Reptiles in your garden:your questions answered

www.naturalengland.org.uk

Grass snakes are adept swimmers, and hunt in garden ponds for amphibians. Paul Sterry/Nature Photographers Ltd

Reptiles in your garden

Reptiles in England

Which reptiles live in my garden?

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England is home to three species of snake (grass snake, adder and smoothsnake) and three species of lizard (common lizard, slow-worm and sandlizard). They are fascinating animals, but are often overlooked ormisunderstood. Snakes, in particular, have suffered from a poor public image.

In many cases, reptiles will go entirely unnoticed in a garden, but sometimestheir discovery will provoke fear. This booklet should ease any worries you mayhave and provide answers to many common questions.

unless you live in one of the fewcounties where it is found. Manyanimals reported as lizards in gardensactually turn out to be newts, whichis not surprising as they look similar.Newts are often found when turningover stones, debris and pieces ofwood in the garden. The photos onpage 21 illustrate the differencesbetween a newt and a lizard. If youfind a lizard that doesn’t match any ofthe descriptions here, it may be anescaped pet, but this is unlikely.

Legal protectionReptiles are an important part of ourwildlife heritage and play a key rolein natural ecosystems. Unfortunately,all English reptiles have declined innumbers over the last few decades,mainly because their habitats havebeen lost, fragmented or poorlymanaged.

encountered snake species. Addersrarely turn up in gardens, but if youlive close to particular habitats incertain parts of the country you maycome across them (see chart). Inaddition to our native English reptiles,escaped or abandoned pet snakes aresometimes found in gardens – mostcommonly in urban or suburbanareas. These species have a widerange of colours and sizes.

Because of their rarity, all British reptilesare protected against killing, injuryand sale. The smooth snake and sandlizard receive additional protectionthat prohibits their disturbance orcapture and damage caused to theirhabitat. There is a fine of up to £5,000and/or up to six months imprisonmentfor any of these offences.

Which snake?Try to take note of the snake’smarkings and colouration. The charton pages 12-13 and accompanyingpictures should help you to identify it.There’s a good chance that your ‘snake’will in fact be a slow-worm (a leglesslizard). These are often mistaken forsnakes, and are regularly found ingardens. Of the ‘true’ snakes, the grasssnake is by far the most commonly

Which lizard?There are three native English lizards:slow-worms, common lizards andsand lizards. Slow-worms (leglesslizards that are often mistaken forsnakes) are the most common lizardsin English gardens. The commonlizard (despite its name) is morerestricted in habitat, and only tendsto turn up in gardens if you live closeto particular habitats. Sand lizardsare very rare in Britain, and it isextremely unlikely you will see one

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Common lizard Lacerta vivipara

Right: Female with newborn young. Somecommon lizards, as here, have obvious stripes.The young are always dark brown, with fewobvious markings. Laurie Campbell/NHPA

Below: Basking adult male. This species is ableto flatten its body to better absorb the sun’sheat. Jim Foster/Natural England

Identification photos – not to scale. See the chart on pages 12-13 for actual sizes.

Above: Adult female (left) showing two light bands on back, and white-centred dark blotches. Adultmale (right) showing bright green sides, most obvious in spring. Sand lizards are much larger thancommon lizards. Hugh Clark/Nature Photographers Ltd

Below: Juvenile sand lizards are mainly dark brown, with white-centred dark blotches (especially noticeable on their sides). Derek Middleton/FLPA

• Keep calm.

• Take a good look, but don’t touch, catch or trap it.

• Remember that it is illegal to kill or injure native snakes.

• Use the chart and photos in this booklet to identify it (see pages 4 to 7 and 12-13).

• Grass snakes and slow-worms are harmless and are frequent garden visitors. Adders, which are venomous, are rarely found in gardens.

If you see a snake in your garden…Sand lizard Lacerta agilis

Smooth snake Coronella austriaca

Above: The smooth snake is normally grey orbrown with darker paired markings down theback. It is rarely found in gardens. R. Wilmshurst/FLPA

Non-natives

Right: Escaped or abandoned pet snakes, suchas this corn snake from North America, showa wide range of colours and sizes. Leonard Lee Rue/FLPA

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Left: Grass snakes almost always have anobvious yellow, orange or white marking,bordered by a black marking on the neck.These marks can be crescents, V-marks orcan appear as a single band or ‘collar’.Females lay 10 to 40 leathery eggs in lateJune to July. A. R. Hamblin/FLPA

Slow-worm Anguis fragilis

Left: Adult females have dark brown sides, andoften a thin stripe along the top of the bodyending in a blotch on the head. Examinedclosely, the stripe can sometimes appear as avery fine zigzag (but do not confuse this withthe thicker markings on the adder). A. R. Hamblin/FLPA

Left: Young slow-worms are golden, silver orcopper on top. They have black sides and a black stripe down the back, ending in a blotch on the head. Females retain this basic pattern, while males lose it with age.Laurie Campbell/NHPA

Below: Adult males have few obviousmarkings, often being plain grey or brown.Note the shiny, cylindrical appearance. Slow-worms may have blunt tails. Mike Lane/NHPA

Grass snake Natrix natrix

Left : Occasionally, grass snakes are verydark all over and the light neck marks arereduced or missing. However, the blackmarks on the neck and sides are stillpresent. Mike Lane/NHPA

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Finding a snake in your garden can bea shock, but after the initial surprisemany people grow to appreciate thesefascinating creatures. On the otherhand, some people have a genuinesnake phobia that is hard to shake off.The fear provoked by snakes isdisproportionate to the threat theypose – which is normally none at all, asgrass snakes (the commonest species)are harmless to people. However, thestress some people experience whendealing with snakes is very real. Suchpeople may require assistance whendealing with snake encounters;behavioral therapy or hypnotherapymay help in the long term.

How harmful are adders?The adder is the only venomous snakein Britain, a fact which has earned it adubious public image. Bites fromadders are very rare, and most occurwhen a snake is picked up. Mostreactions to adder bites are mild, butany bite should be regarded aspotentially serious and immediatemedical advice should be sought. Inthe last century just 12 human deathsin Britain have been attributed toadder bites. This compares with severaldeaths every year due to insect stings.

Occasionally, people working in theirgarden report being bitten by anadder, but say they did not see the

Adder Vipera berus

Below: Adult females (left) have a light brown background with darker brown markings. Males(right) are grey or whitish with black markings. Joe Blossom/NHPA

Left: Juvenile grass snakes often have veryobvious light neck markings. They arearound 15 cm (6 in) and are very thin athatching (late August to September).Jim Foster/Natural England

Grass snake Natrix natrix. cont. snake responsible. These cases aremore likely to be due to spider bites(there are several British speciescapable of delivering a surprisinglypainful bite) or pricking by thorns.Cats and dogs are occasionally bittenby adders, but these bites rarely provefatal and probably occur more often inthe countryside than in gardens. Vetsand doctors in areas where addersoccur are usually experienced inhandling bite cases, and there are veryeffective treatments.

Some female and juvenile adders are reddish-brown, as below. Occasionally addersare all black (melanistic) with just a faint traceof zigzag markings. Robin Chittenden/FLPA

Fear of snakes

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Learning to live with reptiles

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Why do snakes live in my garden?Unless you have a very large gardencontaining plenty of wildlife areas, it isunlikely that snakes live therepermanently. It’s more likely that thesnakes in your garden are just visitors.The more reptile habitats there arenear to your house, the more likely it isthat you will have a reptilian visitor.

Living near the following types of areaincreases the likelihood of findingreptiles in your garden:• nature reserves containing

important habitats such as heathland and rough grassland

• derelict urban areas, such as abandoned factory sites

• disused quarries• allotments• unshaded road and rail banks with

grass/scrub cover• ponds, rivers and other wetlands*• muck heaps on farms and stables.*

The following features in your gardenmay attract reptiles:• ponds*• compost or grass cuttings heap*• wildlife areas with long grass

and shrubs• rockeries• wood, rock and rubble piles.

Living near a good reptile habitatmeans that snakes or lizards maybecome regular visitors to your

garden. At first, this can causeconcern to some, but a few facts canhelp reassure you:• Reptiles are timid. When they

detect people or pets they normally flee and seek cover.

• Grass snakes and slow-worms (the most common reptile species in gardens) are harmless to peopleand pets.

• Reptiles hibernate from around October to March, and most garden visits are reported in June to September. You are only likely to see them during a short period of the year.

• You are most likely to see reptiles on warm, sunny days. On these days they will be more active, and quicker to flee.

• When working in the garden, be prepared to find reptiles if you lift up debris or are working near features such as hedges, ponds, compost heaps and areas of long grass.

• If you see a reptile in your garden, report it to a reptile conservation group (see Contacts, page 22). They may be interested to hear about your discovery (especially if it is an unusual species) and can offer you further advice.

• It is best not to handle snakes and lizards, as it can harm them.

* Applies mainly to grass snakes

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Occurrence in gardens

Rare, except wheregood habitats are nearthe garden.

Frequent if slow-wormspresent in general area,and garden has longgrass and refuges suchas wood piles. May befound in city gardens.

Very rare – only likelynear heathland inDorset or sandy areason Sefton Coast.

Frequent, especiallyclose to ponds, farms orstables with muckheaps. Can travel longdistances. Compostheaps and ponds mayattract grass snakes.

Rare, except when nearto favoured habitats –more likely in sand orchalk areas in Dorset,Cornwall, Hampshire,Surrey and Sussex.

Very rare – only close toheathland sites inDorset, Hampshire andSurrey.

Snakes: occasional.Lizards: rare.

Preferred habitats (excluding gardens)

Heathland, bogs, moorland,woodland edge, rough grassland;often found in derelict urban areasand on railway banks.

Heathland, bogs, moorland,woodland edge, rough grassland;often found in derelict urban areasand on railway banks.

Predominantly dry heathland (south)or sand dunes (Merseyside). Mayalso occur on adjacent grassland,derelict urban areas, railway banks.

Normally associated with ponds,lakes, streams, rivers, canals,marshes. Travel widely insurrounding habitats: woodland,grassland, low intensity farmland,heathland, derelict urban areas.

Heathland, bogs, moorland,woodland edge, rough grassland;sometimes on derelict urban areasand railway banks. Prefer sandy orchalky soils; rare on clay soils.

Predominantly heathland (as above).May also occur on adjacentgrassland, derelict urban areas,railway banks.

Normally in urban or suburbanareas.

Common lizard

Slow-worm

Sand lizard

Grass snake

Adder

Smoothsnake

Escaped pet(variousspecies)

Distribution

Widespread across England butnormally occurs in small areas wherepreferred habitats occur. Absent fromarea of intensive agriculture.

Widespread across England. Commonin some localities, but absent from areasof intensive agriculture.

Highly restricted. Mostly in Dorset, a fewpopulations in Merseyside (SeftonCoast), Hampshire, Surrey, West Sussex,Berkshire, Devon, Cornwall.

Widespread across central and southernEngland, but much rarer north of theMidlands.

Found in most counties of England, butrestricted to distinct patches of suitablehabitat (sometimes very small areas).Largely absent or rare in the north-westand the Midlands.

Highly restricted. Mostly in Dorset, somepopulations in Hampshire and Surrey.

Can be anywhere close to populationcentres.

Typical adult length

14 cm (5 in)

35 cm (14 in)(NB. manyslow-wormslose theirtails, so canbe shorter.)

18 cm (7 in)

75 cm (2 ft)

55 cm (2 ft)

55 cm (2 ft)

Various.

Garden reptile identification chart – use alongside the photos on pages 4 to 8Colours, markings, key identification features

Light and dark spots, flecks and stripes onbrown/grey background. Very variable.Young may be all brown or black. Oftenbasks on rocks, wood piles, etc.

Brown, copper, golden or grey; may haveblack/dark brown sides and thin stripe on back. Small head, often with darkspot. Very shiny. Tail often blunt.Normally discovered underneath objectslying on ground.

Light and dark spots/blotches on brownor green background. Two light bandson either side of back. Normally seenbasking.

Background: olive-green, brown or grey.Neck: yellow or white mark, next to blackmark. Black bars down sides, some blackspots on top. Markings are occasionallyfaint. Normally seen in or near ponds, orbasking in sunny spot. Very fast moving.

Background: grey or brown; may bereddish. Dark brown, reddish or blackzigzag from head to tail. Spots on sides.Entirely black adders sometimes occur.Normally seen basking in sunny spots.

Background: grey or brown.Dark blotches on back, normally in pairs.Dark blotch on head. Secretive, normallyfound underneath objects.

Various.

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What if I don’t want snakes inmy garden?Step 1. Try to identify the speciesyou have seen.Many people who find a snake in theirgarden think they have seen an adder,but over 95 per cent of adder reportsfrom gardens turn out to be grasssnakes or slow-worms. This is notsurprising because we often get onlyfleeting glimpses of snakes. Adders areonly likely to occur in your garden ifyou live close to their preferred habitats(see the chart on pages 12-13). In mostof England, it is very unusual to findadders in gardens. If the snake you’veseen is an escaped pet, it should beremoved for re-homing.Call the RSPCA on 0870 33 35 999.

Step 2. Think about why the snakewas in your garden:a) If your garden backs on to anature reserve, railway embankment,or other good snake habitat, there’slittle point in trying to remove snakesor prevent them from entering yourgarden. In these cases, snakes arelikely to be regular garden visitorsand it’s better to learn to live withthem (see page 10). However, if youhave a serious snakes phobia, or areconcerned about adders, you couldtry to snake-proof your garden (seepage 16).

b) If you live in an area wherethere are many good reptilehabitat nearby (areas of heathland,for example) then snakes mayoccasionally visit your garden.In these cases, it’s likely that thesnake is just passing throughand will quickly move on of itsown accord.

c) In some cases, you might live inan area surrounded by good snakehabitat, but your home is separatedfrom this by areas of poor habitat(such as roads and built-up areasetc). If this is the case, a visitingsnake may become disoriented andbe unable to get back to its normalhabitat. If this happens, it may bebest to find someone to remove thesnake. A reptile conservation groupor the RSPCA should be able toadvise you (see contacts page 22).

Reptiles are attracted to gardens with sunny areas,plenty of vegetation cover, and places to takeshelter. Paul Sterry/Nature Photographers Ltd

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For example, it would be unusual for agrass snake to eat more than ten adultamphibians in a year. If you noticethat the number of frogs in your gardenis declining, it’s likely to be part of anatural fluctuation, the result ofdisease, habitat changes or evenpredation by other creatures, suchas fish.

How can I stop grass snakes eating mygoldfish?Grass snakes sometimes enter gardensto catch amphibians, and onlyoccasionally eat goldfish. When theydo it’s only in very small numbers. Ifyou’ve noticed a sudden, substantialloss of fish in your pond, it’s muchmore likely to be the work of herons orcats. To reduce snake predation, followthe guidance on snake-proofing yourgarden (see page 16).

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How can I go about removing a snakefrom my garden?This is not normally recommended,but it can be advisable to removedisorientated, injured or trappedsnakes, or where there is a genuinedanger of an adder bite.

The Contacts section on page 22 listsorganisations that may be able torecommend local reptile experts. Youshould not handle snakes and lizardsyourself as you may harm them.The RSPCA (tel: 0870 33 35 999) may beable to help with trapped or injuredsnakes. Native snakes should beremoved to the nearest suitable habitat.

How can I stop snakes harmingother wildlife?Snakes are an important part of the food web, and they will sometimesenter gardens to find prey. Snakes takevery few prey items and will notendanger prey populations in doing so.

Grass snakes often feed on frogs, sodiscouraging amphibians may make yourgarden less atractive to snakes. However, thinkcarefully before acting, as frogs and snakesboth need our help. Jim Foster/Natural England

Can I ‘snake-proof’ my garden?The following will make a gardenmuch less attractive to reptiles:

• Mow your grass regularly to keepit short.

• Remove shrubs and other low-growing plants that providecover at ground level.

• Remove features that provide reptiles with hiding places, such as rockeries, debris, woodpiles, and boards. If you need a wood pile, raise it above the ground by 30 cm (1 ft), by placing it on a rack.

• Remove compost heaps and piles of grass cuttings, or put them in sealed bins.

• Putting a wall or close-fitting fencearound a pond can help to reducesnake access, but this will cause problems for other wildlife. Filling in your pond is a drastic solution that is only likely to dissuade grasssnakes.

• Fill in any holes or crevices where reptiles can hide, for exampleunder the shed, patios or walls. Fill in holes only when they areunoccupied.

You may also need to ask neighboursto take similar action. Experienceshows that the above steps can resultin a major reduction in snake visits.However, it is very difficult to entirelyprevent snakes or lizards enteringyour garden. A more thoroughsolution is to erect a special fencearound your garden. It should be atleast 60 cm (2 ft) high, dug into theground, and carefully sealed to leaveno gaps. You can do this by attachinghard-wearing, UV-resistant plasticsheeting (from a builders’ merchant)to an existing fence. Alternatively, afree-standing fence can beconstructed by using stakes tosupport the sheeting. A low brickwall can also be effective.

Important note: the steps describedabove will severely reduce the overallvalue of your garden for otherwildlife. Deciding on a sensiblebalance is up to you.

Rockeries, log piles, and debris are attractive toreptiles. Jurgen & Christine Sohns/FLPA

Encouraging reptilesin your gardenWith a little planning, gardens can bemade into valuable reptile refugesthat help compensate for habitatslost in the countryside.

How can I attract reptiles tomy garden?Leave areas of your garden to growwild, but also retain some shorterareas of vegetation that will allowreptiles to bask in the sun. Constructlog piles in sunny spots, and reduce

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Derelict urban areas often become excellent reptile habitats. Unfortunately, many of these‘brownfield’ sites are now targeted for development. Jim Foster/Natural England

the height of shading trees, hedgesor fences. Ensure there is free entryat ground level around the edge ofthe garden, for example, bycreating gaps under fencing.Create rockeries, or banks withplenty of crevices in south-facingareas close to clumps of densevegetation. Maintain a heap ofgrass cuttings or a compost heap.Dig a pond to encourageamphibians – an important prey forgrass snakes – and leave someovergrown areas near the pond thatwill allow snakes to approach insafety. Leaving out wooden boards,roofing felt or corrugated ironsheets will help you find out ifreptiles are using the garden;reptiles will either bask on top ofthem or use them as shelter.

Will grass snakes breed inmy garden?Grass snakes lay their eggs inwarm, moist areas to helpincubation. Studies show thatthey will readily use garden compostand heaps ofgrass cuttings.

How long do reptiles live?Many reptiles die within the first year oflife, through predation or duringhibernation. If they survive to reachsexual maturity (generally after three tofive years) a good proportion may liveto around ten years. A smaller numberwill exceed this. The individuals ofsome species, such as adders andsmooth snakes, can live up to 18 years.

Are reptiles cold-blooded?It is more correct to say they havevariable body temperatures. Snakes andlizards cannot generate their own bodyheat internally, and so depend onexternal sources. This means basking inthe sun, or being in contact with warmsurfaces or warm air. The cooler theyare, the less active they become.Reptiles select the right place to warmup or cool down – a process calledthermoregulation. A hibernating lizardwould have a very low temperature inwinter, but one basking on a sunnyAugust day would be warm. .

When and where are reptiles active?Reptiles generally emerge fromhibernation in March, and are active

Reptile biology

Use these tips to encourage them:• Make the heap as big as possible.

• Put it in a sunny spot, but close to a hedge or ground cover.

• Replenish the heap with compost, kitchen waste, grass cuttings, manure, dead leaves or sawdust.

• Ensure there is easy access forthe snakes – do not seal theheap completely.

• Do not turn the heap betweenmid-June and late September,as eggs may be inside.

How can I avoid injuring reptilesin my garden?Cats often kill or injure wildlife, so it isbest not to have one if you want toencourage reptiles. Bells on cat collarswill not help much as lizards do nothave good hearing and snakes cannothear airborne sounds at all. Nettingshould not be placed over ponds orvegetable plots as snakes often dieafter getting caught in flexible, narrow-

mesh netting. If you have to usenetting, try to use rigid netting materialwith a mesh size of at least 4 cm (1in). Before mowing the lawn, walk thearea to be cut so that reptiles aredispersed into sheltered areas. Keep aspecial look-out for snakes in areas oflong grass. Cutting grass on cold daysreduces the chances of killing reptiles.

Should I introduce reptiles tomy garden?If you create good garden habitatsand reptiles occur in nearby wildhabitats, they will probably coloniseyour garden naturally. Bringing reptilesinto your garden is not advised asthey may become disorientated, andthe habitats in your garden may notbe good enough to support them.Remember that it is against the lawto disturb smooth snakes and sandlizards or their habitats and theyshould never be interfered with.

Reptiles need special places to hibernate,often in crevices on south facing slopes.Gardens rarely provide these conditions.Jim Foster/Natural England

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birth or hatching from July to September.The exact timing of reproduction variesbetween species and depends a greatdeal on weather conditions.

How many young do they have?Typical numbers per female are: Common lizard 4–10.Slow-worm 6–12.Sand lizard 6–14 (eggs).Grass snake 10–40 (eggs).Adder 6–20.Smooth snake 4–15.

Which predators feed on reptiles?Natural predators include other reptiles,crows, magpies, buzzards, kestrels,foxes, badgers and hedgehogs.Cats will also prey on reptiles, andpheasants eat young snakes.

What do reptiles eat?Lizards feed on a range of invertebrates,including insects, spiders and molluscs.Grass snakes feed largely onamphibians, while adders and smoothsnakes prefer lizards and smallmammals. Fish and young birds aresometimes taken by snakes.

Newts like the smooth newt (right) havevelvety skin, four toes on front feet, anda vertically flattened tail. Jim Foster/Natural EnglandAd

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Newts are often mistaken for lizards.Common lizards like the one abovehave scaly, shiny skin, five toes and arounded tail.Nicholas Brown/Nature Photographers Ltd

Reptiles generally emerge fromhibernation in March, and are activeuntil October; some may be activeearlier – or later – if weather permits.Snakes can travel long distances, andgrass snakes have been tracked onjourneys of over 4 km (2 miles).Lizards seem to move much less, oftenoccupying very restricted areas.

How do reptiles reproduce?Only sand lizards and grass snakes layeggs. They do so in June and late-June toJuly respectively. The other reptilespecies give birth to live young; in somecases inside a transparent membrane. Mating occurs from April to June, and

Natural England1 East Parade Sheffield, S1 2ETEnquiry Service: 0845 600 3078enquiries@naturalengland.org.ukwww.naturalengland.org.uk

The HerpetologicalConservation Trust 655a Christchurch Road, BoscombeBournemouthDorset, BH1 4APTel: 01202 391319www.herpconstrust.org.uk.

The British Herpetological Society11 Stathmore PlaceMontroseAngus, DD10 8LQwww.thebhs.org

Amphibian and Reptile Groupsof the UK (ARG-UK)www.arg-uk.org.uk(A network of wildlife volunteergroups which aim to protect andconserve the native amphibiansand reptiles found in the UK.)

Froglife 9 Swan CourtCygnet ParkHamptonPeterborough, PE7 8GXTel: 01733 558960www.froglife.org.

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T. Beebee and R. Griffiths. Amphibiansand reptiles: A natural history of theBritish herpetofauna. HarperCollins(The New Naturalist series). 2000.

P. Roberts, Froglife & D. Ovenden.Guide to the reptiles and amphibiansof Britain and Ireland. The FieldStudies Council. 1999.

Amphibians in your garden: yourquestions answered.Natural England. 2007.

P. Stafford.The adder. Shire Publications. 1987

Other titles

ContactsThis is one of a range of wildlife gardeningbooklets published by Natural England.For more details, contact the NaturalEngland Enquiry Service on 0845 600 3078or e-mail enquiries@naturalengland.org.uk

Natural England also producesGardening with wildlife in mind, anillustrated wildlife reference.

Originally on CD but now also availableonline, Gardening with wildlife in mindhas detailed information on 800 plantsand animal species often found in ourgardens, and shows how they areecologically linked.See www.plantpress.com

Further information

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P. Roberts, Froglife & D. Ovenden.Guide to the reptiles and amphibiansof Britain and Ireland. The FieldStudies Council. 1999.

P. Stafford.Lizards of the British Isles. ShirePublications. 1989.

T. Langton.Snakes and lizards. Whittet Books. 1989.

P. Edgar et al. Reptile habitatmanagement handbook. TheHerpetological ConservationTrust. 2007.

This pregnant female common lizard has lost her tail, but it will regrow. Jim Foster/Natural England

Natural England works for people, places and natureto conserve and enhance biodiversity, landscapes andwildlife in rural, urban, coastal and marine areas.We conserve and enhance the natural environment forits intrinsic value, the wellbeing and enjoyment ofpeople, and the economic prosperity it brings.

www.naturalengland.org.uk

© Natural England 2007

ISBN 978-1-84754-008-9

Catalogue code NE15

Written by Jim Foster. Designed by statusdesign.co.uk

Front cover image: The grass snake is the most commonlyseen snake in English gardens. Jim Foster/Natural England