representations of teacher quality, quantity, and...

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Representations of Teacher Quality, Quantity, and Diversity in a National Mathematics and Science Program

Patricia S. Moyer-Packenham, Johnna J. Bolyard, and Hana OhGeorge Mason University

Patricia KridlerAuburn Middle School

Gwenanne Salkind Fairfax County Public Schools

AbstractGrowing awareness of the importance of teacher quality in mathematics and science has stimulated a variety of national reports and funded initiatives for the purpose of improving teaching and learning in K-12 schools. This study examined the work of awardees in one federally-funded program that included a focus on increasing the number, quality, and diversity of mathematics and science teachers. Secondary data sources were used to understand representations of mathematics and science teacher quality, quantity, and diversity reported by awardees, and to identify interventions awardees implemented to influence teacher quality, quantity, and diversity. Results indicated a primary focus on the development of teacher characteristics such as subject knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and instructional practices. Seven common interventions were implemented across the program to influence the quality of individual teachers and the quantity and diversity of the teacher population. Three prevalent themes in the secondary documents included: a) awardees’ knowledge of and implementation of research-based professional development practices; b) a shift in emphasis to include specialized subject knowledge preparation for elementary teachers, in addition to the traditional emphasis on subject knowledge for middle and high school teachers; and c) involvement of STEM faculty and Teacher Leaders in various collaborative relationships, in activities at all levels (K-12) and in both mathematics and

Journal of Educational Research & Policy Studies

�science. Intervention efforts to influence teacher quantity and diversity were in their initial stages and limited in scope. These findings are discussed with reference to the impact of the program on the quality, quantity, and diversity of mathematics and science teachers.

Introduction

Teacherqualityinmathematicsandsciencehasasignificantimpactontheteachingandlearningprocess(Ferrini-Mundy&Schmidt,2005;Hiebertetal.,2003;Lindquist,2001;Silver&Kenney,2000).Aspolicy,suchastheNoChildLeftBehindActof2001(NCLB,2002)andresearch, includingtheTIMSSinternationalcomparisonsofstudentperformance(Hiebertetal.,2003),convergearoundmathematicsandscienceissues,itisclearthattheimportanceof teacherquality in thesecontent-specificareas isofnationalsignificance.Althoughthequalityofmathematicsandscienceteachershasgainednationalprominenceinpolicystatementsandeducationalreformefforts(ConferenceBoardoftheMathematicalSciences,2001;CouncilofScientificSocietyPresidents, 2004;NationalCouncil ofTeachers ofMathematics,1991,2005;NationalResearchCouncil, 1996;NationalScienceTeachersAssociation’s,2002,2004),understandingthemeaningofteacherqualityisacomplexissue. Teacher quality includes not only the characteristics of individualteachers,butalsothecharacteristicsoftheteacherpopulationasawhole.Whenwerefertoimprovingateacher’ssubject-specificknowledgeinadisciplinesuchasmathematicsorscience,wearereferringtothequalityofindividualteachers.Whenwerefertotheexaminationofteacherturnoverorteachershortagesinsubject-specificareasortotheimportanceofadiverseteachingforce,wearereferringtothequalityoftheteacherpopulation.Teacherquality,then,isacomplexconstructencompassinganarrayofdifferentcharacteristicsthatarenoteasilydefined,assessed,categorized,ormeasured.

In July1999,U.S.SecretaryofEducationRichardRileyannouncedtheappointmentoftheNationalCommissiononMathematicsandScienceTeaching for the 21stCentury (theGlennCommission) to investigate thequalityofmathematicsandscienceteachingandexaminewaystoincreasethenumberandqualityofmathematicsandscienceteachersinK-12schools.Theresultingreport,Before It’s Too Late (NationalCommissiononMathematics

Fall 2006 / Volume 6, Number 2

3andScienceTeachingforthe21stCentury,2000),highlightedtheimportanceofqualityeducation inmathematicsandscience topreparestudents tobecompetitiveinanincreasinglyglobalsociety.Thisfocusonteacherqualityinmathematicsandsciencehasresultedinseveralnationalinitiativesfundedbythefederalgovernment,underthedirectionofagenciessuchastheNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)andtheDepartmentofEducation,toinitiateMath and Science Partnership ProgramsforthepurposeofimprovingmathematicsandscienceteachingandlearninginK-12schools.ThegoalsoftheNSFsMathandSciencePartnership(MSP)Programarestatedasfollows:

MSP serves students and educators by emphasizing strongpartnershipsthat tacklelocalneedsandbuildgrassrootssupportto:• Enhanceschools’capacitytoprovidechallengingcurriculaforallstudentsandencouragemorestudentstosucceedinadvancedcoursesinmathematicsandthesciences;

• Increasethenumber,qualityanddiversityofmathematicsandscienceteachers,especiallyinunderservedareas;

• Engageandsupportscientists,mathematicians,andengineersat local universities and local industries toworkwithK-12educatorsandstudents;

• Contributetoagreaterunderstandingofhowstudentseffectivelylearnmathematicsandscienceandhowteacherpreparationandprofessionaldevelopmentcanbeimproved;and

• Promoteinstitutionalandorganizationalchangeineducationsystems—fromkindergartenthroughgraduateschool—tosustainpartnerships’promising practices and policies (National Science Foundation,2007).

The present study was designed to examine more closely theimplementationofoneofthesegoals;namely,thewayinwhichawardeesintheMSPProgram“increasethenumber,qualityanddiversityofmathematicsandscienceteachers…”(item#2).Ourinvestigationfocusedonthreemajorconstructs:thequalityofindividualmathematicsandscienceteachers,thequantityofmathematicsandscienceteachersintheteacherpopulation,andthediversityofmathematicsandscienceteachersintheteacherpopulation;and examined these constructs along two dimensions: representations


4and interventions. In the sections that followwe review the literature onteacherquality,quantity,anddiversity;presentfindingsbasedonsecondarysourcedocumentsprovidedbyMSPProgramawardeesthatilluminatetheirrepresentationsofteacherquality,quantity,anddiversitywithintheirwork;anddiscuss the interventionsidentifiedbyawardeestoinfluencequality,quantity,anddiversityspecificallyformathematicsandscienceteachers.Thesefindingsleadtoadiscussionoftheimplicationsofawardees’workonteacherquality,quantity,anddiversityformathematicsandscienceeducation.

Research on Teacher Quality, Quantity, and Diversity

Toestablishabackgroundagainstwhich toexamine representationsof teacher quality,we usedBolyard andMoyer-Packenham’s (in press)review identifyingsixcharacteristicsofmathematicsandscience teacherscommonlyexamined for their relationship tostudentoutcomes.Thesesixcommonlyusedcharacteristicsincluded:1)generalability,2)experience,3)pedagogicalknowledge,4)subjectknowledge,5)certificationstatus,and6)teacherbehaviors,practices,andbeliefs.Wealsousedcharacteristicsintheliterature related to the teacherpopulation.Thesecharacteristics included:attrition,migration, and retention (for teacherquantity) (Ingersoll, 2006a;Ingersoll,2006b;Johnson,Berg,&Donaldson,2005);andthedemographiccompositionoftheteachingforce,theimportanceofhavingadiverseteachingforce,andmethodsandstrategiesforimprovingteacherdiversity(forteacherdiversity) (Clewell&Villegas, 1998;Dandy, 1998; Darling-Hammond,Dilworth,&Bullmaster,1996;Holloway,2002;Jorgenson,2001;Loving&Marshall,1997;Newby,Swift,&Newby,2000;Shen,Wegenke,&Cooley,2003;Torres,Santos,Peck,&Cortes,2004).Amongthesecharacteristicsarevariablesgatheredthroughassessmentmeasures(i.e.,responsestotestitemsorteachingperformanceduringanobservation)andnonassessmentmeasures(i.e., highest degree obtainedor number of years of teaching experience)(AmericanStatisticalAssociation,2007).

Teacher Quality: Characteristics of Individual Mathematics and Science Teachers Subject knowledge isconsideredbymanytobeanimportantcharacteristicofmathematicsandscienceteachers.Researchindicateslinksbetweenteachers’


5subjectmatter preparation and teacher effectiveness (Darling-Hammond,2000;Darling-Hammond&Youngs,2002;Rice,2003;Wilson&Floden,2003;Wilson,Floden,&Ferrini-Mundy, 2001),with themost consistentresults showingpositive links between teachers’mathematics knowledgeandsecondarystudents’mathematicsachievement(Wilson&Floden,2003).GoldhaberandBrewer(1997a;1997b)foundthatteachersholdingbachelor’sormaster’s degrees inmathematics had a statistically-significant positiverelationshiptohighschoolstudents’mathematicsachievement(comparedtoteacherswithoutadvanceddegreesorout-of-subjectdegrees).Inscience,theyfoundholdingabachelor’sdegreeinscience(ratherthanhavingnodegreeoraBAinanothersubject)tohaveastatisticallypositiverelationshipwithstudentachievement(Goldhaber&Brewer,1997a).AlaterstudyfoundsimilarpositiveresultsforteachershavingamathematicsBAorMAonsecondarystudents’mathematicsachievement,butnosignificantrelationshipbetweenasciencedegreeandsecondarystudents’scienceachievement(Goldhaber&Brewer,2000).Studiesoftherelationshipbetweenthenumberofcoursestakeninthesubjectandstudentachievementhavefoundgenerallypositiveresultsformathematics(Chaney,1995;Monk,1994).Inscience,resultsaregenerallypositivebutdependupontheareaofsciencestudied(e.g.,physical,earth,orlifesciences)(Chaney,1995;Druva&Anderson,1983;Monk&King,1994). Studiesofmathematicsandscienceteachers’pedagogical knowledge havereportedpositiveeffectsofeducationtrainingonteachers’knowledgeandpractices(forexample,seeAdams&Krockover,1997;Gess-Newsome&Lederman,1993;Valli&Agostinelli,1993).Studiesexaminingtherelationshipbetweendegreesineducationasameasureofteachers’pedagogicalknowledgeandstudentoutcomeshavebeenmixed.Atthesecondarylevel,studiesindicatethatcourseworktakeninsubject-specificpedagogyispositivelyrelatedtosecondarystudents’achievement,particularlyinmathematics(Chaney,1995;Monk,1994).WilsonandFloden(2003)notethatmuchoftheresearchfocusesonteachereducationprogramsratherthanspecificcoursesorexperiences. Researchalsoexaminestherelationshipbetweenteachers’ behaviors, practices, and beliefsandstudentoutcomes.Peterson,Fennema,Carpenter,andLoef(1989)foundasignificantrelationshipbetweenfirst-gradeteachers’pedagogical content beliefs about addition and subtraction and studentachievement.Inscience,theuseofhands-onlaboratories(Burkam,Lee,&


6Smerdon,1997)andinquiry-basedteachingpractices(VonSecker,2002)weresignificantlyrelatedtosecondarystudents’scienceachievement.Otherstudiesshowassociationsbetweencharacteristicsofhigh school science teachersandbetterclassroomdiscipline(Druva&Anderson;1983),andkindergartenteachers’instructionalpracticesandstudentgainsinmathematics(Guarino,Hamilton,Lockwood,&Rathbun,2006). Mathematicsandscienceteachers’certification statusisfrequentlyusedasameasureof theeffectsofknowledgegainedfromteacherpreparation(Darling-Hammond, Berry,&Thoreson, 2001). Researchers comparethosewhoarefullycertifiedandthosewhoholdprovisionaloremergencycertification(Evertson,Hawley,&Zlotnik,1985;Fetler,1999;Goe,2002;Goldhaber&Brewer,2000).Severalstudiesindicateanadvantageinfavoroffullycertifiedteachersonmeasuresofstudentachievementandteacherperformance evaluations (Darling-Hammond, 2000;Evertson,Hawley,&Zlotnik,1985;Fetler,1999).Mathematicsstudentachievementhasalsobeenfoundtobepositivelyassociatedwithhavingateacherwhoiscertifiedin-field(Hawk,Coble,&Swanson,1985;Goldhaber&Brewer,1997a,1997b).Severalstudiesshownosignificantdifferencesormixedresultswhencomparingtheteaching performances of regularly versus alternatively certified teachersonsubjectareaandprofessionalknowledgetests(Hawk&Schmidt,1989),performanceratings(Hawk&Schmidt,1989;Lutz&Hutton,1989;Sandlin,Young,&Karge,1992),teachingconcernssurveys(Houston,Marshall,&McDavid,1993;Sandlinetal.,1992),andteacherobservationsandstudentachievement(Miller,McKenna,&McKenna,1998). Researchers frequently investigate years of teaching experience as a teacher quality characteristicwith several studies reporting positiverelationships between teachers’ years of experience and effectiveness(Ehrenberg&Brewer, 1995;Ferguson, 1991;Fetler, 1999;Goldhaber&Brewer,1997b;Greenwald,Hedges,&Laine,1996;Hanushek,1992,1996;Murnane&Phillips,1981).Hawkins,Stancavage,andDossey(1998)foundstatistically-significantassociationsbetweenteacherexperienceand4th- and 8th-gradestudents’mathematicsachievement.Rivkin,Hanushek,andKain(2005)foundstudentsofbeginningteachersperformingsignificantlyworsethan thoseofexperienced teachers inmathematics. Inscience,DruvaandAnderson’s (1983)meta-analysisof65studies foundstudentoutcomes insciencepositivelyrelatedtoteachers’experience.Howevertherelationship


7wasnotparticularlystrong.Otherstudiesexaminingtherelationshipbetweenteacherexperienceandstudentachievementhavereportedmixedornoresults(Ferguson&Ladd,1996;Hill,Rowan,&Ball,2005;Rowan,Correnti,&Miller,2002). General ability refers to teachers’ general intellectual academic andverbal abilities, often including evidence of language andmathematicalproficiency.Studiesgenerallyreportapositiverelationshipbetweenmeasuresofteachers’generalandverbalabilitiesandtheireffectiveness(Ehrenberg&Brewer,1994;Ferguson,1991;Ferguson&Ladd1996;Greenwald,Hedges,&Laine, 1996;Hanushek, 1971;Strauss&Sawyer 1986).Other studiesindicatemixedornegativeresults(Ehrenberg&Brewer,1995;Guyton&Farokhi,1987;Hanushek,1992;Murnane&Phillips,1981).

Teacher Quantity: Turnover and Retention of Mathematics and Science Teachers Theentryandexitofteachersintoandoutoftheprofessionhasbeencharacterizedasa“revolvingdoor.”Ingersoll(2001)arguesthatthissituationisnotaresultofshortagesofteachersorteacherretirements,butratherteacher turnover,definedasdepartureofteachersfromtheirteachingjobs.Statisticsindicatethatthecurrentteachingforcewilllosealmosthalfofitsprofessionalsinthenextfewyearsandoneinfivenewteacherswillnotremaininteachinglongenoughtoreachtheirfourthyear(Johnson&Birkeland,2003). Twoimportantelementsofteacherturnoverareteacher attrition(leavingtheprofession)andteacher migration(movingfromoneschooltoanother)(Johnsonetal.,2005).Whenschoolsreportashortageofmathematicsandscienceteachers,theyareoftenreferringtobothoftheseelements.Overtime,researchhasshown thatabout15percentofAmerica’s3million teachersleavetheirschoolsorleaveteachingeachyear,andafter5years,46percentof teachers leavetheteachingprofession(Ingersoll,2006a;2006b).Thesenumbersareevenmorestartlingfornewteachers,wholeaveatarateofalmost50percentafterfouryears,andforteachersinsmall,urban,poorschools,wheretheturnoverratesare26percenteachyear. Schools searching formathematics and science teachers alreadyknowhowdifficult it is to find replacementswith annual turnover ratesformathematics and science teachers at about 16percent and15percentrespectively, compared to 9 percent for social studies and12percent for


8English(Ingersoll,2006b).Acloserexaminationofturnoverformathematicsandscienceteachersshowsthatreasonsforleavingteachingincludepursuingotherjobs(28%)andretiring(11%).While40percentofmathematicsandscienceteacherswholeavedosobecauseofdissatisfaction,only29percentofallteachersinthegeneralpopulationreportleavingteachingbecauseofdissatisfaction.Formathematicsandscienceteachers,dissatisfactionmostfrequently includespoor salary, poor administrative support, poor studentmotivation,andstudentdisciplineproblems(Ingersoll,2006a).Recruitingmoreandmoreteacherswillnotaddresstheseproblems.Schoolsmustdesigninductionandretentionplansthattakeintoaccountschoolworkingconditionsiftheywanttheirmathematicsandscienceteacherstostayinteaching. Research on teacher induction shows thatwhen afirst-year teacherhasafullinductionexperience(includingcollaborationwithamentorinthesamesubjectfield,teachernetworkingandbeginnersseminarswithothernewteachers,reducingnewteachers’coursepreparations,providingateacher’saide, face timewith school administrators, regularly scheduled commonplanningand release time for thementorandnew teacher toobserveandanalyzeteaching),thereisastatisticallysignificantimpactontheretentionofthatteacher(Smith&Ingersoll,2004).Unfortunatelyonlyonepercentofnewteachersreceivethistypeofcomprehensivesupport(Smith&Ingersoll,2004). High teacher turnover inmathematics and science hasmany costs.Research shows that teacher turnover increases the variation in studentoutcomes across grades and cohorts in a school, with differences inmathematicsachievementsignificantly related to teacher turnover (Rivkinetal.,2005).Unfortunatelyforstudents,thehighestturnoverratesareinthepoorest schoolswheremathematicsand science teachersareneededmost(Neild,Useem,Travers,&Lesnick,2003).Therearealsofinancialcoststoschoolsinrecruiting,hiring,induction,andprofessionaldevelopment(TexasCenterforEducationalResearch,2000).A2000studyfoundthatschoolsinTexasspendover$329milliondollarseachyearasaresultofa15.5percentteacher turnover rate.Other estimates report that, across theNation, $2.6billionislostannuallybecauseofteacherturnover(AllianceforExcellentEducation,2004).


� Diversity of the Teaching Force ThestudentpopulationinAmerica’sschoolsisincreasingindiversityintermsofraceandethnicity;however,thediversityoftheteacherpopulationhasnotfollowedthistrend(Dandy,1998;Newbyetal.,2000;Shenetal.,2003;Torresetal.,2004).Datafromanationallyrepresentativesampleofpublicschoolteachersindicatesthatschoolshavemadeslightincreasesintheracialandethnicdiversityoftheteachingforceintheyearsbetween1987-1988and1999-2000;however,duringthistime,thenumberofmaleteachersdecreased(Shenetal.,2003).Althoughthereareincreasesinthenumbersofdiverseteachersinthenewteacherpopulation,retentionofnewteacherscouldpreventthesegainsfromimpactingthediversityoftheteachingpopulationovertime(Darling-Hammondetal.,1996;Kirby,Berends,&Naftel,1999;Shenetal.,2003). Barrierstoincreasingdiversityintheteachingforceincludetoofewminority students prepared for post-secondary education as a result ofinadequateK-12 education, small numbers ofminority students enrollingin teachereducationprograms,andfinancialandeconomicconsiderations(Clewell&Villegas,1998).Anotherbarriercitediscompetencytesting(eitheraspartoftherequirementsforateachereducationprogramorforlicensure)forwhichresearchindicateshigherfailureratesforminoritystudentsthanforWhitestudents(Darling-Hammondetal.,1996;Kirbyetal.,1999;Latham,Gitomer,&Zimonek,1999).Whilethereissomeevidencetoindicatethattestingrequirementsnegativelyimpactthediversityoftheteachingforce,thereisalsoevidencethattheyarenotthesourceoftheproblem,asthemajority(81%)oftheoverallpopulationofteachercandidatestakingthetestsiswhite(Lathametal.,1999). The importance of a diverse teaching force. Theimportanceofincreasingthediversityoftheteachingforceisdescribedasnecessaryinordertoreducegapsinachievementbetweenwhiteandnonwhitestudents(Darling-Hammondetal.,1996).Argumentsfocusontheneedandimportanceofrolemodelsandteacherswhocanrelatetostudents’backgroundsandexperiences(Loving&Marshall,1997;Riley,1998).Thepedagogicalbenefitsofadiverseteachingforce include the advantages teachers of colormay have in successfullybuildingrelationshipsandrelatingtostudentsfromminoritygroupsbyusingtheir personal experiences to connectwith learners (Clewell&Villegas,1998;Darling-Hammondetal.,1996).Therearealimitednumberoflarge-


10scalestudieson therelationshipbetweensame-race teachersandminority(and general) student achievement (Torres et al., 2004).Results indicatemixedevidenceforadirectcorrelationbetweenteacherdiversityandstudentacademicperformance(Ehrenberg,Goldhaber,&Brewer,1995). Strategies that impact teacher diversity. Thereareseveralrecommendationsto improveminority teacher recruitment and retention.These include:improving theK-12 educational experiences ofminority students; earlyidentificationofpotentialfutureteachers;recruitmentofteachereducationcandidatesat thecommunityand juniorcollege levels; implementationofprogramsthatsupportminorityteachercandidatesthroughouttheeducation,initialcertification,andinductionprocesses(includingmentoringprograms);recruitmentofcandidatesfromnon-traditionalpopulations(second-careersor paraeducators); and recruitment of candidates from liberal artsmajorsandundergraduates havingnodeclaredmajor (Clewell&Villegas, 1998;Darling-Hammondetal.,1996;Holloway,2002;Jorgenson,2001;Loving&Marshall,1997;Newbyetal.,2000). Earlyidentificationprogramsexposequalifiedhighschoolormiddleschoolstudentstoteachingthroughcadetortutoringprograms.Theseeffortsraiseawarenessofandinterestinteachingasaprofessionandsupportandencouragestudentstoprepareforandentertheprofession (Loving&Marshall,1997;Newbyet al., 2000).Programsdesignedtoencouragepara-educatorstobecometeachershavebeenfoundtoplayaroleindiversifyingtheteachingforce(Haselkorn&Fideler,1996),andthereisevidencethattheseprogramshavehigherretentionratesthanmanytraditionalteachereducationprograms(Dandy,1998;Haselkorn&Fideler,1996). Otherstudiesindicatethatalternativecertificationprogramsmayserveasasourceforrecruitingminorityteachers(Kirbyetal.,1999;Shen,1998).Findingsofonestudyindicatethatalternatively-certifiedteachersaremorelikelytobefemale,beteachinginelementaryschools,andexpresslessdesiretocontinueteachinginthelongterm(Shen,1998).Therefore,whilealternativecertificationmightcontributetodiversity in termsofraceandethnicity, itdoesnot in termsofgender (Shen,1998).Shen (1998) further found thatwhilealternativelycertifiedteachersaremore likely to teachmathematicsandscience,alternativelycertifiedminorityteachersarelesslikelytoholdabachelor’sinmathematics,science,orengineeringthanalternativelycertifiedwhiteteachers.


�� Asourreviewoftheresearchonteacherquality,quantity,anddiversityindicates, several characteristics of individual teachers andof the teacherpopulationareinfluentialintherelationshipsbetweenmathematicsandscienceteachersandthestudentstheyteach.ThepurposeofthepresentstudywastoexaminedatafromtheNationalScienceFoundation’sMathandSciencePartnership (NSF-MSP)Program in an effort to determine howawardeesin theprogramrepresentedcharacteristicsof teacherquality,quantity,anddiversity,andwhatinterventionsawardeesimplementedtoinfluencethosecharacteristicswithintheirawards.Thefollowingresearchquestionsguidedthisanalysis:a)Whatarerepresentationsofmathematicsandscienceteacherquality,quantity,anddiversityamongawardeesintheMSPProgram?andb)Whatinterventionsdoawardeesimplementtoinfluenceteacherquality,quantity,anddiversitycharacteristicswithintheirawards?

Methods

Data Sources Thedatasources in thisstudycamefromfundedpartnerships in theNationalScienceFoundation’sMathandSciencePartnership (NSF-MSP)ProgramawardedbetweenFY2002 andFY2004.TheNSFdescribes thefollowingfourcomponentsoftheMSPProgram:

• Comprehensive Partnerships implement change across theK-12continuuminmathematics,science,orboth.

• TargetedPartnerships focus on improved student achievement in anarrower grade range or disciplinary focus inmathematics and/orscience.

• Institute Partnerships developmathematics and science teachers asschool-anddistrict-basedintellectualleadersandmasterteachers.

• Research,Evaluation,andTechnicalAssistance(RETA)activitiesassistpartnershipawardeesintheimplementationandevaluationoftheirwork(NationalScienceFoundation,2007).

Thepresentstudyexamineddatafrom48awardsinthreeofthesecategories,including:12ComprehensivePartnerships,28TargetedPartnerships,and8InstitutePartnerships.RETAawardswerenotincludedintheanalysisduetothenatureandscopeoftheirworkin“assisting”theotherawardcategories.


�� Eachpartnershipwasrequiredtoaddressthequalityofthemathematicsandscienceteachingforceandtodocumentitsprogresstowardstheteacherqualitygoalsandbenchmarksitestablished.AwardeessubmittedAnnualandEvaluationReportsdescribingthisprogress,andpostedpapers,presentations,andwebpagesinelectronicmediaforms.Thesesecondarydocumentsweretheprimarysourceofdatafortheanalysis.Inthepresentanalysis,researchersreviewed132AnnualandEvaluationReportsprovidedtotheNSF,withthelengthofeachreportrangingfrom15to707pages.Thesereports,alongwithawardeeswebsites,publishedpapers,andpresentations,werethesecondarysourcedocumentsfortheanalysis.DatareviewedforthispaperwereobtainedfromdocumentsavailabletoresearchersbetweenJanuary2005andFebruary2006.

Procedures Theexaminationwasconductedusingqualitativemethodsforadocumentanalysisofsecondarydatasources(Miles&Huberman,1994;Patton,1990)andwasusedtoidentifyawardees’narrativedescriptionsofcharacteristicsand interventions influencingmathematics and science teacher quality,quantity,anddiversity(Bogdan&Biklen,1998).Themethodsofanalysisemployedbothacontentanalysis,usingacategoricalsystemfororganizingtheinformation(Fraenkel&Wallen,1993),andaconceptanalysis,tounderstandthemeaningandusageof terms(McMillan&Wergin,2002).Theunitofanalysiswastheindividualaward.Becauseofthecomplexnatureofawardees’reports,theresearchteamusedhandcoding(ratherthanelectronicsoftware)tobetterpreservethecontextandcontentoftheinformationcontainedinthereports.Ateamofsixreadersconductedtheanalysis,and30percentofthedocumentswerereadbytwodifferentreaderstoensurereliability.Awardees’reportstotheNSFwereavailabletoresearchersinanelectronicformatthatwaspasswordprotected.Projectwebsites,publications,andconferencepapersweregenerallyavailablethroughinternetaccess.

Three-Phase Analysis Researchersanalyzeddatasourcesinthreephases.Duringthefirstphase,researchersidentifiedbroadthemestoguidetheinitialreadingofthereports,basedonreviewsoftheliterature.Additionalthemesandsub-themesemergedduringthereadings.Duringthisphase,researchersreadthroughreportsin


13theirentiretyandsearchedawardees’websites,publications,andconferencepresentationsforsupportinginformation.Readersusedananalyticprotocoltocodeinformationandwritesummaries.Theprotocolincludedatablefordocumentingthepresenceofthemes,asectionforwritingdetailedsummaries,andareferencesectiontorecordpagenumbersandappendicesfromwhichtheinformationwasextractedsoresearcherscouldreturntothedocumentstoreviewinformationinitsoriginalcontext.Researchersmetweeklytocrosscheckthemesandcomparecodedcategories. Therewereseveralchallengesinorganizingthelargevolumeofreportdata: some awardees included extensive information about activities incomparisonwithotherawardeesthatincludedlittleinformation;informationwasscatteredinnumerousplacesthroughoutreports,whichrequiredextensivereadingtoconnectcommonthemes;and,informationwassometimespresentedinawaythatwasuncleartoareaderoutsidetheaward,usingtermssuchas“thefaculty,”“theteachers,”or“theschool,”withoutspecificallyidentifyingthefaculty,teachers,orschooltowhichthedescriptionwasreferring.Researcherscross-referenceddifferentsourcestopiecetogetherinformation. Duringthesecondphaseoftheanalysis,twoPh.D.-levelresearchersreadandcodedallofthewrittensummaries,usingopenandaxialcodingtoexaminethemesanddefinecategories(Strauss&Corbin,1998).Themainpurposeofaxialcodingwastogainabetterunderstandingofthecategoriesby identifyingpropertiesanddimensionsaround their“axis.”Researchersfocusedonanindividualtheme,suchasTeacherLeadership,andreadallofthewrittensummariesonthatthemeusingaconstantcomparativemethod(Strauss,1987).Duringthisprocess,researchersdeterminedmajorcategoriesandsub-categories,wrotedescriptionsofthecategories,andextractedexamplesfromthereports. Duringthethirdphaseoftheanalysis,researchersusedthecategoriesinakey-wordsearchprocessthroughthereportsforthepurposeofcategoricalaggregation(Stake,1995).UsingthesearchtoolonAdobeAcrobatReader,researchersusedavarietyofkeywordstoconductexhaustivesearchesforinformationonthepropertiesofthecategories.Bytheendofthethirdphase,researcherscreateddocumentswithlistsofexamplesfromawardees’reportsfor each category related to teacher quality, quantity, and diversity, andcompiledalistoffrequenciesacrossthe48awards. Inanefforttosynthesizethenarrativeresultsforpresentation,researchersdevelopedacategoricalorganizationframeworkforeaseofcomparingthe


14prominenceofmajor themesamong the representationsand interventionsidentified by awardees.This framework uses the following categories:Category3(C3)=representationsandinterventionsdiscussedandidentifiedby70-100%ofthe48awardees;Category2(C2)=identifiedby40-69%of the48 awardees;Category1 (C1)= identifiedby10 - 39%of the48awardees;andCategory0(C0)=identifiedby0-9%ofthe48awardees.Thesecategoriesweredeterminedbygroupingthefrequenciesofrepresentationsandinterventions,andfirstremovingthebottom0-9%(or0to4awards)ineachgrouping.Whenoccurrenceswerereportedin0-9%oftheawards,theseoccurrencesweredeterminedtobearareoruniqueactivityamongtheawards in theprogram(C0).Thenextsetsofoccurrencesweresectionedinto thirds. In the lowest thirdofoccurrenceswere those items thatwerereportedin10-39%oftheawards(or5-18awards,C1).Inthemiddlethirdofoccurrenceswerethoseitemsthatwerereportedin40-69%oftheawards(or19-33awards,C2).Inthetopthirdofoccurrenceswerethoseitemsthatwerereportedmostfrequentlyacrosstheawardsintheprogramby70-100%ofawards(or34-48awards,C3).ThesecategorieswereassignedtogivethereaderasenseoftheportionofawardsreportingeachthemeacrosstheentireMSPProgram.Throughouttheresults,thiscategorizationisusedtoidentifythemostcommonrepresentationsandinterventionsofteacherquality,quantity,anddiversitythatarepartoftheworkoftheawardeesintheMSPProgram.

Results

Researchersidentifiedavarietyofmajorthemesofteacherqualitythatcenteredoncharacteristicsofindividualteachers,characteristicsoftheteacherpopulation,andinterventionsreportedasinfluencesonteachercharacteristics.TheframeworkinFigure1representsageneralorganizationofthesethemesfromthereports.Allofthe48awardsprovideddescriptiveinformationonincreasingthequalityofindividualmathematicsandscienceteachersandonincreasingteacherquantity.Fewerawardsprovideddescriptiveinformationonincreasingteacherdiversity. The results are organized around twomajor themes that addressour research questions: 1)what awardees identify as representations ofmathematics and science teacher quality, quantity, and diversity, and 2)


15interventionsawardeesimplementtoinfluenceteachercharacteristics.Thefirstsectionoftheresultsreportsrepresentationsofteacherquality,quantity,anddiversityidentifiedbyawardees.Thesecondsectiondiscussesinterventionsawardeesimplementedtoinfluenceteachercharacteristics.Examplesfromawardees’documentsarepresentedtoprovideacontextforthethemes.Thecategories(i.e.,C3,C2,C1,andC0)showninparenthesesareusedasawaytogroupandidentifythefrequencyofgivenrepresentationsandinterventions.Thesethemes,alongwiththeirexamples,provideinsightsintothesubstanceofawardees’workintheMSPProgram.

Figure1Major Themes in Awardees’ Documents

REPRESENTATIONSofTeacherQuality

IndividualCharacteristics PopulationCharacteristics

SubjectKnowledge Quantity(numbersofteachers) PedagogicalKnowledge Diversity(race/ethnicity) Behaviors/Practices/Beliefs

INTERVENTIONSInfluencingTeacherQualityCharacteristics

InserviceTraining/Prof.DevelopmentPreserviceTraining TeacherLeadership LinkingTeacherswithSTEMFaculty Recruiting Stipends/Compensation Induction

Representations Awardeesdescribedvariousrepresentationsofteacherquality,quantity,anddiversity.Representationsofthequalityofindividualteachersfrequentlydescribedbyawardeesincluded:subjectknowledge,pedagogicalknowledge,andbehaviors, practices, andbeliefs.Representationsof thequantity anddiversity of teachers included: numbers of teachers and race/ethnicity,respectively.TheseresultsaresummarizedinTable1.


16

Representations that characterized teacher quality. Awardeesreportedvarious representations to characterize the quality of individual teachers.

Table1Frequency of Representations Reported by Awardees that Characterize Teacher Quality, Quantity, and DiversityConstructs Representations Frequency

TeacherQualitySubject Knowledge C3TestScores C2Certification,Degrees,Courses C2

PedagogicalKnowledge C3Surveys C2Observations C2Certification,Degrees C2

Behaviors,Practices,Beliefs C3Surveys C2Observations C2

TeacherExperience C2

TeacherQuantityMSPAwardQuantity C3TeachersRecruited/Participation C3Hours/DaysTeacherTraining C2TeachersRetained C1

University-LevelQuantity C2PreserviceEnrollment C2ProgramCompletion C1

School-LevelQuantity C2TeacherMobility C2TeachersRetained C1TeachersHired C1

TeacherDiversityDemographicData/RaceandEthnicity C2Minorities Recruited C1MinoritiesReceivingScholarships C1

Note: N =48awards.C3=representationsidentifiedby70-100%ofthe48awards;C2=representationsidentifiedby40-69%ofawards;C1=representationsidentifiedby10-39%ofawards;andC0=representationsidentifiedby0-9%ofawards.


17Essentiallytheserepresentationswereawayforawardeestooperationalizeteacherqualitycharacteristicswithintheirawardactivities.Subjectknowledge(C3), pedagogical knowledge (C3), and behaviors, practices, and beliefs(C3)wereidentifiedmostfrequentlyamongawardeesascharacteristicsofindividual teacher quality.Awardees use of representations for teachers’subject knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, andbehaviors, practices, andbeliefswasconsistentwiththeresearchliteratureoncharacteristicsofteacherquality.Alessernumberofawardeesdiscussedteacherexperience(C2)andgeneralability(C1)asarepresentationofteacherquality.Thisisadivergencefromtheresearchliteraturewhereteacherexperienceandgeneralabilityarefrequentlyusedasrepresentationsofteacherquality. Wefurtherunpackedsubjectknowledge,pedagogicalknowledge,andbehaviors,practices,andbeliefstodeterminewhatrepresentedtheseconstructsforawardees.Intermsofsubjectknowledge,themostcommonrepresentationwasascoreonatestofmathematicsorsciencesubjectknowledge(C2).Testsincludedstandardizedtests,testsdevelopedbyawardeesthemselves,ortestsdevelopedbyResearchEvaluationandTechnicalAssistance(RETA)awardsintheMSPProgram.Anothercommonrepresentationofateachers’subjectknowledgewastheteacher’ssubjectpreparation,includingsubject-specificcertification,degrees,andcoursestakeninmathematicsorsciencecontent(C2). In termsof pedagogical knowledge, the representations reportedbyawardeesdifferedfromsubjectknowledgeintypeandfrequency.Themostfrequently-used representations of pedagogical knowledge reported byawardeeswereresponsesonsurveys,observationsofteaching,andteachers’certification or degree (all designated asC2). Surveys and observationsdocumented teachers’ knowledge of state and national standards, use ofstandards-basedcurricula,anduseofreform-orientedteachingmethodsandmaterials.Unlikesubjectknowledge,wherescoresontestswereafrequentlyusedrepresentationofteacherknowledge(C2),scoresontestswereoneoftheleastlikelyrepresentationsofpedagogicalknowledge(C0).AdiscussionofthespecificinstrumentsusedbyawardeestoassessteacherknowledgeispresentedinanotherpublicationoftheMSPProgramEvaluation(MSP-PE)(Moyer-Packenham,Bolyard,Kitsantas,&Oh,inpress). Themostcommonrepresentationsofmathematicsandscienceteachers’behaviors,practicesandbeliefswereresponsesonasurveyandbehavioral


18observations (bothC2).Surveysandobservationprotocolsweredesignedto document changes in teachers’ beliefs and classroompractices.Otherrepresentations of teachers’ behaviors, practices, and beliefs thatweredescribedwithlessfrequencyincludedresponsestointerviewquestionsandwrittendocuments(bothC1). Representations that characterized teacher quantity. Alloftheawardsreportedsomeformofinformationonteacherquantity.Awardeesrepresentedteacherquantityinthreemainsub-categories:MSP Award Quantity,University-Level Quantity,andSchool-Level Quantity.MSPAwardQuantityincludeddata collected on participants inMSPAward activities;University-LevelQuantity included data collected on participants involved in courses andprogramsofaparticipatinguniversity;andSchool-LevelQuantityincludeddata collected on participants from the participating schools. In the sub-category,MSPAwardQuantity,mostawardeescollecteddataonthenumberofteachersparticipatinginawardactivities(C3).Otherdatainthissub-categorytrackednumbersofhoursordaysoftrainingcompletedbyteachers(C2),andnumbersofteacherscontinuinginMSPactivitiesfromyeartoyear(C1).Thesub-categoryUniversity-LevelQuantitywasrepresentedbythenumberofpreserviceenrollmentsinuniversityprograms(C2)andthenumberofteacherscompletinguniversityprograms(C1),wheretheuniversityprogramswerepartoftheactivitiesoftheaward. Inthesub-categorySchool-LevelQuantity,themostcommonrepresentationwasnumericalanddescriptiveinformationaboutthemobilityofteachersinschoolswherethoseteacherswerealsoawardparticipants(C2).Awardeesdescribedteachersanddistrictcontactsretiring,teachersleavingorbeinglaidofffromtheschoolsystem,andtheterminationofschoolpositions.Withlessfrequency,awardeesdescribedtheretentionofteachersinparticipatingMSPschools(C1)andnumbersofMSPparticipantshiredbyschoolsystems(C1). Representations that characterized teacher diversity. While teacherdiversity(i.e.,race/ethnicity)wasdiscussedfrequentlyinawarddocuments,manyoftheseincludedgeneralstatementssuchas,“teacherdiversityisoneoftheproject’skeyfeatures”or“increasingdiversityisanimportantgoal.”Awardeesreportedadesireforincreasingthenumberofminoritystudentsinteachertrainingprogramsorincreasingminorityhiresinschooldistricts;however,somereportslackeddetailedinformationonhowtheawardwoulddocument an increase in thediversityof its participating teachers.Of theawardsthatdidprovidethisinformation,manyweretrackingdemographic


�� datathatfocusedonchangesinthediversityofthemathematicsandscienceteachersparticipatingintheaward(C2).Someawardsdiscussedincreasesinthenumberofminoritiesrecruitedtoawardactivities(C1)andminoritystudentsreceivingscholarships(C1)asrepresentationsofincreasesinteacherdiversity.Informationongenderappearedinfewreports(C0).

Interventions Awardees discussed a variety of interventions designed to influenceteachercharacteristicswithintheirpartnerships.Someinterventionsinfluencedonearea(quality,quantity,ordiversity)morethananother,buttosomedegreethe interventions impactedmultiple areas and characteristics.Themostcommoninterventionsreportedbyawardeesaregroupedbythefrequencywithwhichtheyappearedinawardees’documentsandpresentedinTable2.These interventions include: InserviceTraining/ProfessionalDevelopment(C3),PreserviceTraining(C3),TeacherLeadership(C3),Recruiting(C3),LinkingSTEMFacultywithTeachers (C2),Stipends/Compensation (C2),andInduction(C1).Thefollowingsectionsfurtherunpackthemostcommoninterventionsbyprovidingexamplesfromawardees’activities. Interventions focusing on the quality of inservice and preservice teacher training. InserviceTraining/ProfessionalDevelopment(PD)for individualteacherswasdiscussed in all of the awards.These interventions includedcourses,workshops,institutes,andotherteachertrainingactivities,includingthoseleadingtocertificationanddegreesinmathematicsandscience.Newcertificationprogramsforteacherswerereportedinanumberofawards(C2),mostcommonlyasawaytodevelopcertificationandendorsementoptionstomeet the “highlyqualified” status or to obtain an add-on certificate orendorsementinadditiontoteacherlicensure.Forexample,onecertificationprogramforelementaryteachersincludedfivemathematicscontentcoursesthatwerespeciallydesignedtoincreasesubjectknowledge.Othercertificationoptionsforinserviceteachersincludedasummercertificationinsecondarymathematics andNationalBoardCertification.Most certification effortsfocusedonensuringthatthoseteachingmathematicsandsciencewerecertifiedto teach those subjects.Manyof these inservice trainingandprofessionaldevelopmentinterventionswerepairedwithteacherleadership. All awardees described some form of teacher leadership in theirdocuments(C3).Additionally,teacherleadershipwasdescribedinallgradebands (elementary,middle, secondary), in bothmathematics and science,


20

andinformalteacherleaderpositionswithintheaward,schoolsystem,oruniversity.Examplesof teacher leadershiproles includedcoaches,mentorteachers, lead teachers, department chairs, curriculum specialists,masterteachers,andlocally-basedstaffdevelopers.Insomecasesawardeesutilizedteacherleadershiprolesalreadyinplaceintheschoolsystem(i.e.,departmentchairpersonorcurriculumspecialist);whileinothers,teacherleadershiproles

Table2Frequency of Interventions Reported by Awardees to Influence Teacher CharacteristicsInterventions Examples Frequency

InserviceTraining/ProfessionalDevelopment

Courses,Workshops,Institutes(includingthoseleadingtoCertificationandDegrees);IncreasingSubjectKnowledge

C3

PreserviceTraining NewCourseandProgramDevelopment(includingthoseleadingtoCertificationandDegrees);IncreasingSubjectKnowledge;RevisingStudentTeaching

C3

TeacherLeadership FormalandInformalRoles(includingCoaches,MentorTeachers,LeadTeachers,DepartmentChairs,CurriculumSpecialists,MasterTeachers)

C3

Recruiting NumbersRecruitedtoMSPandUniversityActivities;TargetedRecruitingActivitiesforMinorityTeachers

C3

LinkingSTEMFacultywithTeachers

STEMFacultyTeachingCourses,ProvidingExpertise,DesigningNewPrograms

C2

Stipends/Compensation FinancialandMaterialIncentives(includingstipends,tuitionwaivers,classroomsetsofmaterials,manipulatives,scienceequipment,laptopsandcalculators)

C2

Induction MentoringNewSTEMTeachers C1

Note: N=48awards.C3=interventionsidentifiedby70-100%ofthe48awards;C2=interventionsidentifiedby40-69%ofawards;C1=interventionsidentifiedby10-39%ofawards;andC0=interventionsidentifiedby0-9%ofawards.


�� wereconstructedaspartoftheaward’sactivities.Thelargestresponsibilityofteacherleadersdescribedbyawardeeswastoprovideprofessionaldevelopmentforinserviceteachertraining(C3).Theprofessionaldevelopmentdeliveredbyteacherleadersincludedusingteachernetworksandprofessionallearningcommunities(PLCs),peerobservationsandfeedback,peercoaching,peersupportstructures,andstudygroups(C2).Toalesserextent,teacherleadersengaged in curriculumwork, helped to set and achieve school andMSPgoals,andperformedadministrativetasks(alldesignatedasC1).Trainingforleaderswasreportedinmanyawards(C3),withthemostcommonattributesofleadershiptrainingbeingthedevelopmentoftheteacherleaders’subjectknowledge, leadership skills, dispositions, andpedagogical strategies (alldesignatedasC2). Mostoftheinserviceteachertraining/professionaldevelopment(PD)focusedondevelopingteachers’knowledgeintermsofcontentandpedagogy(C3). Efforts to improve or increase teachers’ subject and pedagogicalknowledgewerecommonlydescribedasintertwined,withawardeesusingterminologysuchaspedagogical content knowledge (Shulman,1986)andmathematical knowledge for teaching (Ball, 1991).A focus on subjectknowledge is traditionally emphasized forhigh school teachers;however,awardeesinthisprogramemphasizedsubjectknowledgeforteachersatallgradelevels. OtherPDactivitiesincludedavarietyofelements.Awardeesfrequentlydescribedtheuseofcurriculummaterials(C3)intheirPDactivities,includingFOSSkits,DevelopingMathematical Ideas (DMI),GreatExplorations inMath andScience (GEMS), and standards-basedNSF-funded curriculummaterials.TheuseofinquiryscienceduringPDactivitieswasreportedoften(C2).OtherPDwork focusedon assessment, such as developingvariousmethodsofstudentassessment,developingtestitems,andinterpretingtestitemdata(C2).PDseminarsfocusedonanalyzingstudents’thinkingusingstudentproductsandvideotapedepisodesofstudentsworking(C2).Awardeesincorporatedtheuseofmathematicsandsciencestandardsdocuments(C2)inanefforttounderstandthecontentsofthestandardsdocumentsandalignstandardswithinstruction.Theyalsousedtechnologyandmathematicstools(includingmanipulatives)(C2). In addition to the teacher quality interventions focusedon inserviceteachers,therewerealsoteacherqualityinterventionsfocusedonpreservice

��teachers(C2),withthemostcommonofthesefocusingonthedevelopmentofnewcoursesandnewprogramsforpreservice teachers thatwouldleadtocertificationanddegrees.Awardeescreatedsubject-focusedpreparationprogramsinmathematicsandscienceatvariouslevelsthroughoutK-12,andalternativecertificationprogramsformathematicsandsciencemajors.Newcourseofferingsspecificallyfocusedonincreasingpreserviceteachers’subjectknowledge(C1)(e.g.,coursessuchasLinear Algebra,Cells and Molecules,and Discrete Probability and Statistics).Otherawardeesdescribedrevisingstudentteachingprogramsandinternships(C1). Manypreserviceandinserviceteacherqualityinterventionslinkedfacultyinthefieldsofscience,technology,engineeringandmathematics(STEM)withK-12teachers(C2).STEMfacultywereidentifiedastheprovidersanddesignersofmultipleinserviceandpreserviceteacherdevelopmentactivitiesamongtheawards,includingthosethatweremathematicsandsciencefocused,thosethatfocusedonpreservicerecruitment,andthosethatwerefocusedattheelementary,middleandhighschoollevels(C2).(ForacompletediscussionofSTEMfacultyengagement,seeMoyeretal.,2007).STEMfacultyworkedwitheducationfaculty,teachers,andteacherleaderstodesign,revise,andteachcoursesforteachereducationprograms,summerworkshops,andin-serviceteacherprogramsinmathematicsandscience(C2).STEMfacultyalsoservedinmanagementroles(suchasdirectingprojectactivities)orleadershiproles(suchasdirectingthedevelopmentofanewcourseorcoursesequenceformathematicsandscienceteachers)(C2).Insomeawards,STEMfacultyservedinadvisoryor“expert”roles,includingattendingprofessionaldevelopmentsessionstoprovideon-sitesupport,participatinginstudygroups,orbeingavailableforonlinediscussionsandmentoring(C1).TheincreasedpresenceofSTEMfacultyinwasreportedasameansforincreasingteachers’subjectknowledge. Interventions focusing on teacher quantity and diversity. Allawardeesreportedrecruitingasthemostcommoninterventionforinfluencingteacherquantityanddiversity(C3).Someawardees’recruitingplansincludedafocuson diverse studentswith scholarship offers tominority students enteringteachertrainingprogramsandothersupportstructurestopromoteminorityenrollmentinprogramsleadingtomathematicsandscienceteachingcareers(C1).STEMfaculty involvementwascommon in the recruitingactivitiesforpreserviceteachers(C2).Asdiscussedpreviously,manyawardsutilizedteacherleadershipintheirinterventions.Inadditiontoworkingtosupport


23the professional development of inservice teachers, teacher leaders alsoimpacted teacherquantityanddiversity.Byservingasmentorandmasterteacherstheywerepartoftherecruitingandinductionprocessforbringingnewmathematicsandscienceteachersintotheprofession,includingthosefromminoritypopulations,therebyinfluencingthequantityofnewteachersandthediversityoftheteachingforce. Otherrecruitingactivitiestoincreasethenumbersofmathematicsandscience teachers included providing school-based experiencesmatchingrecruitswithexemplaryteachers(C1);developingrecruitingtools,documents,recruitment videos, brochures, and information sessions about careers inteaching(C1);attractinguniversitySTEMstudentsintoteachingprograms(C1); designingmentoring programs for high school students to recruitthem into teaching (C1); engaginghigh school anduniversity students inmathematicsandscienceactivitieswithyoungerstudentstopromoteinterestin teaching as a career (C1); and forming after-school science and futureteacherclubsinhighschools(C1). Themost frequently-reported representationof teacher quantitywasthenumberofteachersparticipatinginawardactivities;therefore,stipendsand compensationwere viewed as an intervention to potentially increaseparticipationand,thereby,increaseteacherquantityfortheaward(C2).Thetypesofstipendsandcompensationreportedbyawardeestoincreaseteacherparticipation included: stipends for participating in inservice training andPDactivities(C2),stipendsforservinginnewleadershiproles(C1),tuitionwaiversorreimbursementsforuniversitycourses(C1),andclassroomsetsofmaterialsincludingmathematicsmanipulatives,scienceequipment,laptopsandcalculators(C1). Teacherinductionwasdescribedasaninterventiontoinfluenceteacherquantityanddiversity,butwithlessfrequencythantheotherinterventionspreviouslydiscussed(C1).Inductionactivitiesweredescribedasformalandinformalevents ranging induration.Commoninductionexperiencesweredescribedason-sitePD,newteacherworkshops,andSaturdayseminars(C1).Someinductionexperienceswereprovidedbyteachercoaches,throughstudygroups,orasonlinementoring,includingone-to-onementoring,aswellasgroupinductionactivitiesformathematicsandscienceteachers(C1).


24Limitations Oneofthebenefitsofexamininganentiregroupofawardsforthemesisalsoalimitation.Whileresearchersgainedvaluableinsightsabouttheentireportfolioofawards,detaileddescriptionsofindividualawardscouldnotbehighlighted.Becauseresearchersbelievedthatinsightsfromtheportfolioofawardsmaybringtotheforethevalueoftheprogramasawhole,wechosethismethodofbroadexamination.Eachawardhasitsownevaluationinplaceandtheseindividualevaluationsmaybringtolightuniquecharacteristicsoftheindividualawards.Becausethisanalysisprovidesaviewoftheawardsasoneentity,majorshiftsinteacherquality,quantity,anddiversityworkacrosstheawardscanbeidentified. Thedescriptive andnarrative nature of awardees’ documentswas alimitingfactorintheanalysis.Self-reportdocumentspreparedbyawardeesmaynotprovideacompleteandaccurateaccountofthefullscopeorimpactofawardees’activities.Insomecasestheuseoftermswasunclear,orareferencetoaparticulargrouporactivitywasincomplete.However,researchersinthepresentstudybelievedthatawardeeshadsomechoiceinwhattoincludeintheirdocuments.Theseselectionswereindicativeofwhatawardeesfoundofmostimportancetotheirwork.Theself-selectionofinformationtoincludeinthereportsandthesectionsofthereportswhereinformationwasexpandeduponorlimitedwereimportantdatainandofthemselves.Whilecertainaspectsofreportingwererequiredacrosstheprogram,therewasstillgreatlatitudeinthelevelofdescriptionawardeeswererequiredandpermittedtosubmitasareport,asevidencedbytherangeinthelengthoftheirreports.

Discussion

Theseresultsprovideabroadviewoftheworkofawardeesinamajormathematics and science program focused on influencing teacher qualitycharacteristics.Thefindingsillustratehowawardeesrepresentteacherqualitycharacteristicsintheirworkandwhatinterventionstheyreportasinfluencesonthosecharacteristics.Severalkeyfindingsemergefromouranalyses.

Improving Individual Teacher Quality Characteristicsofindividualteachers,inparticularsubjectandpedagogicalknowledge,arediscussedextensivelyinthedocuments.Awardees’language


25on teacher knowledge emphasizes the importance of subject knowledge,andthisemphasisissimilartorecentpolicyandprofessionalorganizationstatements, aswell as research (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Ferguson&Womack,1993;Goldhaber&Brewer,1997a;Monk,1994;Wilson&Floden,2003).Inaddition,thereisanevidentshiftacrossthisprogramofawardstoplaceincreasedemphasisonthedevelopmentofsubjectknowledge,notjustformiddleandhighschoolteachers,butalsoforelementaryschoolteachers,asevidencedbythecourseandprogramdevelopmentforinserviceteachersattheelementarylevel.Thisknowledgeisspecializedtotheworkofteachersatthislevel(Ball,1991).Whilecertificationforelementaryteachersdoesnotcurrentlyrequireadditionalmathematicsandsciencecoursework,theemphasisinthisportfolioofawardscouldindicateafuturetrendinthepreparationandprofessionaldevelopmentofelementaryteacherstargetedtowardspecializedknowledgeforteachingmathematicsandscience.Inaddition,theprominenceofsubjectpreparationatalllevelsamongtheawardsplacesrenewedemphasison the importanceofmiddle school teachershavingstrongpreparation inmathematicsandsciencecontent. Whilemuch of the pure research in the general domain of teacherqualityusescharacteristicssuchasyearsofexperience,generalability,andcertificationstatusasrepresentationsofteacherquality,awardeesinthepresentstudyweremorelikelytofocusonteachers’subjectknowledge,pedagogicalknowledge,andbehaviors,practices,andbeliefs.Inthecontextofthisawardsprogram,theseresultsarenotsurprising.Theawardsarefundedbasedonasetofproject-specificgoalsandplansfordemonstratingandassessingprogresstowardsthosegoals.Itmakessensethatawardeeswouldfocusonsubjectmatter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and behaviors, practices andbelief,becausethesearecharacteristicsofteachersoverwhichawardees’workmayhavesomeinfluence.Teacherqualityisacomplexconstruct.Awardees’useofmultiplerepresentationsandinterventionsrevealstheirawarenessofthecomplexityinherentininfluencingtheseconstructs.Anawarenessofthiscomplexity alsomakes thembetter able to focusondocumenting teachergrowthasitrelatestoteachers’participationintheactivitiesoftheaward. Thefindingsshowthatawardeeshaveadoptedresearch-basedpracticesinthedesignofprofessionaldevelopmentexperiences(Loucks-Horsley,Hewson,Love,&Stiles,1998).Forexample,alarge-scaleempiricalcomparisonontheeffectsofcharacteristicsofprofessionaldevelopmentonteacherlearning


26foundsignificantpositiveeffectsonthreecorefeatures:focusingoncontentknowledge,promotingactive learning,andfosteringcoherencewithotherlearningactivities(Garet,Porter,Desimone,Birman,&Yoon,2001).Thestudyalsofoundthatstructuralfeatures,includingtypeofactivity,durationoftheactivity,andcollectiveparticipation,significantlyaffectteacherlearning.Inthepresentstudy,awardeesdemonstrateastrongemphasisonmathematicsandsciencesubjectpreparationandPDthatcontainsactivelearning.Coherenceandcollectiveparticipationwerefosteredbyusingteacherlearningnetworksin the samesubjectareas,grade levels, andschools.Thesecharacteristicsindicatedthatawardeeswereknowledgeableaboutthetypesofinterventionsthathavebeenshowntobeeffectiveininfluencinggrowthinmathematicsand science teachers.

Improving Teacher Quantity and Diversity Tracking thequantityanddiversityof the teachersengaged in theseawards is documented atmultiple levels across theprogram.While thesedataareaconstantlymovingtargetforawardees,mostwereabletoreportparticipationanddemographicdataon their teacherparticipants. In termsofinfluencingteacherquantity,someofthemostcommonlyreporteddatawerethenumbersofparticipantsrecruitedtotheawardanditsactivities.TheresearchonteacherquantityindicatesthatteacherturnoverisaprimaryreasonthatadditionalmathematicsandscienceteachersareneededeachyeartofillvacanciesinK-12schools(Ingersoll,2006a;2006b).Forthisreason,awardeescouldplaceadditionalemphasisoninduction,mentoring,andretentioneffortsformathematicsandscienceteacherssothattheseindividualsremainintheteachingprofession. Whilesomeofthefactorsthatcausemathematicsandscienceteachersto leave theprofessionareoutof the controlof the awards (i.e., salaries,administrativesupport,studentbehavior,andstudentmotivation)(Ingersoll,2006a),thereareavarietyofretentionstrategiesthatcanbeimplementedtooffsetthesenegativeinfluences.Oneimportantreasonforawardeestofocusonretentioneffortsthatinfluencethequantityofmathematicsandscienceteachersisthatsupportstructuresthatareputintoplacenowhavethepotentialtolastbeyondthelifeoftheaward.Thesesupportstructurescouldinfluencetheretentionofmathematicsandscienceteachersinaschooloradistrictlongaftertheawardfundingends.Inaddition,therearemanypotentialfindingsthat


27couldemergebyviewingthecollectiveeffortsoftheseawardstoinfluencemathematics and science teacherquantity.Across theprogramof awards,potentialstudiescouldexamineretentioneffortsthatareparticularlyeffectiveunderappliedconditions,providingadditionalevidenceonwaysofretainingmathematics and science teachers. Aswithteacherquantity,influencingteacherdiversityinvolveschangingpopulationcharacteristicsratherthancharacteristicsofindividualteachers,andchangingpopulationcharacteristicstakestime.Researchonteacherdiversityindicateanumberofstrategiesforincreasingthediversityoftheteachingforceover time.Someof these include: improvingK-12educationforminoritystudents,earlyidentification,targetedrecruiting,andsupportthroughvariousstages of teacher education (i.e., initial certification, induction, on-goingprofessional development) (Clewell&Villegas, 1998;Darling-Hammondetal.,1996;Holloway,2002;Jorgenson,2001;Loving&Marshall,1997;Newbyetal.,2000).Themostcommoneffortsdirectedtowardimprovingteacherdiversityamongtheseawardsinvolvedrecruitingminoritycandidatesandimplementingsupportstructuresforminoritycandidates.However,theseactivitieswerereportedbyalessernumberofawards(C1,10-39%ofawards).Whilesomeawardeeshaveselectedresearch-basedimplementationstrategiesforinfluencingteacherdiversity,wide-spreaduseofthesestrategieswasnotevidentinthedocumentsreviewedduringthisanalysis.

Promising Interventions TheinvolvementofSTEMfacultyandTeacherLeaderswasevidentthroughouttheportfolioofawards,acrosssubjectareasandgradelevels,andamongpreserviceandinserviceteacherdevelopmentactivities.TheresultsshowedSTEMfacultymostcommonlyinvolvedascourseinstructors,programdesigners,andcontentexperts,whichcapitalizesonthetypeofworkSTEMfacultydoattheuniversity,andinsomecases,pullsthemoutoftheuniversityenvironmentandintoK-12schools.Forsomethiswasunfamiliarterritory,andSTEM faculty struggled to identifywhere they “fit in.” In addition,traditionaluniversityrewardstructuresforSTEMfacultyoftenhindertheirinvolvementinmathematicsandscienceeducationwork.However,asSTEMfacultyandeducatorsworkedthroughthedesignoftheaward’sactivities,theygainedabetterunderstandingofeachother’swork.AdiscussionbyHymanBassintheBulletin of the American Mathematical Societydescribesthelong


28traditionofcontributionsofnotedresearchmathematicianstomathematicseducationwork(Bass,2005).HehighlightstheimportanceofmathematiciansdevelopinganunderstandingoftheworkofK-12mathematicssothattheycanseewaysthattheirownmathematicalknowledgecancontributetosolutionsformathematicseducationproblems.Asevidencedbytheseawards,manySTEMandeducationfacultyacrossthecountryarecurrentlyworkingtogethertoimprovemathematicsandscienceeducation. Astheawardsend,itwillbeinterestingtoexaminehowthecollaborativerelationships formed amongSTEM faculty, education faculty, andK-12educationwillinfluencetheirfuturecollaborativeworkinK-12mathematicsandscienceeducation.TheMSPProgramawardsprovidedopportunitiesforuniversityfacultyandK-12educatorstounderstandeachothers’professions,pedagogy,and language.Continuinginitiativeshave thepotential tobuildupontheworkstatedduringtheaward.Inparticular,themathematicsandscienceteacherturnoverchallengesfacedbythefieldofeducationarealsofacedinSTEMfieldsintermsofthoseearningSTEMdegrees.RecentreportsshowthattheproportionofstudentsearningdegreesinSTEMfieldshasalsodeclined,andthatfactorscontributingtothisdeclineincludesubparteacherqualityatthehighschoolandcollegelevelsandpoorhighschoolpreparation,amongothers(Ashby,2006).TheseareinterrelatedchallengesthatfacebothSTEMandeducationfaculty,providingacommongoalintheimprovementofmathematicsandscienceteachingatalllevelsK-16. The findings suggest that awardees view teacher leadership as animportantelementintheirinterventioneffortsforimprovingteacherquality,quantity,anddiversity.Whileteacherleadershipisaconstructthathasbeenexaminedintheliteratureforseveraldecades(Hatch,White,&Faigenbaum,2005;Rowan,1990;Smylie,1994),recently,therehasbeenincreasedinterestinteacherleadership,includingbroaderviewsoftheconstruct,anditseffectsonteachingandlearning(Spillane,Halverson,&Diamond,2001;York-Barr&Duke,2004).Muchoftheexistingliteratureonteacherleadershipfocusesonformalrolesofleadership,characteristicsofteacherleaders,andconditionsthatfacilitateteacherleadershipdevelopment;lessresearchfocusesontheeffectsof teacher leadership,particularlyonother teachersandstudents (Smylie,1995;York-Barr&Duke,2004).Thepurposesofteacherleadershipmodelsintheliteratureincludeincentivestoretain,reward,andmotivateteachers;ameansofimprovingteachingandlearningbyprovidingopportunitiesfor


�� teacher development, growth, and collaboration; and ameansof utilizingorganizationalresourcesinordertosupportandsustainreformefforts(Mijus&Harris,2003;Smylie,1995,1996;Webb,Neumann,&Jones,2004;York-Barr&Duke,2004).Thesewerecommonelementsinthedescriptionsofleadershipactivitiesoftheawardees.Anunderlyingassumptionamongawardees’wasthatteacherleadershipwasavehicleforinfluencingteacherquality,quantity,anddiversityinasystematicway.Forexample,whenascienceteacherleaderwithsubjectspecificskillsmentorsanewminorityscienceteacher,theteacherleaderhasthepotentialtoinfluencethenewteacher’ssubjectandpedagogicalknowledge(influencingteacherquality),andtomentorandsupportthenewminorityteacherthroughthefirstfewdifficultyearsofteaching(influencingteacherquantityanddiversity). Mostoftheexistingresearchontheeffectsofteacherleadershiphasfocusedontheeffectsonteacherleadersthemselves(York-Barr&Duke,2004).Evidenceoftheeffectsofteacherleadershipoutsidetheindividualleaderismoreunclear.Animportantelementforfutureresearchonteacherleadershipisafocusonhowleadershipinfluencesteachersandstudentsattheclassroomor“microlevel”(Coggins,Stoddard,&Cutler,2003).Theawardsinthepresentstudyareinauniquepositiontocontributetothisresearch.Withmanyawardsengagedinteacherleadershipwork,andmanydifferentleadershipconfigurationsamongtheawards,thereismuchopportunityforresearchthathasbeenabsentfromtheliterature.Theimpactofmathematicsandscienceteacherleadersonthequality,quantity,anddiversityofteachersiscertainlyworthyoffurtherstudy,andawardeesinthisprogramareinthepositiontoconductthispotentiallymeaningfulresearch.

Conclusion

Severalimportantinsightshaveemergedfromthisexamination.Amongtheawardsthereisarenewedemphasisontheimportanceofsubjectpreparationformathematicsandscienceteachers,andinparticular,ashiftinemphasistoincludespecializedsubjectknowledgepreparationforelementaryteachers.Thisshiftmayhavefutureeffectsonthedesignofpreparationandprofessionaldevelopmentprogramsforteachersattheelementarylevel.Awardeesinthisprogramfocuson thegrowthof teachers in termsof thosecharacteristicsoverwhich theyhave influence, and at the same time they recognize the


30complexity of influencing anddocumenting teacher change.Thefindingsfromtheirownresearchhasthepotentialtoinformeducationalresearchoneffectivepracticesfordocumentingteachergrowthinappliedsettings.Effortsto influence teacher quantity anddiversity are only in their initial stagesformanyawards,as thesearepopulationcharacteristicsandchanging thecharacteristicsofapopulationtakestime.TheinfluenceofTeacherLeadersandSTEMfacultyisprominentthroughouttheawards,astheyareengagedinactivitiesatalllevels(K-12)andinbothsubjectareas(mathematicsandscience).Thefoundationofcollaborationdevelopedduringtheactivitiesoftheawards,amonguniversityfacultyandK-12education,hasthepotentialtocontinuetoinfluenceK-12mathematicsandscienceeducationforyearstocome.Throughtheirworktheseawardshavemadegainstowardimprovingthequality,quantity,anddiversityofthemathematicsandscienceteachingforce.Thevalueoftheseeffortswillberevealedasawardeesdocumentanddisseminatenewknowledgefromtheirinitiativesandexperiences.

***

This research is part of theMath andSciencePartnershipProgramEvaluation(MSP-PE),supportedbyContractNo.0456995fromtheNationalScienceFoundation.TheMSP-PE is led byCOSMOSCorporation,withRobertK.YinofCOSMOSservingasPrincipalInvestigator(PI)andJenniferSchererservingasoneofthreeCo-PrincipalInvestigators.AdditionalCo-PrincipalInvestigatorsandtheircollaboratinginstitutions(includingdisciplinedepartments andmathematics centers) are PatriciaMoyer-PackenhamofGeorgeMasonUniversityandKennethWongofBrownUniversity.OthercollaboratinginstitutionsincludeVanderbiltUniversityandTheMcKenzieGroup.Anyopinions,findings,andconclusionsorrecommendationsexpressedinthismaterialarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheNationalScienceFoundation.


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