research article a comparison of maceral and...

Research ArticleA Comparison of Maceral and Microlithotype Indices forInterpretation of Coals in the Samarinda Area Lower KutaiBasin Indonesia

Chaw Thuzar Win12 Donatus Hendra Amijaya1 Sugeng Sapto Surjono1

Salahuddin Husein1 and Koichiro Watanabe3

1 Department of Geological Engineering Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta Indonesia2 Department of Geology East Yangon University Yangon Myanmar3Department of Earth Resources Engineering Kyushu University Fukuoka Japan

Correspondence should be addressed to ChawThuzar Win chawchawgeolgmailcom

Received 21 April 2014 Revised 11 July 2014 Accepted 1 August 2014 Published 31 August 2014

Academic Editor Thierry Sempere

Copyright copy 2014 ChawThuzar Win et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

Strata of the Middle Miocene Balikpapan Formation from the Lower Kutai basin are well exposed in a section near the Samarindacity East Kalimantan Indonesia The succession is characterized by thick sandstone bodies alternating with shales and coalbeds A 250m thick composite section of exposed sediments (not including the soil interval) was measured from which 25 coalsamples were collected Petrographic microlithotype and maceral analyses were performed in order to determine the depositionalenvironment of the Samarinda coals In order to assess the development of paleomires coal facies diagrams were obtainedfrom microlithotype and maceral composition According to the organic petrologic results the Samarinda coals represent ahighly degraded humodetrinite-rich group deposited from terrestrial into telmatic condition of peat formation with vegetationcharacteristics of highly degraded woody forest type evolved under alternate oxic to anoxic moor conditions These formed withintermittent moderate to high flooding as the paleopeat environment shifted from mesotrophic to ombrotrophic

1 Introduction

The Kutai basin is the largest Tertiary basin in WesternIndonesia Deltaic sedimentation has been continuous inthe Kutai basin from Late Oligocene to the present day asrepresented by the modern Mahakam delta and upstreamin the continent [1] There is a structural deepening offormations in the basin to the east to the Mahakam areawhere hydrocarbon fields are situated (Figure 1)

A composite log of 250m (not including the soil interval)of exposed sediments of the Balikpapan formation was madeon August 6 to 13 2012 The sediments and coal wereexamined at 10 sites and the locations of which within thestudy area are shown in (Figure 1) This section has beenpreviously investigated by Cibaj 2010 and Cibaj et al 2007[1 2] They showed Middle Miocene Seravallian age (NN5to NN11 nanoplankton zones) The purpose of the present

study is to assess the organic petrology and the interpretationof coal facies and depositional environment of coals of theSamarinda area Lower Kutai basin Indonesia

In the study of coals maceral analysis andmicrolithotypeanalysis are used to assess the environment of depositionwhen paleobotanical data are scarce or absent This imple-mentation of maceral ratios such as the Vegetation Indexand Ground water Index tried to overcome this hurdlebut this approach has not been well correlated through thestudy of highly degraded younger tropical coal with highhumodetrinite What does the petrographic compositionof these younger tropical coals convey to us A simplemodification of GWI-VI diagram of Calder et al 1991 [3] andpoor correlation of interpretation of coal depositionalmilieusof peat formation based onmicrolithotype composition aloneare illustrated in this paper

Hindawi Publishing CorporationAdvances in GeologyVolume 2014 Article ID 571895 17 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014571895

2 Advances in Geology

Pre-tertiary basement

Kutai basin Mahakamdelta

Study area

Study interval

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Conglomerate and sandstoneCoarse-to-medium-grained sandstone with trough cross-beddingFine-grained sandstoneClaystoneCoal

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Trough cross-bedding in Gravelly sandstone

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Figure 1 (a) Location and regional geology of the studied area and (b) summary outcrop log and coal bearing interval of the studied interval

In this study the recommended definition of Gore1983 [4] and Moore 1987 [5] is followed for the termswhich are used in the wetland ecosystem The most fun-damental distinction of mire type is based on hydrol-ogy specially the source of water and ions Rheotrophicmires receive recharge from both groundwater and rainfallwhereas ombrotrophic mires are solely rain-fed The termminerotrophic which refers to a mineral-rich ground watersource is loosely analogous to rheotrophic An intermediateclassification of mesotrophic applies to mires tending towardombrotrophic conditions Ombrotrophic mires are termedbogs rheotrophic mires can be subdivided into fen or bogfen and swamp are further defined on the basis of vegetationLimnic is a condition of peat formation occurring on orin deep water by free-floating or deeply rooted plants andtelmatic is a process of peat formation at the water tabledue to plants growing under conditions of periodic floodingwhereas terrestrial means peat formation above the generalwater table

2 Regional Geology and Coals ofthe Kutai Basin

The Early Paleogene rifting along the margins of Sundalandwhich is a back arc setting of the Indian Ocean plate resultedin a number of shallow basins [6 7] Friederich et al 1999[8] have worked out in detail the coal bearing sequencesof Indonesia Eastern Kalimantan is one of the major coalbasins in Indonesia having economic coal deposits wherethe thickest coal seams are attributed to high stand systemtracts (HST) and transgressive system tracts (TST) whichcontributed to their optimum preservation potential Daviset al 2007 [9]

According to Longley 1997 [10] three major episodes ofpeat formation took place within Tertiary of Indonesia Thefirst episode took place during Early-to-Middle Eocene Thisresulted in the rifting in Java Kalimantan and Sulawesi Thesecond episode began in the Late Oligocene in Sumatra andJava This episode was associated with thermal subsidence

Advances in Geology 3

and transgression The third episode occurred during globalhigh stand ofMiddleMiocene and extended by LateMioceneto Pleistocene times over the whole region This episode ismarked by the development of major prograding deltas allalong their margins This can be seen in Kutai basin in theSoutheast Kalimantan (Figure 1)

Coal rank in the Kutai basin is low to moderate rangingfrom lignite to high-volatile bituminous the latter describedas bright and lustrous Vitrinite reflectance of shallow coalfrom coal mining areas is typically 045 to 063 [11] Thisis higher than other Indonesian coal basins In the study areain Samarinda identified reserves of high-volatile bituminousand subbituminous coals from Loa Kulu and Loa Haur are 35million tons but these reserves are in scattered small areasIn the Badak Syncline there are 428 million tons of reservesin 14 seams mostly of subbituminous rank coal [12]

3 Materials and Methods

Rock units of Middle Miocene are well exposed in a sectionnear Samarinda City East Kalimantan IndonesiaThis strati-graphic section is a part of the Samarinda Anticlinorium andlocated between Separi Anticline and Prangat Thrust Theoutcrops constituting the section are currently easily accessi-ble and are situated close to themain road to Samarinda nearand around the new stadium built in 2007 There are aboutnineteen coal seams in this log and coal samples were col-lected from all coal bearing intervals of the surface exposuresand represent all seams from the base to the top of the sectionThe macroscopic appearance of the coal was determinedusing the lithotype classification system from Diessel 1992[13] From each exposed locations of the Samarinda areaabout 2 kg of coal samples were collectedThey were crushedto reduce in quantity to prepare composite samples Thesesamples were then subjected to petrographic analyses Thesamples were crushed to minus20 mesh size and were embeddedin a plastic mold (diameter 3 cm) using epoxy resin asan embedding medium After hardening the samples wereground and polished for petrographic analysis The samplepreparation andmicroscopic examination generally followedthe procedures described by Taylor et al 1998 [14]

For the microlithotype analysis more than 200 pointswith a distance of 1mm were counted and the methodologygiven by Stach 1982 [15] was followed

Vitrinite reflectance measurement was performed on aZeiss universal microscope equipped with SF photomulti-plier Thirty readings of random vitrinite reflectance weretaken on each sample at a wavelength of 546 nm Reflectancewas measured on huminite macerals The mean randomvitrinite reflectance values were then calculated using acomputer program

During maceral analysis 500 points with a minimumdistance of 02mm between each point were counted oneach polished sampleThe analysis was conducted in reflectedwhite light and in fluorescence irradiated by blueviolet lightunder oil immersion using a Zeiss Axioplan microscope

Coal rank determination and maceral classification fol-lowed Taylor et al 1998 [14]Mineralmatter was only divided

into two groups pyrite and other minerals since otherminerals such as clay minerals quartz or carbonate wereonly found in very small amounts

4 Results and Discussions

41 Macroscopic Appearance of the Coals (Lithotypes) Thecoal seams in the studied stratigraphic section are generallydipping to the east (amount 30ndash45 degree) Most of the coalseams are predominantly composed of the bright coal andbanded bright coal lithotypes In the vertical section onlythe lower-half part contains dull bands and gradually changesinto banded bright coal and bright coal to the upper partCleats are best developed and most continuous in bright coalbands but are poorly expressed in dull coals The megascopiccharacteristics of coal samples along with their location anddetails of the coal seams are summarized in Table 1

42 Maceral Composition The maceral analysis shows thatalmost all coals are dominated by huminite liptinite andinertinite groupmacerals are less abundantThe total liptinitecontent varies between 0 vol and 287 vol while totalinertinite ranges from 19 vol to 25 vol The huminitecontent however is substantially high and varies between463 vol and 97 vol Minerals are found (0ndash252 vol)most of them are pyrite Table 2 shows the maceral compo-sition of each seam The huminite is dominated by humod-etrinite mainly represented by attrinite with 522 vol to946 vol while densinite occurs in small quantity

Humotelinite is mainly represented by ulminite whiletextinite is absent Humocollinite is however low in concen-tration and constitutes corpohuminite In general huminiteis present in two forms huminite bands and huminitegroundmass The huminite bands not only are formed byhumotelinite macerals but also in many cases are formed bythick layers of humodetrinite that are interbedded with ulmi-nite layers Humodetrinite is present mostly as groundmasssurrounding liptinite or inertinite particles Humocollinite isdisseminated throughout the coals mostly as corpohuminiteof globular or tabular shape

Though having less concentration of liptinite only onesample (Seam 10) has a high liptinite content 287 vol Thecommon liptinite macerals in the coals are sporinite cutiniteresinite alginite and suberinite Cutinite content is 00 volto 58 vol and sporinite is found only in small amountResinite occurs in 00 vol to 1535 vol

Themaximumcontent of resinite is also found in Seam 10Resinitemacerals in the studied coal appearmostly as isolatedsmall globular bodies but some small resinite layers alsooccur Under fluorescence they have pale-brownish-yellowcolour Occasionally some resinite bodies appear as groupsin distinct layers Resinite macerals are commonly associatedwith humodetrinite and alginites were found only in traceamounts of 04ndash1 vol in some samples Alginite has veryintense yellow fluorescence colour

The suberinite appears as cell wall tissue and shows wellpreserved cortical cells and is characterized by dark colourin reflected light and a greenish to pale yellow in fluorescent


Table 1 Summary showing location andmegascopic characters of coal seams Note seam 1 is the lowermost part of the stratigraphic position

Samplenumber

Measure sectionlocation Basic features of coal sample

Seam 1 From S 0∘35101584097410158401015840E 117∘61015840459510158401015840

toS 0∘351015840480410158401015840E 117∘51015840509410158401015840

Exposed thickness is 15m banded brightcoal

Seam 2 1m dull coalSeam 3 15m banded bright coalSeam 4 15m banded dull coalSeam 5 15m banded dull coalSeam 6

From S 0∘351015840480410158401015840E 117∘51015840509410158401015840

toS 0∘35101584083710158401015840E 117∘71015840166210158401015840

05m bright coalSeam 7 15m bright coalSeam 8 05m bright coalSeam 9 04m bright coalSeam 10 05m bright coalSeam 11 03m dull coalSeam 12

From S 0∘35101584083710158401015840E 117∘71015840166210158401015840

toS 0∘341015840590910158401015840E 117∘71015840322110158401015840

05m bright coalSeam 13 05m banded bright coalSeam 14 05m bright coalSeam 15 05m bright coalSeam 16 05m bright coalSeam 17 1m banded bright coalSeam 18 15m bright coal

Seam 19 S 0∘341015840539710158401015840E 117∘71015840427310158401015840 15m banded bright coal

light Suberinite constitutes 00 vol to 84 vol (mmfbasis) The highest content of suberinite occurs also in Seam10 Inertinite occurs in low concentration and constitutes offusinite semifusinite funginite and inertodetrinite

The cell lumens of fusinite and semifusinite are occa-sionally occupied by argillaceous mineral matter Large sizedfunginites up to 395 120583m have also been observed Mineralsare found (0ndash252 vol) most of them are pyrite Someclay carbonate and quartz are observed as well Fusiniteis predominant whereas semifusinite and inertodetriniteare found in these coals Micrinite and macrinite are rareFusinite occurs in the form of discrete lenses and bands Thecommon fusinite bands have thicknesses from 007mmup tomore than 1mm Inertodetrinite is disseminated throughoutthe coals and comprises usually 00ndash745 vol Funginiteoccurs 10 vol to 113 vol of studied coals This maceralis distributed in almost all the samples usually in the ovalform funginiteThe tubular formof funginite is rarely presentFunginite occurs as single bodies or as colonies Its poresare often filled by pyrite and mineral matter Representativephotomicrographs of maceral of the Samarinda coals areshown in Figures 2 and 3 respectively

43 HuminiteVitrinite Reflectance The vitrinite randomreflectance (VRr) varies from 038 to 048 The detailsof reflectance analysis have been summarized in Table 3Maximum vitrinite reflectance (300 counts on each sample)was measured on ulminite and gave a range of 03 to 05

corresponding to lignite to subbituminous coal in the ASTMcoal classification system

44 Coal Microfacies The petrographic composition of thecoal has been studied in detail in order to obtain amicrofacies classification and to deduce palaeoenvironmentsduring peat deposition The percentages of the three maceralgroups huminite inertinite and liptinite have been plottedin ternary diagrams (mineral-matter-free) for all coal seams(Figure 4) in order to provide the most basic information oncoal deposition

Based on these diagrams most of the coals are withhigh content of huminite and low contents of inertinite andliptinite The percentage of huminite is around 70 vol andgreater than 70 vol mmf and that of inertinite is usuallyaround 10 or less than 10 vol mmf and liptinite is less than25 vol mmf Most of the studied coals fall into this type(Figure 4)

We have another two samples with huminite contentgreater than 75 volmmf liptinite content less than 10 voland an inertinite content between 10 and 30 vol Only twocoal samples from Seam 16 and Seam 18 fall into this category

Only one studied sample from Seam 10 describes coalswith huminite contents lower than 50 vol less than30 vol liptinite and inertinite content between 20 and20 vol

All of those coals are usually characterized by liptinitecontents of less than 25mmf except Seam 10which contains


Hu

Su

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Re

25 120583m

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Re

25 120583m

(h)

Figure 2 Representative photomicrographs of maceral of the Samarinda coals (a) Humodetrinite associated with suberinite in coal (a)reflected white light and (b) fluorescence mode as in (a) Sample 7 (c d) Cutinite associated with humodetrinite (c) in reflected light and (d)fluorescencemode in same view as (c) Sample 7 (e f) Sporinite associated with humodetrinite (e) in reflectant white light and (f) fluorescencemode in same view as (e) Sample 16f (g h) Resinite associated with humodetrinite (g) in reflected white light and (h) in fluorescence modeSample 13 Su suberinite Hu humodetrinite Cu cutinite Sp sporinite and Re resinite


Hu

Al25 120583m

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Hu

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25 120583m

(e)

25 120583m

(f)

25 120583m

(g)

25 120583m

(h)

Figure 3 Representative photomicrographs of maceral of the Samfarinda coals (a b) Alginite associated with humodetrinite (a) in reflectedwhite light and (b) fluorescence mode in same view as (a) Sample 7 (c d) Suberinite associated with humodetrinite in coal (c) reflectedwhite light and (d) in fluorescence mode in same view as (c) Sample 10 (e) Funginite associated with humodetrinite groundmass in coal (f)fluorescence mode in same view as (e) Sample 9 (g) Suberinite associated with humodetrinite groundmass in coal Sample 9 (h) Same as forFigure (g) but in fluorescence mode Hu humodetrinite Al alginite and Su suberinite


Table 2 Petrographic data (maceral) analysis of coal samples from the studied area Ul = ulminite Den = sensinite Cor = corpohuminiteAt = attrinite Sp = sporinite Cu = cutinite Re = resinite Al = alginite Su = suberinite Fu = fusinite Sfu = semifusinite Fun = funginite In= inertodetrinite Py = pyrite and Other = other minerals

Sample Ul Den At Cor Sp Cu Re Al Su Fu Sfu Fun In Py Other1 222 128 392 26 04 08 10 02 12 16 14 14 02 2 42 14 86 436 14 08 30 10 10 1 04 146 1063 42 39 52 9 06 14 16 224 14 9 54 5 06 06 22 08 24 1 116 1145 18 18 644 26 196 14 14 14 02 06 486 1 1 658 26 04 188 48 16 28 08 047 6 04 562 116 34 4 60 08 12 74 04 2 068 06 52 694 26 102 38 14 46 1 129 46 04 560 110 56 84 10 50 08 02 26 04 34 0610 44 06 360 06 28 136 10 74 5 06 100 66 40 7412 06 328 56 26 34 12 24 1013 254 54 524 94 06 44 10 10 0414 16 312 574 26 2 02 24 16 115 04 314 664 02 1616a 96 75 74 26 04 2 06 04 2016b 2 196 504 40 04 06 16 74 14016c 06 44 744 100 06 14 30 06 36 04 04 0616d 946 10 06 08 14 1616e 05 26 784 14 06 30 26 04 64 26 04 1016f 26 06 704 16 20 14 04 91 06 45 55 10 0616g 2 164 394 50 66 20 34 06 26 22017 54 06 664 26 12 20 54 34 60 60 1018 1 18 645 21 66 12 182 38 0819 02 5 684 2 06 226 02 06 04

less than 30The petrological composition of coal seams is akey to understand the evolution of peat-forming depositionalenvironments [3 19ndash26] and many others However thereconstruction and interpretation of Samarinda coals cannotbe solely based on coal facies change (IndashIII) as most coalswere grouped as Group I

In contrast most of the Samarinda coals contain highcontent of huminite and low contents of inertinite and lipti-nite as huminite is around 70 vol and greater than 70 volmmf inertinite is usually around 10 or less than 10 volmmfand liptinite is less than 25 vol mmf (except Seam 10 Seam17 and Seam 18 of facies II and III) Samarinda coals arerepresented by the humodetrinite-rich groupHumodetriniteis derivedmainly from easily decomposable (lignin-poor andcellulose-rich) herbaceous plants and from angiospermouswoods [22] Large amounts of detrovitrinite (the counterpartof humodetrinite in high rank coal) indicate a high degree ofcell-tissue destruction

Some parts with high degree of plant tissue destructionare accompanied by relatively high inertinite content (egsee in Seam 10 Seam 17 and 18 of facies II and III) Thesamples of Seam 10 Seam 17 and Seam 18 have morehigher inertinite content in comparison with other seamsand contain abundant funginite bodies which are associatedwith humodetrinite semifusinite and inertodetrinite (see inTable 2)

The maceral analysis which is done on one seam (Seam16) from base to top shows that the content of inertiniteis relatively higher from the base to the top of the seam(Figure 5) The top section of a domed peat can also becharacterized by inertinite mainly fusiniteThe petrographicanalysis conducted on domed mires in Kalimantan Indone-sia by Demchuck and Moore [27] or Dehmer 1993 [28]has shown significant increases in oxidized plant materialnear the top of the peat Moore et al 1996 [29] who alsoexamined peat deposit from Kalimantan found that thehigh concentration of oxidized material can be generatedthrough fungal mechanism in response to an abnormallyfluctuating water table This mechanism can lead to theformation of inertinite in coal as the peat deposit dies andgets decomposed

45 Microlithotype Analysis Total vitrite vitrinertite clariteand duroclarite are also high due to the high content ofvitrinite (mmf basis) while total inertite ranges from 1 to25 (mmf basis) and there is no liptite in these coals ThePetrographic (microlithotype) analysis of coal samples fromthe studied stratigraphic section and their microlithotypecontent (volume ) are shown in Table 4 and Figure 6

The microlithotype is dominated by vitrite vitrinertiteand duroclarite Liptite is absent and inertite is rarely seenDuroclarite is the most dominant Trimacerite in these coals


Table 3 Vitrinitehuminite reflectance of Samarinda coal

Seam Rr () Mean Rr valueSeam 1 034ndash043 039Seam 2 038ndash046 042Seam 3 034ndash038 036Seam 4 025ndash034 030Seam 5 032ndash043 038Seam 6 030ndash039 035Seam 7 043ndash048 045Seam 8 026ndash034 030Seam 9 035ndash047 044Seam 10 037ndash043 040Seam 12 022ndash039 031Seam 13 040ndash047 044Seam 14 041ndash044 043Seam 15 040ndash046 043Seam 17 031ndash041 036Seam 18 036ndash045 041Seam 19 039ndash048 044Seam 16a 042ndash035 038Seam 16b 031ndash042 038Seam 16c 033ndash045 038Seam 16d 037ndash046 040Seam 16e 027ndash035 031Seam 16f 028ndash039 033Seam 16g 035ndash042 037Note Rr = Random reflectance

Clarodurite is less abundant in some seams and vitriner-toliptite is very rare (mmf basis) The details of the variousmicrolithotypes are summarized in Table 4 and Figure 6respectively

Vitrite shows the most homogeneous nature under amicroscope Telinite telovitrinite and collinite occur inbands more than 50 120583 thick It comprises two maceralsmdashtelinite and collinite two different types of vitrite can bedistinguished one without visible structure in reflected lightand the other showing structure

It also occurs in hand specimens in the form of brightlayers only a few millimeters thick (less than 10mm) andof limited lateral extent Inertite is dominated by fusinitesemifusinite funginite and inertodetrinite

Vitrinertite occur the most percentage among bimac-erites Most are rich in vitrinite (vitrinertite V) and sometimevitrinertite I also occurs in lesser amount most frequentlyMost of the clarites are liptinite-poor clarites Most arecutinite-clarite The liptinite content of clarites does notexceed 10 to 20 Vitrinite portion is attrinite ulminitedensinite and corpohuminite Most of the liptinite portionis cutinite and sometimes resinite is found in some seamsDurite is very rarely occurred in all coal seams

Duoclarite occurs 20ndash60 percent in some seams Viten-erolipnite also rarely occurred (less than 2) in one seam and(less than 05) in two seams Clarodurite occurs in 165 inone seam 6ndash85 in two seams and less than 2 in all seams

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(I)

(II)

(III)

Figure 4 Facies of Samarinda coals based on their maceral groupcomposition (mmf basis)

451 Depositional Environment Depositional environmentshave a significant role to play in deciphering the compositionand preservation of peat and coals The maceral compo-sitions obtained through petrographic analysis necessarilycharacterize the paleomires since they depend on plant aswell as the environment Several researchers [20 30ndash35] havecorrelated the petrographic components of coal with thepaleoecological conditions Teichmuller 1989 [22] showedthat depositional environment can be assessed through thepresence or absence of certain macerals and thus maceralindices are useful in order to depict some genetic features ofcoals

Whenmicrolithotype composition of the coals are plottedin a facies diagram (Table 5 and Figure 7) proposed byMarchioni 1980 [16] only three seams occur in the forestterrestrial moor and the others are in the wet forest swampof telmatic zone

Another facies model which is depositional milieus ofpeat formation and related microlithotypes of Australianhard coals from Smyth 1984 [17] takes into account themicrolithotype composition of these coals

When the microlithotype composition of all seams(Seams 1 to 19) of the studied area are plotted in the diagramit indicates that most of the seams are in fluvial four seams(Seam 1 Seam 4 Seam 16 and Seam 18) are in brackish waterand two seams (Seam 2 and Seam 10) are in upper deltaicfields (Figure 8(a)) It is shown that only fluvial environment(except Sample 16e) when plotted by the Seam 16 which


Table 4 Petrographic data (microlithotype) analysis of coal samples from the studied area V vitrite L liptite I inertite VI vitrinertite Cclarite D durite DC duroclarite VL vitrinertoliptite CD clarodurite

Seam V L I VI C D DC VL CDSeam 1 39 0 0 345 5 0 205 05 05Seam 2 75 0 0 305 15 0 36 2 9Seam 3 96 0 0 35 05 0 0 0 0Seam 4 445 0 25 135 0 0 23 0 165Seam 5 325 0 0 9 44 0 14 0 05Seam 6 61 0 0 95 275 05 15 0 0Seam 7 655 0 0 65 21 0 7 0 0Seam 8 61 0 0 85 275 0 3 0 0Seam 9 68 0 0 5 24 05 2 0 05Seam 10 19 0 0 95 95 0 595 0 25Seam 12 265 0 0 49 175 0 55 0 15Seam 13 55 0 0 17 165 0 105 0 1Seam 14 535 0 0 315 7 0 8 0 0Seam 15 985 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0Seam 16 31 0 15 23 18 0 20 0 65Seam 17 51 0 0 10 27 05 105 05 05Seam 18 305 0 1 53 25 0 12 0 1Seam 19 355 0 0 05 54 0 9 0 1

Table 5 Petrographic data (microlithotype group) analysis of coal samples from the studied area Group A sporoclarite + duroclarite +vitrinertoliptite Group B fusitoclarite + vitrinertite-I Group C clarite-V + vitrite + cuticoclarite Group D clarodurite + durite + macrolite+ carbominerite

Seam number Group A Group B Group C Group DSeam 1 615 4413 4916 06Seam 2 181 484 2393 95Seam 3 05 396 955 04Seam 4 0 182 5973 2215Seam 5 2529 3046 4397 029Seam 6 179 241 5765 03Seam 7 1556 2037 64 0Seam 8 181 2368 5822 0Seam 9 164 1986 6301 068Seam 10 1597 3193 479 42Seam 12 1351 5135 3398 116Seam 13 1347 2735 5837 08Seam 14 66 3632 5708 0Seam 15 0 15 985 0Seam 16 1572 3581 4279 568Seam 17 1916 2578 5436 07Seam 18 27 6033 3587 11Seam 19 2714 2739 4997 05

represents all the different lithotypes from roof and floor ofthat seam (Figure 8(b))

Based on maceral composition and microfacies analysisSamarinda coals are rich in huminite and poor in liptiniteand internite Microlithotype analysis also shows that mostof the coals have high content of vitrite and low contentof clarite durite inertinite and intermediates (trimacerite)Facies diagram proposed by Marchioni 1980 indicated that

terrestrial into telmatic condition of peat formation withvegetation characteristics of forest moor typeThe four seams(Seam 1 Seam 2 Seam 4 and Seam 10) contain high duroclar-ite (vitrinite-rich and liptinite-poor) and Seam 18 has highvitrinertite (vitrinite-rich) content which lead to producemixed results (Table 4 and Figure 6) The facies diagramproposed by Smyth only focused on the composition ofmicrolithotypes andmay lead to mixed result when using the


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Vitrinite


16a16b16c16d16e16f16g

Seam base

Seam top

Figure 5 Facies of Samarinda coals (representative Seam 16) basedon their maceral group composition (mmf basis) Note that thecontent of inertinite is relatively higher than the top section

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Volu

me

()

VitriteLiptiteInertiteVitrinertiteClarite

DuriteDuroclariteVitrinertoliptiteClarodurite

Figure 6 Graphs showing the volume percentage of microlithotypein each coal seam in the studied area

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(B)

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Seam 1vitrinertoliptite

macroite + carbominerite

Seam 10Seam 12Seam 13Seam 14Seam 15Seam 16Seam 17Seam 18


Forest terrestrial moor

Reed moor

Forest moor

(A) Sporoclarite + duroclarite +

(B) Fusitoclarite + vitrinertite I(C) Clarite V + vitrite + cuticoclarite(D) Clarodurite + durite +

Figure 7 Microlithotype composition of coals of the studied areaplotted on a facies diagram proposed by Marchioni 1980 [16]

coals contain high duoclarite-V (vitrinite-rich and liptinite-poor) and vitrinertite-V (vitrinite-rich)

According to Stach 1982 [15] (in Stachrsquos Text Book ofCoal Petrology) the vitrinite rich trimacerites especiallythe liptinite-poor duoclarite are most probably deposited inforest swamps and trimacerite with high inertinite contentmay form under relatively dry depositional conditions or byan alternation of high and low ground water table due totemporary drainage of the peat surfaceTherefore if the sameenvironment of macerals which prevailed relatively driedcondition could be misleading to different environment dueto the high content of vitrinertite Furthermore brackishwater swamps have considerably less organic material andit is not possible to consider Samarinda coal with highhuminite as brackish water coal Therefore Interpretationof coal depositional milieus of peat formation based onmicrolithotype composition alone as suggested by Figure 6 isnot fitted with the coals which contain high vitrinite

Mineral matter has also been used to relate the dryand wet conditions of the peat deposition and the rateof subsidence of the basin Though the mineral matterconcentration is low (less than 6 vol except around 25 volor less than 25 vol in Seams 2 4 and 10) in the Samarindacoals yet onemodel developed byM P Singh and P K Singh1996 [18] has been used to describe the evolution of thesecoals in relation to the mineral matter content The ternaryplot (Figure 9) supports the earlier contention and indicates


100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite

Intermediates Durite + inertite



(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(C)

(a)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite


16g16f16e16d

16c16b16a

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(b)

Figure 8 Depositional milieus of peat formation of the study area plotted on a diagram proposed by Smyth 1984 [17] (a) microlithotypesof the studied area (b) microlithotypes of representative Seam 16 Note the following A lacustrine B fluvial C brackish water D upperdeltaic and E lower deltaic environments

that these coals evolved under alternate oxic to anoxic moorcondition with intermittent moderate to high flooding Thiscontention gets support from the evidence of fluctuation inthe eustatic sea level during the entire Miocene period whichis well documented by Haq et al1987 [36]

46 Tissue Preservation and Gelification Index Diessel 1986[19] developed the gelification index (GI) and tissue preser-vation index (TPI) based on coal facies analysis on Permiancoals in Australia in order to establish a correlation betweencoal facies indicators and the environment of coal formationGI is the ratio of gelified and fusinitisedmacerals whereas TPIemphasises the degree of tissue preservation versus destruc-tion TPI can be used as a measure of the degree of humifica-tion andGI is related to the continuity inmoisture availability

Lamberson et al 1991 [23] made some modifications onGI and stated that an alternative way to view this index isthe inverse of an oxidation index Those indices were alsoused and modified to define the depositional environmentof coals from different areas and ages (eg [26 37 38] andmany others) Based on the modification by Lamberson etal 1991 [23] Amijaya and Littke 2005 [39] modified fortheir studied Tertiary Tanjung Enim low-rank coal fromSumatra as telovitrinite macerals were substituted by theirprecursors (humotelinite) detrovitrinite by humodetriniteand gelovitrinite by humocollinite Fusinite semifusinite andfunginite are grouped as teloinertinite whereas macriniteand secretinite are grouped as geloinertinite The modifiedformulas used are as follows

TPI = humotelinite + teloinertinitehumodetrinite + humocollinite + inertodetrinite + gelo-inertinite

GI =huminite + gelo-inertinite

inertinite (exclusive of macrinite and secretinite)

(1)

The present study used the modification formula ofAmijaya and Littke as Samarinda coals are also low rank

and their age is Middle Miocene Coal facies diagrams forSamarinda coals are illustrated in Figures 8(a) and 8(b)


Almost all the analyzed coals have a low TPI and high GIThe TPI versus GI plot (Figure 10) suggests that Samarindacoals evolved under limnic environment in the limited influxclastic marsh field

47 Vegetation and Groundwater Index Another methodof analysis to evaluate coal depositional environment wasproposed by Calder et al 1991 [3] for Westphalian coalof Nova Scotia They suggested a mire paleoenvironmentdiagram based on a groundwater influence index (GWI) anda vegetation index (VI) expressed as maceral ratios

The GWI evaluates the intensity of rheotrophic condi-tions as a ratio of strongly gelified to weakly gelified tissuesThe VI is a measure of vegetation type by contrasting themacerals of forest affinity with those of herbaceous andmarginal aquatic affinity Later on those indices were adaptedto assess the development of paleomires in different areas forexample [38 40]

Modification was also necessary on Calderrsquos ratios for thepurpose of this studyThemaceralssubmacerals of hard coalswere substituted by their low-rank coal counterparts [3] Theratios are expressed as

GWI =gelinite + corpogelinite +mineral matter

texo-ulminite + E-ulminite + attrinite + densinite + desmocollinite + tellocollinite

VI = texo-ulminite + (eu) ulminite + fusinite + semifusinite + suberinite + resiniteattrinite + densinite + inertodetrinite + alginate + liptodetrinite + sporinite + cutinite

(2)

Plots of Samarinda coals are shown in Figures 11(a)and 11(b) Most of the studied coals lie in the area whereboth vegetation index and groundwater index values arelow Calder et al 1991 [3] proposed the GWI value of 3as the border above which the ecosystem is considered tobe predominantly limnotelmatic Most of the studied coalsamples have GWI values of less than 05 indicating thatthe paleoenvironment was dominated by limnic conditionsThese low values indicate that groundwater ceased to be influ-ential and the mire became solely rain-fed (ombrotrophic)

The interpretation scheme used in Seam 16 Figure 11(b)suggests that the paleopeat environment shifted mesotrophicto ombrotrophic first and then mesotrophic again Almostall the studied coal samples have low VI values of less than 1and most plot in the marginal aquaticherbaceous vegetationfield in the diagram This fact supports the view that forestvegetation was only a minor precursor of these coal samplesaccording to facies diagram proposed by Calder et al 1991[3]

5 Discussion

According to the results from themaceral ratio interpretationmethods proposed by Diessel 1986 [19] and Calder etal1991 [3] Samarinda coals evolved under limnic environ-ment in the limited influx clastic marsh and the marginalaquaticherbaceous vegetation

The term ldquomarshrdquo is used to identify peatforming areaswhich were predominantly covered by herbaceous plants [523 41] Climate depositional environment mire type andvegetation type dictate peat composition Tropical lowlandpeat deposits are often dominated by trees and shrubsaccording to Polak 1933 [42] 1975 [43] Merton 1962 [44]Anderson 1976 [45] 1983 [46] Morley 1982 [47] Frim1997 [48] Giesen 1998 [49] Phillips and Bustin 1998 [50]Wust and Bustin 1999 [51] The predominantly forestedtropical peat-forming environments result in wood-rich peatdeposits unlike most temperate peat deposits which are

often dominated by shrubs grasses and bryophytes [52]Tropical peats are therefore often rich in lignin with onlysmall amounts of hemicellulose cellulose protein andwater-soluble compounds [43 53 54] which are lost due to vigorousmicrobial activity It is commonly thought that woody peatsgenerally result in bright vitrain-rich coal [14 page 37]and peat derived from bryophytes or Cyperaceae producedull coal Well-humified inertinite-rich or gelified organicdeposits are thought to result dull coals [14 page 292]

Many resent studies showed that peats from MalaysiaIndonesia Irian Jaya or Thailand have large amounts ofwoody material (branches roots and stumps with bark) andvariable quantities of sapric amorphous matrix The matrixcontains residues and fragments of fungi bacteria planktonsponges fibres leaves roots cuticles epidermis trichomesspores and pollen

Based on the study of recent tropical peat in Indonesiaand Malaysia they are ombrotrophic composed chiefly ofwood from swamp forest vegetation and the peat type ishemic to sapric [24 55 56] Moore and Ferm 1992 [57]studied coal from Southeastern Kalimantan and stated thatMiocene lignite have accumulated from a woody angiospermflora Singh etal 2010 [58] studied coal from the Lati Forma-tion Tarakan basin East Kalimantan Indonesia and foundthat these coals have originated under telmatic condition andthere was predominance of wood derived tissues

During the Miocene Indonesia was located in a tropicalarea [59 60] It can be assumed that the climate duringMiocene peat deposition was similar to the modern climatein SE Asia today In general peat deposits in Indonesiaare situated in a zone of annual rainfall exceeding 25mEven minimum rainfall usually exceeds evapotranspirationin the peatlands leading to ever wet conditions Only duringexceptional long drought periods that the peat may dry outand sometimes becomes inflammable [61 62]

The peat-forming vegetation probably has not muchchanged since the Miocene [27 47] A vegetation model oftropical peat deposits is described by [45 62] as the succession


100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite + Liptinite

Inertinite Mineral matter



(D)

(E)

(F)

(D) Alternate oxic and anoxic moor

(E) Oxic (dry) moor with sudden

(F) Wet moor with intermittent

high flooding

moderate to high flooding

Figure 9 Depositional conditions of Samarinda coals plottingbased onmaceral andmineralmatter content diagramofM P Singhand P K Singh 1996 [18]

is characterized by a change from mixed swamp forestconsisting of large trees to thin Shorea albida trees referredto as ldquopole forestrdquo and then to an ldquoopen savanna woodlandrdquovegetation of Pandanus small shrubs and thin trees Somevegetational successions that show a development fromtopogenous to ombrogenous peat can also be observedwithinthe raised peat deposits in Kalimantan Indonesia [28 55 63]

The high GI that is the high huminiteinertinite ratiois also known to be typical of recent and ancient Indonesianpeat and coal deposits [63ndash65] The types of liptinite sub-macerals in the Samarinda coals are stable liptinite macerals(including suberinite sporinite and resinite) as well asdispersed residues of fusinite and semifusinite (in form ofinertodetrinite)

Dehmer 1995 [63] studied petrological and organicgeochemical investigation of recent peats with known envi-ronments of deposition They calculated for the peat samplesfrom tropical and subtropical regions to see how maceralindices would fare in interpreting their known environmentsof deposition Their results have proved to be generallyunsuccessful as the herbaceous and woody peats did notalways give the predicted high humodetrinite and humoteli-nite compositions respectively Their study showed that caremust be taken when usingmaceral indices as the sole methodof interpreting coal facies

Wust etal 2001 [24] compared maceral ratios fromtropical peatlands with assumptions from coal studies and

found that in the modern peat deposits from the TasekBera basin Malaysia divergent petrographic results occur insimilar depositional environment He also stated that fromthe time of peat deposition peat is subject to considerablealteration andduring subsequence diagenesis preservation ofstructured and strongly altered materials such as inertinitegelified material or funginite is favoured and results inbiased coal maceral compositions because maceral indices inmodern peat studies are of little utility in the reconstructionof paleoenvironmental settings It follows that coal maceralindices should not be utilized in the future to interpretpaleodepositional environment of coals

While working on the coals of South Sumatra basin ofIndonesia Amijaya and Littke 2005 [39] used TPI and GIindices but they feel that the related interpretation schemedoes not fit to these coals as the indices were initiallydeveloped for the Permian coals of Australia The presentstudy of Samarinda coal advocates the samewithAmijaya andLittke 2005 [39]

Therefore the paleoenvironment of Samarinda coals didnot evolve under limnic environment in the limited influxclastic marsh environment and marginal aquaticherbaceousvegetation as illustrated in Figures 9(a) and 9(b) Somelimitations of using the TPI and GI diagram have alreadynoted for example byCrosdale 1993 [66]Dehmer 1995 [63]Nas and Pujobroto 2000 [65] Wust etal 2001 [24] Scott2002 [67] Moore and Shearer 2003 [68] and Amijaya andLittke 2005 [39] The GWI and VI diagram of Calder etal1991 [3] still provided some interesting insight with respect tothe ratio of herbaceous to woodymaterial and the intensity ofrheotrophic conditions as a ratio of strongly gelified toweaklygelified tissues

The highly degraded tertiary tropical coals deposited inwet forest swamp and compose of high content of detrohumi-nite The higher content of detrovitrinite in these tropicalcoals may lead to the misinterpretation of paleoenvironmentas limnic and marginalaquatic herbaceous vegetation Thefields for the marginal aquaticherbaceous and inundatedmarsh should be removed from this diagram in order toadjust for the highly degraded tertiary tropical coals whichwere deposited in the forest swamp environment Thereforesome modification on GWI and VI diagram of Calder etal 1991 [3] is made for the Samarinda coals as in Figure 12in order to implement the peat environment ThereforeSamarinda coals plot in the highly degraded woody forestfield

6 Conclusion

The coals in the Samarinda area are of low rank and containhigh content of huminite and low contents of inertinite andliptinite The mineral matter content is relatively low exceptfor Seam 1 Seam 2 Seam 4 and Seam 10 which containhigh mineral matter Samarinda coals are represented by thehighly degraded humodetrinite-rich group Samarinda coalsdeposited from terrestrial into telmatic condition of peatformation with vegetation characteristics of highly degradedwoody forest type evolved under alternate oxic to anoxic


01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x

Tissue preservation index

Open marsh Terrestrial

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic

Lignified tissue increase ()

Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)

Figure 10 Plots of Tissue Preservation Index and Gelification Index values of Samarinda coal (a) All seams and (b) Seam 16 Arrows indicatethe change of the depositional environment of the studied coal with time Numbers indicate the phases of the paleomire change

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index

Marginal aquatic herbaceous

Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)

Figure 11 Plot of Vegetation Index and Groundwater Index values of Samarinda coals on mire paleoenvironment diagram Calder et al1991 [3] (a) All seams and (b) Seam 16 Arrows indicate the change of the depositional environment of the studied coal with time Numbersindicate the phases of the paleomire change

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh

Highly degraded woody Not degraded woody

Degradation increase

Figure 12Modified plot of Calder et al 1991 [3] for highly degradedtropical coals

moor condition with intermittent moderate to high floodingand the paleopeat environment shifted from mesotrophic toombrotrophic

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

Acknowledgments

Theauthors wish to acknowledge the ASEANUniversity Net-work Southeast Asia Engineering Education DevelopmentNetwork (AUNSEED-Net) Program and JICA (JapaneseInternational Cooperation Agency) for financial support

References

[1] I Cibaj ldquoFluvial channel complexes in the middle miocene oflower Kutai Basin East Kalimantan the stacking pattern ofsedimentsrdquo in Proceedings of Indonesian Petroleum Association34th Annual Convention and Exhibition 2010 IPA10-G-053

[2] I Cibaj N Syarifuddin U Ashari A Wiweko and KMaryunani ldquoStratigraphic interpretation of Middle MioceneMahakam Delta deposits implications for reservoir distribu-tion and qualityrdquo in Proceedings of Indonesian Petroleum Asso-ciation 31st Annual Convention and Exhibition IPA07-G-1162007


[3] J H Calder M R Gibling and P K Mukhopadhyay ldquoPeatformation in a Westphalian B piedmont setting CumberlandBasinNova Scotia implications for themaceral-based interpre-tation of rheotrophic and raised paleomiresrdquo BulletinmdashSocieteGeologique de France vol 162 no 2 pp 283ndash298 1991

[4] A J P Gore Ed Mires Swamp Bog Fen and Moor (GeneralStudies) Ecosystems of the World 4A Elsevier Amsterdam TheNetherlands 1983

[5] P D Moore ldquoEcological and hydrological aspects of peatformationrdquo in Coal and Coal-Bearing Strata Recent AdvancesA C Scott Ed Geological Society Special Publication No 32pp 7ndash15 1987

[6] Kusnama S A Mangga and D Sukarna ldquoTertiary stratigraphyand tectonic evolution of Southern Sumatrardquo in Proceedings ofthe Symposium on Tectonic Framework and Energy Resourcesof the Western Margin of the Pacific Basin Bulletin GeologicalSociety Malaysia Special Publication no 33 pp 143ndash152 1993

[7] J M Cole and S Crittenden ldquoEarly tertiary basin formationand the development of lacustrine andQuasi-lacustrinemarinesource rocks on the sunda shelf of SE Asiardquo in PetroleumGeology of Southeast Asia A J Fraser S J Matthews and R WMurphy Eds vol 126 pp 147ndash183 Geological Society LondonSpecial Publication 1997

[8] M C Friederich R P Langford and T A Moore ldquoThegeological setting of Indonesian coal depositsrdquo The AusIMMProceedings vol 304 no 2 pp 23ndash29 1999

[9] R C Davis S W Noon and J Harrington ldquoThe petroleumpotential of Tertiary coals fromWestern Indonesia relationshipto mire type and sequence stratigraphic settingrdquo InternationalJournal of Coal Geology vol 70 no 1-3 pp 35ndash52 2007

[10] I M Longley ldquoThe tectonostratigraphic evolution of SE Asiardquoin Petroleum Geology of Southeast Asia A Fraser S MatthewsandRWMurphy Eds vol 126 pp 311ndash340Geological Societyof London 1997

[11] B Situmorang C D Dwiyoga and A Kustamsi ldquoThe untappedldquounconventionalrdquo gas CBM resources of Kutai Basin withreference to the North Kutai Lama Field Sangasanga AreaEast Kalimantanrdquo inProceedings of the International GeosciencesConference and Exhibition Jakarta Indonesia August 2006

[12] D H Land and C M Jones ldquoCoal geology and exploration ofpart of the Tertiary Kutei Basin in East Kalimantan IndonesiaCoal and coal-bearing Strata recent advancesrdquo GeologicalSociety Special Publication no 32 pp 235ndash255 1987

[13] C F K Diessel Coal-Bearing Depositional Systems SpringerBerlin Germany 1992

[14] GH TaylorM Teichmuller ADavis C F KDiessel R Littkeand P RobertOrganic Petrology Gebruder Borntraeger BerlinGermany 1998

[15] E Stach Stachs Textbook of Coal Petrology E Stach MMackowsky G H Teichmiiller D Taylor Chandra andRTeichmiiller Eds Gebriidcr Borntraeger Berlin Germany3rd edition 1982

[16] D L Marchioni ldquoPetrography and depositional environmentof the Liddell seam Upper Hunter Valley New South WalesrdquoInternational Journal of Coal Geology vol 1 no 1 pp 35ndash611980

[17] M Smyth ldquoCoal microlithotypes related to sedimentary envi-ronments in the cooper basinrdquo International Association ofSedimentology vol 7 pp 333ndash347 1984

[18] M P Singh and P K Singh ldquoPetrographic characterization andevolution of the Permian coal deposits of the Rajmahal basin

Bihar Indiardquo International Journal of Coal Geology vol 29 no1ndash3 pp 93ndash118 1996

[19] C F K Diessel ldquoThe correlation between coal facies and depo-sitional environmentsrdquo in Proceedings of 20th Symposium onAdvances in the Study of the Sydney Basin pp 19ndash22 TheUniversity of Newcastle Newcastle Australia 1986

[20] A D Cohen W Spackman and R Raymond Jr ldquoInterpretingthe characteristics of coal seams from chemical physical andpetrographic studies of peat depositsrdquo in Coal and CoalbearingStrata Recent Advances A C Scott Ed Geological SocietySpecial Publication No 32 pp 107ndash125 1987

[21] R Littke ldquoPetrology and genesis of Upper Carboniferous seamsfrom the Ruhr region West Germanyrdquo International Journal ofCoal Geology vol 7 no 2 pp 147ndash184 1987

[22] M Teichmuller ldquoThe genesis of coal from the viewpoint of coalpetrologyrdquo International Journal of Coal Geology vol 12 no 1ndash4pp 1ndash87 1989

[23] M N Lamberson R M Bustin and W Kalkreuth ldquoLithotype(maceral) composition and variation as correlated with paleo-wetland environments Gates Formation northeastern BritishColumbia Canadardquo International Journal of Coal Geology vol18 no 1-2 pp 87ndash124 1991

[24] R A J Wust M I Hawke and R Marc Bustin ldquoCompar-ing maceral ratios from tropical peatlands with assumptionsfrom coal studies do classic coal petrographic interpretationmethods have to be discardedrdquo International Journal of CoalGeology vol 48 no 1-2 pp 115ndash132 2001

[25] S F Greb C F Eble J C Hower and W M Andrews ldquoMul-tiple-bench architecture and interpretations of original mirephases examples from theMiddle Pennyslvanian of the CentralAppalachian Basin USArdquo International Journal of Coal Geologyvol 49 no 2-3 pp 147ndash175 2002

[26] A Bechtel R F Sachsenhofer M Markic R Gratzer A Luckeand W Puttmann ldquoPaleoenvironmental implications frombiomarker and stable isotope investigations on the PlioceneVelenje lignite seam (Slovenia)rdquo Organic Geochemistry vol 34no 9 pp 1277ndash1298 2003

[27] T Demchuk and T A Moore ldquoPalynofloral and organic char-acteristics of a Miocene bog-forest Kalimantan IndonesiardquoOrganic Geochemistry vol 20 no 2 pp 119ndash134 1993

[28] J Dehmer ldquoPetrology and organic geochemistry of peat samplesfrom a raised bog in Kalimantan (Borneo)rdquo Organic Geochem-istry vol 20 no 3 pp 349ndash362 1993

[29] T A Moore J C Shearer and S L Miller ldquoFungal origin ofoxidised plant material in the Palangkaraya peat depositKalimantan Tengah Indonesia implications for rsquoinertinitersquoformation in coalrdquo International Journal of Coal Geology vol30 no 1-2 pp 1ndash23 1996

[30] A D Cohen and W Spackman ldquoMethods in peat petrologyand their application to reconstruction of PaleoenvironmentsrdquoBulletin of the Geological Society of America vol 83 no 1 pp129ndash142 1972

[31] W C Grady C F Eble and S G Neuzil ldquoBrown coal maceraldistributions in a modern domed tropical Indonesian peatand a comparison with maceral distributions in MiddlePennsylvanianmdashage Appalachian bituminous coal bedsrdquo Geo-logical Society of America Special Paper 286 pp 63ndash82 1993

[32] M I Hawke I PMartini and L D Stasiuk ldquoPetrographic char-acteristics of selectedOntario peats possiblemodern analoguesfor coalsrdquo in Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting TSOPAbstracts and Program pp 22ndash23 Southern Illinois UniversityCarbondale Ill USA 1996


[33] M I Hawke I P Martini and L D Stasiuk ldquoA comparisonof temperate and Boreal peats from Ontario Canada possiblemodern analogues for Permian coalsrdquo International Journal ofCoal Geology vol 41 no 3 pp 213ndash238 1999

[34] J C Shearer and B R Clarkson ldquoWhangamarino wetlandeffects of lowered river levels on peat and vegetationrdquo Interna-tional Peat Journal vol 8 pp 52ndash65 1998

[35] W B Styan and R M Bustin ldquoPetrographyof some fraserriver delta peat deposits coal maceral and microlithotypeprecursors in temperate-climate peatsrdquo International Journal ofCoal Geology vol 2 no 4 pp 321ndash370 1983

[36] B U Haq J Hardenbol and P R Vail ldquoChronology of fluc-tuating sea levels since the Triassicrdquo Science vol 235 no 4793pp 1156ndash1167 1987

[37] W Kalkreuth T Kotis C Papanicolaou and P KokkinakisldquoThe geology and coal petrology of a Miocene lignite profileat Meliadi Mine katerini Greecerdquo International Journal of CoalGeology vol 17 no 1 pp 51ndash67 1991

[38] N G Obaje B Ligouis and S I Abaa ldquoPetrographic com-position and depositional environments of Cretaceous coalsand coal measures in the Middle Benue Trough of NigeriardquoInternational Journal of Coal Geology vol 26 no 3-4 pp 233ndash260 1994

[39] H Amijaya and R Littke ldquoMicrofacies and depositional envi-ronment of Tertiary Tanjung Enim low rank coal South Suma-tra Basin Indonesiardquo International Journal of Coal Geology vol61 no 3-4 pp 197ndash221 2005

[40] W Gruber and R F Sachsenhofer ldquoCoal deposition in theNoric depression (Eastern Alps) raised and low-lying miresin Miocene pull-apart basinsrdquo International Journal of CoalGeology vol 48 no 1-2 pp 89ndash114 2001

[41] I P Martini and W Glooschenko ldquoCold climate environmentsof peat formation in Canada Advances in the Study of theSydney Basinrdquo in Proceedings of the 18th Newcastle SymposiumProceeding pp 18ndash28 1984

[42] E Polak ldquoUeber Torf undMoor inNieder landischrdquoKoninklijkeAkademie van Wetenschappen vol 30 pp 1ndash85 1933

[43] B Polak ldquoCharacter and occurrence of peat deposits in theMalaysian tropicsrdquo Modern Quaternary Research in SoutheastAsia vol 2 pp 71ndash81 1975

[44] F Merton ldquoA visit to Tasek BerardquoMalayan Nature Journal vol16 pp 103ndash110 1962

[45] J A R Anderson ldquoObservations on the ecology of five peatswamp forests in Sumatra andKalimantanrdquo inPeat and PodzolicSoils andTheir Potential for Agriculture in Indonesia pp 45ndash55Tugu Indonesia 1976

[46] J A R Anderson ldquoThe tropical peat swamps of WesternMalesiardquo inMires Swamp Bog Fen andMoor Regional StudiesEcosystems of the World A J P Gore Ed pp 181ndash199 ElsevierAmsterdam The Netherlands 1983

[47] R J Morley ldquoOrigin and history of Tasek Berardquo in Tasik BeraThe Ecology of a Freshwater Swamp Monographiae Biologicae JI Furtado and S Mori Eds pp 12ndash45 Dr W Junk PublishersThe Hague The Netherlands 1982

[48] Frim ldquoA consultancy report on the extent and types ofvegetation cover at Tasek Berardquo Forest Research Instituteof Malaysia for Wetlands International-Asia Pacific KualaLumpur Malaysia 1997

[49] W Giesen The Habitats and Flora of Tasik Bera MalaysiaAn Evaluation of Their Conservation Value and Manage-ment Requirements Wetlands International-Asia Pacific KualaLumpur Malaysia 1998

[50] S Phillips and R M Bustin ldquoAccumulation of organic richsediments in a dendritic fluviallacustrine mire system at TasikBera Malaysia implications for coal formationrdquo InternationalJournal of Coal Geology vol 36 no 1-2 pp 31ndash61 1998

[51] R A J Wust and R M Bustin Geological and EcologicalEvolution of the Tasek Bera (Peninsular-Malaysia)WetlandBasinSince the Holocene Evidences of a Dynamic System FromSiliciclastic and Organic SedimentsWetlands International-AsiaPacific Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 1999

[52] K E Barber ldquoPeatlands as scientific archives of past biodiver-sityrdquo Biodiversity and Conservation vol 2 no 5 pp 474ndash4891993

[53] W H Orem S G Neuzil H E Lerch and C B Cecil ldquoExperi-mental early-stage coalification of a peat sample and a peatifiedwood sample from Indonesiardquo Organic Geochemistry vol 24no 2 pp 111ndash125 1996

[54] T Kuder M A Kruge J C Shearer and S L Miller ldquoEnviron-mental and botanical controls on peatification a comparativestudy of two New Zealand restiad bogs using Py-GCMSpetrography and fungal analysisrdquo International Journal of CoalGeology vol 37 no 1-2 pp 3ndash27 1998

[55] R J Morley ldquoDevelopment and vegetation dynamics of alowland ombrogenous peat swamp in Kalimantan TengahIndonesiardquo Journal of Biogeography vol 8 pp 383ndash404 1981

[56] C C Cameron J S Esterle and C A Palmer ldquoThe geologybotany and chemistry of selected peat-forming environmentsfrom temperate and tropical latitudesrdquo International Journal ofCoal Geology vol 12 no 1ndash4 pp 105ndash156 1989

[57] T A Moore and J C Ferm ldquoComposition and grain size ofan Eocene coal bed in Southeastern Kalimantan IndonesiardquoInternational Journal of Coal Geology vol 21 pp 1ndash30 1992

[58] P K Singh M P Singh A K Singh and M Arora ldquoPetro-graphic characteristics of coal from the Lati Formation Tarakanbasin East Kalimantan Indonesiardquo International Journal ofCoal Geology vol 81 no 2 pp 109ndash116 2010

[59] R JMorley ldquoPalynological evidence for tertiary plant dispersalsin the SEAsian region in relation to plate tectonics and climaterdquoin Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia R Halland J D Holloway Eds pp 211ndash234 Backhuys Leiden TheNetherlands 1998

[60] R JMorley ldquoTertiary ecological history of Southeast Asian peatmiresrdquo in Proceedings of Southeast Coal Geology Conference pp44ndash47 Directorate General of Geology and Mineral Resourcesof Indonesia Bandung Indonesia 2000

[61] S G Neuzil C C B Supardi J S Kane and K SoedjonoldquoInorganic Geochemistry of domed peat in Indonesia and itsimplication for the origin of mineral matter in coalrdquo inModernand Ancient Coal-Forming Environment J C Cobb and C BCecil Eds Geological Society of America Special Paper 286pp 23ndash84 1993

[62] J S Esterle and J C Ferm ldquoSpatial variability in moderntropical peat deposits from Sarawak Malaysia and SumatraIndonesia analogues for coalrdquo International Journal of CoalGeology vol 26 no 1-2 pp 1ndash41 1994

[63] J Dehmer ldquoPetrological and organic geochemical investigationof recent peats with known environments of depositionrdquo Inter-national Journal of Coal Geology vol 28 no 2ndash4 pp 111ndash1381995

[64] K Anggayana Mikroskopische und organisch-geochemischeUntersuchungen an Kohlen aus Indonesien ein Beitrag zurGenese und Fazies verschiedener Kohlenbecken [PhD thesis]RWTH Aachen Germany 1996


[65] C Nas and A Pujobroto ldquoVitrinite macerals in Indonesiancoalrdquo in Proceedings of Southeast Coal Geology Conferencepp 215ndash226 Directorate General of Geology and MineralResources of Indonesia Bandung Indonesia 2000

[66] P J Crosdale ldquoCoal maceral ratios as indicators of environmentof deposition do they work for ombrogenous mires An exam-ple from the Miocene of New Zealandrdquo Organic Geochemistryvol 20 no 6 pp 797ndash809 1993

[67] A C Scott ldquoCoal petrology and the origin of coal macerals away aheadrdquo International Journal of Coal Geology vol 50 no1ndash4 pp 119ndash134 2002

[68] T A Moore and J C Shearer ldquoPeatcoal type and depositionalenvironmentmdashare they relatedrdquo International Journal of CoalGeology vol 56 no 3-4 pp 233ndash252 2003

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

ClimatologyJournal of

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EarthquakesJournal of


Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

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OceanographyInternational Journal of


Journal of Computational Environmental SciencesHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal ofPetroleum Engineering


GeochemistryHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

Atmospheric SciencesInternational Journal of


OceanographyHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Advances in


MineralogyInternational Journal of


MeteorologyAdvances in

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Paleontology JournalHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


Geological ResearchJournal of


Geology Advances in


Pre-tertiary basement

Kutai basin Mahakamdelta

Study area

Study interval

Base Top(km)

Scale (km)

0

0 50 100

4

(a)

Conglomerate and sandstoneCoarse-to-medium-grained sandstone with trough cross-beddingFine-grained sandstoneClaystoneCoal

ic

k (m

)

Lith

olog

y

Cla

ySi

ltFi

ne sa

ndM

ediu

m sa

ndC

oars

e sa

ndG

rave

d

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

10

20

30

40

140

150

160

170

180

190

200

210

220

230

240

250

50

60

0

Ripple

Trough cross-bedding

Trough cross-bedding in Gravelly sandstone

(b)

Figure 1 (a) Location and regional geology of the studied area and (b) summary outcrop log and coal bearing interval of the studied interval

In this study the recommended definition of Gore1983 [4] and Moore 1987 [5] is followed for the termswhich are used in the wetland ecosystem The most fun-damental distinction of mire type is based on hydrol-ogy specially the source of water and ions Rheotrophicmires receive recharge from both groundwater and rainfallwhereas ombrotrophic mires are solely rain-fed The termminerotrophic which refers to a mineral-rich ground watersource is loosely analogous to rheotrophic An intermediateclassification of mesotrophic applies to mires tending towardombrotrophic conditions Ombrotrophic mires are termedbogs rheotrophic mires can be subdivided into fen or bogfen and swamp are further defined on the basis of vegetationLimnic is a condition of peat formation occurring on orin deep water by free-floating or deeply rooted plants andtelmatic is a process of peat formation at the water tabledue to plants growing under conditions of periodic floodingwhereas terrestrial means peat formation above the generalwater table

2 Regional Geology and Coals ofthe Kutai Basin

The Early Paleogene rifting along the margins of Sundalandwhich is a back arc setting of the Indian Ocean plate resultedin a number of shallow basins [6 7] Friederich et al 1999[8] have worked out in detail the coal bearing sequencesof Indonesia Eastern Kalimantan is one of the major coalbasins in Indonesia having economic coal deposits wherethe thickest coal seams are attributed to high stand systemtracts (HST) and transgressive system tracts (TST) whichcontributed to their optimum preservation potential Daviset al 2007 [9]

According to Longley 1997 [10] three major episodes ofpeat formation took place within Tertiary of Indonesia Thefirst episode took place during Early-to-Middle Eocene Thisresulted in the rifting in Java Kalimantan and Sulawesi Thesecond episode began in the Late Oligocene in Sumatra andJava This episode was associated with thermal subsidence




















Samplenumber


Seam 1 From S 0∘35101584097410158401015840E 117∘61015840459510158401015840

toS 0∘351015840480410158401015840E 117∘51015840509410158401015840



From S 0∘351015840480410158401015840E 117∘51015840509410158401015840

toS 0∘35101584083710158401015840E 117∘71015840166210158401015840


From S 0∘35101584083710158401015840E 117∘71015840166210158401015840

toS 0∘341015840590910158401015840E 117∘71015840322110158401015840













Hu

Su

25 120583m

(a)

Hu25 120583m

(b)

Cu

Hu

25 120583m

(c)

25 120583m

(d)

Hu

Sp

25 120583m

(e)

Sp

25 120583m

(f)

Hu

Re

25 120583m

(g)

Re

25 120583m

(h)



Hu

Al25 120583m

(a)

25 120583m

(b)

Su

Hu

25 120583m

(c)

25 120583m

(d)

25 120583m

(e)

25 120583m

(f)

25 120583m

(g)

25 120583m

(h)



















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite




(I)

(II)

(III)















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite


16a16b16c16d16e16f16g

Seam base

Seam top


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Seam

1Se

am 2

Seam

3Se

am 4

Seam

5Se

am 6

Seam

7Se

am 8

Seam

9Se

am 1

0Se

am 1

2Se

am 1

3Se

am 1

4Se

am 1

5Se

am 1

6Se

am 1

7Se

am 1

8Se

am 1

9

Volu

me

()




100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

(B)

(C) (A) + (D)






Reed moor

Forest moor








100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite




(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(C)

(a)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite


16g16f16e16d

16c16b16a

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(b)








(1)











(2)



5 Discussion









100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in




















Samplenumber


Seam 1 From S 0∘35101584097410158401015840E 117∘61015840459510158401015840

toS 0∘351015840480410158401015840E 117∘51015840509410158401015840



From S 0∘351015840480410158401015840E 117∘51015840509410158401015840

toS 0∘35101584083710158401015840E 117∘71015840166210158401015840


From S 0∘35101584083710158401015840E 117∘71015840166210158401015840

toS 0∘341015840590910158401015840E 117∘71015840322110158401015840













Hu

Su

25 120583m

(a)

Hu25 120583m

(b)

Cu

Hu

25 120583m

(c)

25 120583m

(d)

Hu

Sp

25 120583m

(e)

Sp

25 120583m

(f)

Hu

Re

25 120583m

(g)

Re

25 120583m

(h)



Hu

Al25 120583m

(a)

25 120583m

(b)

Su

Hu

25 120583m

(c)

25 120583m

(d)

25 120583m

(e)

25 120583m

(f)

25 120583m

(g)

25 120583m

(h)



















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite




(I)

(II)

(III)















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite


16a16b16c16d16e16f16g

Seam base

Seam top


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Seam

1Se

am 2

Seam

3Se

am 4

Seam

5Se

am 6

Seam

7Se

am 8

Seam

9Se

am 1

0Se

am 1

2Se

am 1

3Se

am 1

4Se

am 1

5Se

am 1

6Se

am 1

7Se

am 1

8Se

am 1

9

Volu

me

()




100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

(B)

(C) (A) + (D)






Reed moor

Forest moor








100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite




(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(C)

(a)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite


16g16f16e16d

16c16b16a

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(b)








(1)











(2)



5 Discussion









100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


Hu

Su

25 120583m

(a)

Hu25 120583m

(b)

Cu

Hu

25 120583m

(c)

25 120583m

(d)

Hu

Sp

25 120583m

(e)

Sp

25 120583m

(f)

Hu

Re

25 120583m

(g)

Re

25 120583m

(h)



Hu

Al25 120583m

(a)

25 120583m

(b)

Su

Hu

25 120583m

(c)

25 120583m

(d)

25 120583m

(e)

25 120583m

(f)

25 120583m

(g)

25 120583m

(h)



















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite




(I)

(II)

(III)















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite


16a16b16c16d16e16f16g

Seam base

Seam top


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Seam

1Se

am 2

Seam

3Se

am 4

Seam

5Se

am 6

Seam

7Se

am 8

Seam

9Se

am 1

0Se

am 1

2Se

am 1

3Se

am 1

4Se

am 1

5Se

am 1

6Se

am 1

7Se

am 1

8Se

am 1

9

Volu

me

()




100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

(B)

(C) (A) + (D)






Reed moor

Forest moor








100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite




(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(C)

(a)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite


16g16f16e16d

16c16b16a

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(b)








(1)











(2)



5 Discussion









100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


Hu

Al25 120583m

(a)

25 120583m

(b)

Su

Hu

25 120583m

(c)

25 120583m

(d)

25 120583m

(e)

25 120583m

(f)

25 120583m

(g)

25 120583m

(h)



















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite




(I)

(II)

(III)















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite


16a16b16c16d16e16f16g

Seam base

Seam top


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Seam

1Se

am 2

Seam

3Se

am 4

Seam

5Se

am 6

Seam

7Se

am 8

Seam

9Se

am 1

0Se

am 1

2Se

am 1

3Se

am 1

4Se

am 1

5Se

am 1

6Se

am 1

7Se

am 1

8Se

am 1

9

Volu

me

()




100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

(B)

(C) (A) + (D)






Reed moor

Forest moor








100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite




(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(C)

(a)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite


16g16f16e16d

16c16b16a

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(b)








(1)











(2)



5 Discussion









100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite




(I)

(II)

(III)















100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite


16a16b16c16d16e16f16g

Seam base

Seam top


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Seam

1Se

am 2

Seam

3Se

am 4

Seam

5Se

am 6

Seam

7Se

am 8

Seam

9Se

am 1

0Se

am 1

2Se

am 1

3Se

am 1

4Se

am 1

5Se

am 1

6Se

am 1

7Se

am 1

8Se

am 1

9

Volu

me

()




100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

(B)

(C) (A) + (D)






Reed moor

Forest moor








100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite




(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(C)

(a)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite


16g16f16e16d

16c16b16a

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(b)








(1)











(2)



5 Discussion









100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in










100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrinite


16a16b16c16d16e16f16g

Seam base

Seam top


0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Seam

1Se

am 2

Seam

3Se

am 4

Seam

5Se

am 6

Seam

7Se

am 8

Seam

9Se

am 1

0Se

am 1

2Se

am 1

3Se

am 1

4Se

am 1

5Se

am 1

6Se

am 1

7Se

am 1

8Se

am 1

9

Volu

me

()




100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

(B)

(C) (A) + (D)






Reed moor

Forest moor








100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite




(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(C)

(a)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite


16g16f16e16d

16c16b16a

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(b)








(1)











(2)



5 Discussion









100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite




(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

(C)

(a)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Vitrite + clarite


16g16f16e16d

16c16b16a

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(b)








(1)











(2)



5 Discussion









100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in









(2)



5 Discussion









100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10





(D)

(E)

(F)




high flooding











6 Conclusion



01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in


01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x



Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp

Telmatic


Lim

nic

(a)

01

1

10

100

0 05 1 15 2 25

Gel

ifica

tion

inde

x


Seam 16

Terrestrial

Lim

nic

Telmatic

13

24

5

Open marsh

Dry forest swamp

Wet forest swamp


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Ground water index


Limnic Swamp Fen

Inundatedmarsh

Bog

(a)

0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

undw

ater

inde

x

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh


(b)


0001

001

01

1

10

100

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gro

und

wat

er in

dex

Vegetation index

Seam 16

1

2

3

4Limnic Swamp

Bog

Fen

Inundated marsh







Acknowledgments


References


















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in
















































































Volume 2014

Mining


Journal of



Geophysics







Journal of




Advances in











Geology Advances in

research article a comparison of maceral and...

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