving math and scienceproblems
o Require answers that use
both words and spatialdisplays
o Provide specific training in
spatial skills (e.g., use step-by-step instruction thatdevelops skills in mentalrotation of images, spatial
perspectives, and embeddedfigures).
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Cross-Content PracticesRecommendation How to Implement
Use Problem-Based Learning toincrease recall (Gijbels, 2005)
Student-centered learning
Learning occurs in small groups
A tutor is present as facilitator or guide
Authentic problems are presented atthe beginning of the learning sequence
The problems encountered are usedas tools to achieve the requiredknowledge and the problem solvingskills necessary to eventually solve theproblem
New information is acquired throughself-directed learning
Practice the Five Cs During One-on-One Instruction
Foster a sense ofcontrolin the student
Appropriately challenge the student
Instill confidence in studento Maximize success
(expressing confidence in thestudent, assuring student
that theyre solving difficultproblems)o Minimize failure (provide
excuses for mistakes andemphasize part of problemthat student got right)
Fostercuriosity
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Use Socratic methods via leadingo Questions
o Link problem to real-world
problems or those seen in
another context
Contextualize the problem
Place problem in real-world context orfrom a movie/TV show
Alternate worked examples withproblem-solving practice
Develop homework sets that askstudents to alternate between readingalready worked solutions and solvingproblems on their own.
Have teachers conduct thinkalouds inwhich they explain their thinking
Process as they complete problems
Plan for professional development toidentify the characteristics of a goodexample
Consider incorporating online tutorialsthat assist students
Avoid dumbing down material forstruggling students (Lepper, )
Instead, present material in a differentway or context
Ask leading/higher-order questions andthen ask them to justify their responses(Doing What Works site)
Study your discipline to betterunderstand how scientists, historians,mathematicians, and those who studyliterature ask questions and provideexplanations.
Encourage students to dig deeper byasking them to explain their thinking inspeaking and writing.
Create a classroom culture thatencourages students to take academicrisks and share ideas with the class.
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(e.g., allow sufficient wait time forresponses, provide sentence startersto scaffold explanations, create normsand structures for respectful dialogue)
Provide teachers with professionaldevelopment about how to makequestion-asking and explanation-generating a natural part of theclassroom environment.
Build positive relationships withstudents(Batten & Girling-Butcher,1981; Cornelius-White, 2007, p.123)
Respect child for what he/she brings tothe classroom
Show genuine interest in studentslives/hobbies outside of school
Demonstrate ability to see theirperspective and then give themrelevant feedback that allows them to
Encourage them self-assess as well asto understand others and the contentwith the same interest and concern
Teaching strategies via directinstruction
Teach students test strategies directly
Explain the how, when, where, andwhyof these strategies use.
Assess students more frequently withsmaller tests/quizzes
Make sure to accompany frequentquiz/test-giving with appropriatefeedback
Emphasize student progress over theirabilities when collaborating with othercolleagues as well as when engagingwith students (Hattie, 2009)
Avoid praising students for beingsmart or advanced, especially Infront of other students
Recognize that boredom is often a signthat tasks are too easy or difficult(Steinberg, Brown and Dornbusch,1997, p.63)
Differentiate so that youreappropriately challenging students
Connect abstract and concreterepresentations of concepts (DoingWhat Works site)
Identify the challenging concepts inyour discipline and how you might
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demonstrate these concepts inconcrete contexts.
Use graphic representations withverbal descriptions that illustrate key
processes and procedures.
Help students understand the benefitsand limitations of concreterepresentations.
Provide teachers with professionaldevelopment in creating lessons thatsituate challenging course material inreal-world problem scenarios.
Teach students that intelligence is
malleable (Nesbitt, 2009)
Tell them research shows that if they
try harder they will eventually improve
Avoid praising students for theirintelligence
Creating Learning-CenteredEnvironments (National EducationAssociation)
Create flexible room arrangements(e.g., desks are clustered to maximizeface-to-face interaction)
Vary social forums (e.g., set-upsranging from whole class to small-
group instruction) depending on thelearning goal
Encourage students to use multipleinformation resources and make theseresources readily available (e.g.,peers, teachers, outside experts, theInternet, primary source documents,and supplemental resources obtainedat the library)
Encourage students to not only takeresponsibility for their own learning butto support and monitor the learning oftheir peers
Share responsibility of assessmentwith students
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o Student self-assessment
(e.g., through pre-testsurveys)
o Peer assessment (e.g., per
editing of essays or
assignments)
Establish clear implementation andevaluation intentions (Elliot and Dweck,1988)
Effectively communicate to studentshow you expect to help them learn thedays objective as well as how theyll
be responsible for showing you thattheyve mastered it
Set appropriately challenging goals(Latham and Locke, 2006)
Avoid do your best goals
Goals that are too challenging arecounterproductive.
Do not punish students for failing tomeet academic goals; doing sodiscourages risk taking
Provide appropriate feedback tostudents that promotes self-efficacy/agency
Focus feedback on theproduct:o Example : You need to
include more about theTreaty of Versailles in youranswer to receive full credit
Focus feedback onprocess that leadsto higher achievement:
o Example : You already know
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the key features of theopening of an argument.Check to see whether youhave incorporated them inyour first paragraph
Provide students with spaced overmassed practice (Doing What Workssite)
Use quizzes and fun games forretrieval practice to reduce forgetting
Teach students how to test and assesstheir own knowledge and focus onstudy strategies accordingly
Use technology to provide quick-response to quizzes
Plan for important content to berevisited and reviewed over time
Provide common planning time forteachers to revise grading systemsthat capture review and studentsmastery of skills over time than astudents performance on a singleassessment
Encourage visualization of achievement
(Feltz and Landers, 1983)
Encourage students to visualize
themselves concentrating or beingengaged
Encourage peer tutoring Pair higher-performing with lower-performing students for maximumresults
Cooperation is superior to competitionin promoting achievement (Johnson,Maruyama, Johnson, Nelson, and Skon,1981)
Design structured activities with highlydetailed directions to promotecollaboration between students
Purposefully using computers Use diversity of strategies whenteaching with computers
Undergo pre-training in the use ofcomputers as a teaching and learningtool (minimum of 10 quality hours)
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Design student-centeredcomputerlearning activities
Pair students up into heterogeneousgroups during computer activities;
make sure to encourage students towork together to use appropriatelearning strategies and provide highlydetailed instructions for group work(Lou, Abrami, and dApollonia, 2001)
Teaching through backwards design(van Gog, Ericcson, Rikers, & Paas,2005; Wiggins and McTighe, 2005)
Start by crafting test/desired resultsand then units/plan lessons to ensurethat students work toward masteringthe assessed standards/objectives
Teacher Characteristics MostAssociated with Student Achievement
Recommendation How to Implement
Open to feedback from students as towhat they know and understand, wherethey make errors, when they havemisconceptions, when they are not
engaged (Marsh, 2007; Irving, 2004)
Administer surveys that ask studentsto rate your clarity of instruction,degree of responsiveness to studentslearning needs, what they do/dont like
about the class, etc.
Critically Reflective (Popper, 1963) Excellent teachers are students of theirown effects
They seek evidence as to why theirteaching maynothave beensuccessful
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Exhibit good knowledge, empathy, andverbal ability (Hattie, 2009)
Welcomed and were open to learningfrom classroom observations by otherteachers/administrators
Less likely to give positive feedback Instead, empower students to evaluatetheir own work
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School-Wide Characteristics Associated with AchievementRecommendation How to Implement
High levels of trust between educatorsand administrators alike (Schneider,
2002)Schools in which educators andadministrators alike collaborate aroundstudent achievement data to drivedecisions about how to maximizeteacher efficacy and studentachievement (Hattie, et al., 2007)
Provide incentives for teachers whosestudents get results on standardizedtests (e.g., bonuses)
Offer students intellectually stimulating
after-school and summertime activities(Nesbitt, 2009)
Recommendations for Turning SchoolsAround from the US Dept of EdsDoing What Works Web site:
Principals must signal change by doingany of the following:
o Communicating a clear
purpose to school staffo Creating high expectations,
o Sharing leadership
o Demonstrating a willingness
too Make changes him or herself
o Identifying advocates on staff
o Building consensus
o Eliminating distractions
o Establishing a cohesive
culture.Example: To signal change andto develop targeted goals for theschool, one principal analyzeddifferent types of data, such asdata on student achievement,
discipline, class size, staffing,and use of instructional time,and involved the staff in aprocess to clearly identify whatwas or was not working. Theyidentified discipline as a problemand so they adjusted theschedule to reduce time
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students spent in the hallwayswhere many of the disciplineproblems had occurred.
Improve the quality of instruction
(Doing What Works site)o Examine school-level data to
identify areas of schoolweakness
o Examine student-level data
to inform interventions, groupoutreach, differentiateinstruction
o Have staff work together to
review the curriculum foralignment with state and
local standards to ensure allstandards are beingadequately addressed ininstruction.
o Track progress and make
adjustments.o Focus professional
development on areas ofgreatest need
Make visible improvements early in the
school turnaround process (DoingWhat Works site)
o Pick a viable and important
goal that can lead to visibleimprovement: the use oftime, classroom resources,student discipline, andbuilding improvements
o Pick an efficient plan of
implementation thatminimizes the principals
reliance on others andfinancial dependence
o Consider goals that have
worked in other turnaroundschools: adjusting theschedule to improve thefunctioning of the school;provide time for academic
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support; give teachersadditional time to collaborate;improve access toinstructional materials andbasic supplies for teachers;
improve appearance offacilities through painting,changing displays, andcleaning
Build a committed staff (Doing WhatWorks Site)
Recruit new staff
Evaluate the strengths and
weaknesses of the staff.o Redeploy staff
o If staff members have
valuable skills but are noteffective in their current role,consider other roles for them
Replace teachers who actively resistthe change
Implement Drop-Out Prevention
Programs (What Works Clearinghouse)
Assign adult advocates to students at
risk of dropping outo Adults should have an
appropriate background andlow caseloads and beappropriately matched withstudents
o Provide students at risk of
dropping out with academicsupport and enrichment toimprove academicperformance
Personalize the learning environmentand instructional process
Provide rigorous and relevantinstruction to better engage students inlearning and provide the skills needed
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to graduate and to serve them afterthey leave school (e.g., introducingstudents to postsecondary options)
Provides professional development
sessions that meet the followingcriteria (Professional Community andProfessional Development brief on theNEAs Web site
Focuses on the instructional triangle:
pedagogical content knowledge;student thinking, learning, andassessment (and facilitatingstrengthening of this norm throughevidence-based discussions);understanding and responding tostudent diversity (giving teachers waysto promote identity-safe classroomenvironments)
Strategies have characteristics
associated with effectiveness:collective participation, active learning,coherence (linking PD sessions witheach other and regular activation ofprior teacher knowledge), sustainedduration.
Working conditions are conducive toprofessional learning (sufficientplanning and collaborative time,materials, and access to colleagues)
Develops teacher professionalcommunity that is characterized by thefollowing elements
o Shared values and purposes
o Collective focus on and
responsibility for studentlearning
o Collaborative and
coordinated efforts toimprove student learning
o Practices that supportteacher learning: inquiry,problem solving, and advice-giving
o Collective control over
important decisions affectingcurriculum
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Maintains workplace conditions that areconducive to learning
Appropriate teaching assignments; fairand manageable teaching load andclass size
Ongoing collaboration between
teachers
Ongoing observation of, interactionwith, and advice from experiencedcolleagues
Collective teacher responsibility forstudent achievement, comprehensivestudent support services, school-family-community partnerships
Complete aligned curriculum that canbe used flexibly
Sufficient resources and materials;teacher stipends for extras
Coherent, job-embedded assistancethat meets individual teachersinstructional needs
Increasing opportunities for career
growth (e.g., expanding roles inprofessional development, curriculumwriting, and mentoring)
Principal that actively brokersworkplace conditions; encouragesteacher interdependence andcollective work
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o Perceptual motor programs
o Team teaching/co-teaching
o Using technology in math classes
o Character-building interventions
o Homework in which there is no active involvement by the teacher
(e.g., no effort made to review homework material in class)
o Social skill interventions
o Providing extrinsic incentives (especially those that foster inter-
student competition)verbal rewards better than tangible ones
o Praising the student (e.g., You are a great student! or Good job!)
o Giving students longer tests with long interludes in between
o Teacher education programs (Qu and Becker, 2003)
o Emphasizing learning styles
o Simply providing teachers with technology, and giving them no
preparation as to how to use these resources (Kulik, 1994)
o Subject matter knowledge (has diminishing returns beyond certain
base level of competency) Hattie, 2009
o Professional development sessions whose organizers evaluate the
success of the workshops/trainings on the extent to which teachersreport that they have changed (Wade, 1985)
Recommendation 1 : organizers of professional development shouldfocus on whether or not the diffusion of their practices andknowledge leads to student gains in achievement
Recommendation 2 : gear professional development aroundproviding feedback about classroom observations by otherteachers/administrators
Recommendation 3 : provide opportunities for teachers to processnew information, incorporate into instruction, reflect, and then shareout during follow-up collaborative sessions
o Professional development sessions whose organizers evaluate the
Practices with Minimal-to-Low Association with Achievement
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success of the workshops/trainings on the extent to which teachersreport that they have changed (Wade, 1985)
Recommendation 1 : organizers of professional development shouldfocus on whether or not the diffusion of their practices andknowledge leads to student gains in achievement
Recommendation 2 : gear professional development aroundproviding feedback about classroom observations by otherteachers/administrators
Recommendation 3 : provide opportunities for teachers to processnew information, incorporate into instruction, reflect, and then shareout during follow-up collaborative sessions
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Practices with Negative Effects on Achievement
Demotivation caused by public humiliation, devastating test results, orconflicts with teachers or peers
Teaching through computer-based activities without at least 10 hours ofquality pre-training
Schools that do not attend to student outcomes as much as the work andstructural conditions of teaching and learning (e.g., making sure everystudent has a computer but not ensuring that teachers are prepared to teachstudents how to learn through computer use)Hanushek, 1997, p.305
Schools that provide an incentive structure that does not reward educatorsfor promoting student achievement (Haunushek, 1997, p.305)
o Example : Schools that encourage teachers to measure success more in
terms of satisfaction they receive from doing a good job and the approvalor disapproval they receive from administrators as opposed to drawingsatisfaction from promoting student achievement