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IGU – International Gas UnionWORKING COMMITTEE 5 – UTILISATION
STUDY GROUP 5.3 – NATURAL GAS VEHICLES (NGV)
Report on Study Group 5.3
“Natural Gas for Vehicles (NGV)”
Global Opportunities for Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuelfor Today and Tomorrow
FINAL REPORT
December 2005
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MEMBERSHIP OF THE STUDY GROUP
This paper results from the work and dedication of the IGU WOC 5 Study group 5.3
Report participants:
Davor Matic Study group 5.3 Chairman (and coordinator) Energy Institute Hrvoje Pozar Croatia
Acknowledgements:
Jeffrey Seisler – ENGVA – Consultant
Garth Harris – IANGV – Consultant
Peter Boisen – ENGVA Consultant (Sweden)
Eugene Pronin – GAZPROM / NGVRUS – Russia
Giok Seng Lee – PETRONAS Malaysia
Juan Carlos Fracchia – IANGV / ALGNV Argentina
Henk Verbeek – NGV Holland Netherlands
Björn Ahlnäs – GASUM OY – Finland Study group 5.3 Vicechairman
Jan Zakovec – CZECH GAS ASSOCIATION – Czech Republic
Hartmut Heidinger – OMV ERDGAS – Austria
R. Fernandes – ALNGV Brazil
Flavio Mariani ENI S.p.A. Italy
Lachemi Touaouza – SONELGAZ Algeria
Lloyd Armstrong SUEZTRACTEBEL S.A. Belgium
Hans Wackertapp – RUHRGAS Germany
Motoichi Ikeda TOKYO GAS Co.,Ltd. Japan
Marek Rudkowski POLISH OIL AND GAS INSTITUTE / NGV POLSKA – Poland
Martin Seifert – SVGW Switzerland
Erik Westdijk GASUNIE TRADE & SUPPLY – Netherlands
Gerardo Munoz Chacon – METROGAS Chile
Jordi Roca – GAS NATURAL – Spain
Youssefi Passandi Davood NATIONAL IRANNIAN GAS COMPANY – Iran
Habiballah Sadeghi NATIONAL IRANNIAN GAS COMPANY – Iran
Thierry Renaudie – GAZ de FRANCE France
Adel Hosni MASTER GAS – Egypt
Igno Dimeski – MAKPETROL – Macedonia
Arto Riikonen – GASUM OY – Finland
Jovica Budimir – NIS GAS – Serbia & Montenegro
Aksel Hauge Pedersen – DONG VE Denmark
Anders Hermansen STATOIL TEK F&T KST – Norway
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Study Group 5.3 met in:
Paris France First meeting of the Working Committee 5 24th October 2003
Barcelona – Spain 29th January 2004
Graz – Austria 24th May 2004
Vancouver Canada 4th November 2004
Opatija – Croatia 2nd May 2005
Prague Czech Republic 13th October 2005
Moscow – Russia 20th April 2006
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 5
2. Overview of existing fuels and technologies and analysis of future development........................ 6
2.1. Petrol and diesel automotive technologies – state of the art.................................................... 7
2.2. Hybrid vehicles....................................................................................................................... 8
2.3. Natural gas vehicles – powertrains........................................................................................ 9
2.4. Compressed natural gas (CNG) technology – storage (onboard)........................................... 14
2.5. Compressed natural gas (CNG) technology – filling................................................................ 17
2.6. Liquefied Natural Gas – LNG.................................................................................................. 22
2.7. Biomethane .......................................................................................................................... 24
2.8. Synthetic fuels produced from natural gas .............................................................................. 27
2.9. Hydrogen produced from natural gas...................................................................................... 30
2.10. Offroad applications ............................................................................................................ 35
3. Country reports ......................................................................................................................... 37
3.1. Technical data base............................................................................................................... 38
3.2. Trend analysis........................................................................................................................ 45
3.3. Strengths – Weaknesses – Opportunities – Challenges (SWOC) analysis .............................. 92
4. Scenario matrix for further “methane for vehicles” market development ..................................... 102
5. Conclusions and recommendations........................................................................................... 109
Abreviations.................................................................................................................................. 113
References ................................................................................................................................... 115
List of tables ................................................................................................................................. 121
List of illustrations ......................................................................................................................... 122
Appendix – Trend Analysis Charts ................................................................................................ 125
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1. INTRODUCTION
Study group 5.3 – “Natural Gas for Vehicles (NGV)” of Working Committee 5 – “Utilisation“comprised country representatives and experts from the gas and automotive industries from (includingpartners) almost 25 countries. Study group activities were backed by ENGVA / IANGV consultants,and representatives of other national or international NGV organizations (Latin America NGVAssociation (ALNGV), Russian NGV Association (NGVRUS), and AsiaPacific NGV Association ANGVA).
The main objective in 20032006 was to demonstrate, in the longterm, the worldwidepotential for natural gas as a transportation fuel, including compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefiednatural gas (LNG), biogas (biomethane), and the transition to hydrogen from natural gas over a shortand midterm time frame. By showing a development path to hydrogen in the longterm, the projectshould enable gas companies to consider the implications and the risks to their future developmentand investment programs for NGVs.
Expected output was discussed in detail in light of the expected contribution to the gasindustry, and benefits the gas industry will have from IGU S.G. 5.3 report. It was concluded thatoriginal mission to demonstrate longterm, worldwide potential for natural gas (or more preciselymethane) as a transportation fuel is not solely sufficient for the gas industry, because while thepotential might be huge, the achieved share in the total potential might be zero without proper actions.
Therefore, the group agreed to change to a wider concept to: demonstrate longterm keyfactors (drivers) for development of natural gas as a transportation fuel, and also, to point out to gasindustry, the implications and risks of their future development and investment programs in NGVs.Targeted ways of CH4 utilization that have been observed more closely are: compressed natural gas(CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG), biomethane and hydrogen produced from natural gas.
Final concept of the report includes:
Overview of state of the art technologies or more precisely existing technologies from the simplestto the latest developments: : light and heavy duty vehicles (LDV, HDV), fuelling, fuel productionand storage. In case of vehicle technologies, the same technology might be used for CNG andbiomethane; so, emphasis in the case of biomethane was put on different ways for biogasproduction and upgrading. In this text, the term biogas is used for raw product, and biomethanefor final purified and upgraded product (containing around 95%vol methane).
Analysis of state of the art technologies in representing countries (meaning the existing technologyused) was made. In the case of CNG, existing technology in Argentina is converted cars, in Italy,combination of converted cars and OEM products, in Austria, only OEM vehicles etc. Case studiesfor selected countries have been made (in case of biogas, representing countries are, forexample, Sweden and Switzerland).
Trend analysis has been provided for the same countries with observed trends in number of newNGVs, fuelling stations etc. in last “X” years, together with the external factors that influenced sucha trend. In this way, key drivers for each specific case were identified.
Experts also provided their view on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges (SWOCanalysis) regarding their particular country/market.
Inputs for analysis were provided through a questionnaire (with a remarkable responsefrom the side of the experts / country representatives with 23 countries covered or around 80% oftotal number of distributed Questionnaires achieved), together with wide desk research.
Based on studied cases, IGU S.G 5.3 experts provided scenario matrix for marketdevelopment and commercialization, separately for CNG, LNG, biomethane and production ofhydrogen from natural gas, and provided recommendations to stakeholders about key drivers andnecessary prerequisites for further market development.
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2. OVERVIEW OF THE EXISTING FUELS AND TECHNOLOGIES ANDANALYSIS OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
This Chapter provides an overview of existing technologies for methane use as a transportfuel but describing the whole chain, from production, transport and distribution to utilization. It containsa compilation of available literature.
NGV Pathways to 2020
Fuel Supply Processing TransmissionFuelling
Technology andInfrastructure
FLEET
Vehicle & EngineSystems /
Technology
Biogas(RenewableResource)
Municipalwaste
Agriculturalwaste
Urbanwaste
Waterpurification
Refining
Fossil Resource
LNGProcessor
LNG (99 % CH )4
Compressor
Storage
CHreformed
to
4
2H
The Customers
Commercial
GovernmentMunicipal
FLEET
Commercial
GovernmentMunicipal
Engine Storage Emissions
Marine
Rail
Off roadapplications
The Vehicle System
Passenger
Commercialfleet
Urbanfleet
European 1.3 m/km pipeline
Biod ige stion
CNG
CH2
Liquidtocompressednatural gas
(LCNG)
CH2
Commuter
CNG
Picture 1 – Most common ways of methane utilisation in transport sector
Source: Seisler J. (October, 2003). European Commission Transport Strategy to 2020… and relatedpolity initiatives, ENGVA, presentation held on workshop in Zagreb, Croatia
Together with CNG, LNG, biomethane and production of hydrogen from natural gas,production of synthetic fuels from natural gas is also covered in this report. It was not the intention toprovide an overview of all alternative fuels like DME, FAME etc. but only technologies which arecomplementary from the point of methane utilisation (natural gas as CNG, LNG or for production ofhydrogen or methanol that can be used in fuel cells powered vehicles using onboard or offboardreformer, biogas upgraded to quality that can be used in CNG or LNG systems etc.).
Also, new developments in power trains and other technical measures connected withgasoline and diesel fuels are listed here, taking into account their aims to reduce emissions / fuelconsumption and, on the other hand, possibility for their utilisation in synergy with natural gastechnologies.
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2.1. PETROL AND DIESEL AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGIES – STATE OF THEART
In this Chapter technical improvements in existing petrol and diesel concepts are presented.The proper name of the subject would be „technical measures for reduction of emissions and fuelconsumption“, because some do not involve changes in the engine itself, but changes in the vehicleas a whole. Therefore, some of these measures might be implemented parallel with NGV technologiesto reduce (in synergy) the negative environmental impact. Text below is taken from the bottomupanalysis of economic evaluation of emissions reductions in the transport sector of the EU [2].
Main technologies and concepts which should be taken into consideration in Light DutyVehicles are [2]:
HiSpeed Engine with Variable Valve Lift & Timing (VVLT) In petrol fuelled cars, VVLT can beused to reduce the engine size required to achieve the desired maximum power level by allowingmore optimum valve timing and lift at each engine speed.
Cylinder Deactivation at Idle and Part Load This technology is only for petroleum fuelled engines.By deactivation of some cylinder intake valves at low power levels, the other cylinders have tooperate at higher load which leads to higher level of operational efficiency.
Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) CVT allows flexibility in matching power demand withthe optimum region of the engine map. In concept, the CVT could be used to maximise fueleconomy under partload conditions, while simultaneously providing maximum accelerationperformance at wideopen throttle. In addition, this would enable a smaller engine to achieve thesame acceleration performance as a conventional transmission and a larger engine, compoundingthe potential fuel economy benefits of the CVT. A disadvantage of CVT is significantly high internalfriction.
Gasoline Direct Injection Engine (GDI) Conventional petrol engines use fuel MultiPointInjection(MPI) where the fuel is injected to each intake port. MPI is one of the most widely used systems.In a GDI engine, petroleum is directly injected into the cylinder as in a diesel engine, and injectiontimings are precisely controlled to match load conditions which allows: extremely precise control offuel supply, achieving a better fuel efficiency than in diesel engines by enabling combustion of anultralean mixture supply and very efficient intake and relatively high compression ratio, whichdelivers both high performance and responses.
Direct Injection Stratified Charge Engine (DISC) incorporates VVLT and Cylinder Deactivationinto a leanburn GDI engine and is the next step further down the line from GDI technologies. Thecharge stratification in the combustion chamber allows a range of fuel qualities to be usedsatisfactorily and, by the more complete combustion of an overall week charge with excess air,good fuel consumption and low exhaust emissions can be achieved. The main problem at themoment is that DISC engines produce higher NOx levels and require a deNOx catalyst.
In Heavy Duty Vehicles possible improvements include: reducing engine friction and parasiticlosses (small contribution for heavy vehicles), reducing heat loss to coolant, recapturing and usingexhaust heat energy. First and second optimisation can be achieved by using adiabatic turbocompound diesel engines combined with heat conservation. The basic concept is to insulate thecombustion chamber and exhaust passages and then recover exhaust heat energy with a turbinegeared to the output shaft. [2]
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2.2. HYBRID VEHICLES
The description below has been taken mostly from the DaimlerChrysler brochures andpresentations from its R&D Department.
The hybrid system consists of two energy storage units, a battery and a fuel tank and at leasttwo transformers – usually a combustion engine and one or more electric motors. The combination ofthose engines offers a large number of variations. This diversity can be grouped into three maincategories [24]:
Serial hybrid where a generator transforms the mechanical energy from the internal combustionengine (ICE) into electric energy. There is no direct mechanical connection between the internalcombustion engine and driven axle.
Split hybrid – where mechanical energy delivered by the ICE can be both transformed intoelectrical energy by a generator and transmitted to the driven axle. The split hybrid combines theparallel and the serial hybrid principles.
Parallel hybrid both the internal combustion engine and the electrical motor are connected to thedriven axle. They are able to operate together or separately to drive the car.
Conventionalvehicle
Electricvehicle
Serial Hybrid Split hybrid ParallelHybrid
High power battery
Fuel tank
ICE
EMotor/Generator
Generator
Clutch
Picture 2 Different types and functions of hybrid vehicles
Source: Hybrid power trains – engines in synergy. DaimlerChrysler, Stuttgart, (brochure)
Hybrid drive trains can be realized at very low cost due to the fact that all components areavailable as standard parts. This means that hybrid propulsion can be brought to mass production in avery short time. In addition, hybrid cars can utilize the existing infrastructure concerning fuels andmaintenance.
Main advantages of hybrid drive trains compared to conventional cars powered by internalcombustion engines are improved acceleration without torque interruption during shifting and reducedfuel consumption (reduction of consumption in idle driving conditions, optimised engine operation andrecuperation of energy during braking) between 15 and 25%. [23]
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Drivingenergy
Energy losses(MotorEfficiency)
5.000 10.0000Required Energy [kJ] (Example)
EnergyReduction
Hybridvehicle
Conventionalvehicle
Idle fuelconsumption
Reduction of consumptionat idle
Optimised engineoperation
Reduction of consumptionthrough recuperation
Starter/Generator ~ 57 %
~ 59 %
~ 59 %
15 25%
Drivingenergy
Energy losses(MotorEfficiency)
5.000 10.0000Required Energy [kJ] (Example)
EnergyReduction
Hybridvehicle
Conventionalvehicle
Idle fuelconsumption
Reduction of consumptionat idle
Optimised engineoperation
Reduction of consumptionthrough recuperation
Starter/Generator ~ 57 %
~ 59 %
~ 59 %
15 25%
Picture 3 – Potential consumption reduction of hybrid vehicles
Source: Hajdarevic I. (June 2003). Alternativni pogoni motornih vozila razvoj i perspektive Hibridnavozila, DaimlerChrysler AG, Stuttgart, presentation held in Energy institute Hrvoje Pozar, Zagreb,
Croatia
The real reduction in fuel consumption depends on the share of driving at constant speed(open road, no traffic jams) and “stop and go” mode. If all the driving occurs in open road conditionswith no “stop and go” driving conditions, efficiency is equal to standard ICE vehicles. Ideal conditionsfor hybrid vehicles are those of commuters living in the suburbs and working in a city centre orcongested business district.
There is also a tradeoff between fuel savings and added dead weight and cost via additionalbatteries. Finally, batteries may have to be replaced, at a fairly high cost, say with eight year intervals– a fact which could mean a need for batteries being leased rather than included in the purchase price(the same would also apply for pure electric vehicles only using batteries charged via the electricmains). Fuel costs in a conventional vehicle should then be compared to fuel costs and battery leasingcosts in a hybrid vehicle.
As regards emissions reduction, probably best results might be obtained using NGVhybridvehicles (existing CNGhybrid SUV models using CNG supercharged engines coupled with an electricmotor are expected to achieve a 60% increase in fuel economy without sacrificing any horsepower)[39].
2.3. NATURAL GAS VEHICLES – POWERTRAINS
This section provides an overview of historical, recent and ongoing developments in naturalgas engine technologies. The emphasis for distinction between different technologies used in thischapter is put on various natural gas mixing systems. Distinction between CNG, LNG or biomethaneis not made since they are utilizing more or less the same power train technology (main difference iscoming from the point of production, distribution and onboard storage).
Precise control of airfuel ratio and ignition timing is necessary to minimize emissions fromnatural gas vehicles while maintaining good performance and fuel economy. This requires an enginecontrol system capable of reacting to the rapid changes in speed and load of typical automotiveservice [3].
Depending on the sophistication of the fuel system, gas engines can be divided into fourcategories [4]: first generation with completely mechanical fuel system (carburettor vehicles withoutcatalytic converter)), second generation with basically mechanical fuel system with electronic feedbackcontrol or electronically controlled fuel system without feedback control (closedloop carburettor and
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throttle body injection / single port injection engines (corresponding to Euro 1 / 2 standard)), thirdgeneration with multi fuel injection, electronic control and feedback (closedloop multi point gaseousinjection system engines with group injection or continuous injection (corresponding to Euro 2 / 3standard) and fourth generation which is as third generation but with OBD capabilities (closedloopand leanburn sequential multi point gaseous injection system engines (corresponding to Euro 3 / 4standard) [4, 36].
1st Generation CNG system [36] 2nd Generation CNG system [36]
3rd Generation CNG system [36] 4th Generation CNG system [36]
Picture 4 – CNG systems in Light Duty Vehicles
Source: JanRaap, G. Natural Gas Vehicle Technology. Presentation, European Gaseous FuelTraining Institute
For CNG utilisation in Diesel engines, socalled Dualfuel concept is most common. Unlike asparkignition engine, the air/natural gas mixture is ignited by injecting a small amount of diesel fuel(the „pilot“) as the piston approaches the top of the compression stroke. This diesel pilot fuel rapidlyundergoes preflame reactions and ignites due to the heat of compression as in a diesel engine. Thecombustion of the diesel pilot then ignites the airfuel mixture in the rest of the cylinder. Because theair and the primary fuel are premixed in the cylinder, dualfuel engines have many features in commonwith sparkignition, Ottocycle engines. Because they rely on compressionignition of the diesel pilot,they also share some characteristics with diesels, as well as some unique advantages and drawbacksof their own. Among the advantages in most cases is that they can be designed to operateinterchangeably on natural gas with a diesel pilot, or 100% on diesel fuel. Another advantage of dualfuel engines is the ease with which most existing diesels can be converted to dualfuel operation. Incontrast to the difficulty in converting diesel engines to spark ignition, many diesel engines can beconverted to dualfuel operation without removing the cylinder heads. [3]
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Dualfuel engine performance and emissions vary depending on operating conditions and thesophistication of the control system. These engines perform best under medium to high load, and canhave equal or better fuel efficiency of a pure diesel under these conditions. Operating with a lean airfuel ratio, they can also achieve much lower emissions, especially of NOx and PM, than a pure diesel.Existing dualfuel conversions suffer from major increases in CO and HC emissions and loss of fuelefficiency at light loads operation which is characteristic of many diesel engine applications, especiallyvehicular applications. [3]
However, recent technological developments in large dualfuel engines combined with a newgeneration of electronic fuel metering and control systems, could make it possible to overcome theproblems of lightload emissions and fuel efficiency in the dualfuel engine.
Westport is developing proprietary natural gas technologies for reducing oxides of nitrogenand particulate emissions by developing turbo diesel engine that runs on natural gas [27].
In this PilotIgnited HighPressure Direct Injection concept [36] natural gas is injected at highpressure at the end of compression stroke and pilot diesel is injected just prior to natural gas toprovide ignition. Engine remains the same, with unchanged high power and torque and high efficiency.It is still diesel cycle, not knock limited and not sensitive to natural gas composition. This conceptshould achieve reduction in NOx emissions of 40% reduction in emission of particulates of 60% and2025% reduction in CO2, with 95% natural gas average usage over all conditions and not sensitive tofuel composition [108].
DualFuel principle for Heavy Duty Vehicles Westport DualFuel (HPDI) System
Picture 5 – Standard DualFuel principle for Heavy Duty Vehicles and Westport DualFuel (HPDI)System
Source: JanRaap, G. Natural Gas Vehicle Technology. Presentation, European Gaseous FuelTraining Institute
Dunn, M., Zehr, B., Williams, G., Goudie D. (July 2005), Update on Direct Injection Natural GasTechnology For Heavy Duty Commercial Vehicles, Westport Innovations, ANGVA 2005, 1st
Conference and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Among several projects, we should mention that Isuzu Motors Limited (Japan) and WestportInnovations Inc. (British Columbia, Canada), with support from the New Energy and IndustrialTechnology Development Organization (NEDO of Japan) and the Japan Gas Association, completedthe world’s first vehicle operating test for the compressed natural gas, hot surface ignited direct
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injection (CNGDI) dieselcycle engine, providing the feasibility of the technology forcommercialization. [103]
This project “The Commercial Development of Highefficiency, Ultralow Emission CNGVehicles,” was carried out from 2001 to March 2004. Objectives were: to improve thermal efficiency by25% or more over the Otto cycle; and to achieve at least 75% lower emissions than the minimumstandard at the time of initial lowemission regulations (ultralowemission vehicles; ULEV). The ELFmodel was used as the base vehicle (load capacity: 2 tons, using 4.5liter diesel engine as its baseengine) and succeeded in achieving these objectives. In this case the engine was equipped with a 250bar commonrail CNG (mono fuel) direct injection system, an onboard compressor, hot surfaceignition system, variable nozzle turbo, a ureaSCR catalyst (NOx reduction) and an oxidation catalyst(HC reduction) for clean emission. [103]
Based on the above, the objective is to develop a highefficiency, ultralow emissioncommercial natural gas vehicle that would be an alternative to commercial diesel vehicles. Pricereduction, lighter weight, and smaller size must be worked, together with refinement of ISUZU andWestport fuel, ignition and control systems are required for full commercialization. [103]
Picture 6 – Appearance of Completed Vehicle, IsuzuWestport project
Source: Okada M., Sugii H., Wakao T., Cryer J., Dickson R. (October 2004), Ursu B. Development ofCNG Direct Injection DieselCycle Engine, Isuzu Motors limited, Westport Innovations Inc., IV Expo
GNC in Buenos Aires
In the near future, the introduction of OnBoardDiagnostics (OBD) requirements for light dutyvehicles (USA and Europe) will have major impacts on gas engine technology. An OBD system is adiagnostic system which can detect malfunctions of the engine and the exhaust cleanup system. OBDsystem which ties together the different subsystems of the engine: fuel system, lambda controlsystem, ignition system (misfire) catalyst, particulate trap (diesel vehicles), exhaust gas recirculation(EGR) system (functionality) and engine management; require a lot of calibration work. Therefore, inthe future, for European and North American markets, most gasfuelled vehicles will be offeredthrough the auto manufacturer’s dealerships [4].
OBD certification impacts continue to be a major problem for aftermarket NGV conversions inNorth America and EOBD issues are also affecting retrofits in Europe. The EOBD issues relate toOEM vehicles and the need to have one EOBD software package for diagnostic monitoring on bifuelNGVs. The later is already accepted in North America and progress is being made in having itaccepted in Europe for OEM vehicles. However, the aftermarket conversions in Europe face the sameproblems as those in North America. Negotiations between the car industry and ENGVA have resultedin the suggested creation of a master/slave OBD system whereby an NGV OBD system takes
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responsibility for monitoring the natural gas portions of the fuel and emissions system, but relying onthe ‘master’ OBD installed by the OEMs for petrol to cover all other functions without the necessity ofduplicating those same functions by an NGV OBD system. A proposal to adopt a United Nationsregulatory amendment (ECE Regulation 83) (and at a later stage at the European Commissionregulation EC 70/220) will be introduced and discussed in 2006. Nevertheless, the situation foraftermarket converters remains quite serious, as it could lead to very high costs for certification, to thepoint that the aftermarket conversions become uneconomic. [121]
Exhaust aftertreatment and onboard diagnostic systems are a very complex topic where thesolutions are heavily influenced by applicable engine and vehicle emission certification legislation. Toavoid emissions of unburned methane for natural gas engines it is essential that a catalytic reformer isplaced very close to the exhaust gas manifold where the exhaust gases have a very high temperature.Other emissions are best dealt with using a 3way catalytic reformer. Usually there is a temperaturerelated tradeoff between nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHC) and NOxemissions
If the vehicles must meet an NMHC rather than a total hydrocarbons (THC) standard it is, atleast for spark ignited natural gas engines, relatively simple to reduce NOx emissions to extremely lowvalues (often lower than in the intake air). NMHC emissions will also be below due to the low share ofNMHC in the natural gas burned in the engine. Low NOx emissions, however, usually carries a penaltyin the form of reduced fuel efficiency (one of the reasons why diesel engines with higher allowed NOxemissions are more efficient than Otto engines). With shrinking legal advantages concerning allowedemissions, diesel engines will gradually loose some of their efficiency edge in comparison with gas orpetrol fired engines.
Ongoing research has demonstrated that the only aftertreatment system which effectivelydeals with particulate emissions from diesel fuel (regardless of particulate size) are CRT (continuouslyregenerating trap) systems. These systems, however, are expensive, may have a negative impact onfuel efficiency, and may also have a limited life time.
Emissions immediately after a cold start of an engine are significantly higher than when theengine has reached its normal operating temperature. In the case of natural gas engines there couldbe a slight problem to keep down methane emissions during a cold start. This is one reason why bifuelled vehicles usually start on petrol and only switch over to natural gas once the engine hasreached a normal operating temperature.
The wide range of different qualities of natural gas distributed at different filling stationspresents another problem. The engine management system must, after each tank filling, berecalibrated to fit the potentially new fuel mix in the tanks. Some manufacturers automatically engagea selfadaptive program immediately after refuelling of the vehicle and via the owner’s manual informthe driver that the engine performance during the first minutes after refuelling could be slightly belowpar. Even if the drivers accept this shortcoming, the compulsory onboard diagnostic systems are lessforgiving and are likely to register emissions outside the allowed range. The wide spread of allowednatural gas qualities presents a very large challenge to the emission experts. This particular problemis not a big issue where the vehicles, e.g. town buses, always use the same natural gas (or the samebiogas) quality – there is no need for recalibration after each refuelling.
The emission standards which now apply for new OEM passenger cars in Europe, NorthAmerica and Japan are very tough and have led to a number of developments in engine technology,including much more distinct valve movements for more exact fuel injection. For cars fuelled withnatural gas this has also meant a need for introduction of new metal alloys in valves and valve seatsable to cope with the tougher conditions. This is also one of the reasons why OEMs in these countrieswould withdraw factory warranty on normal petrol vehicles fitted with after market retrofit systems –without suitable valves and valve seats the engines could break down after a very limited mileage.And, even if the engines do not break down, the additional wear is likely to have a negative effect onvehicle emissions. Since the OEMs have to guarantee engine emissions over a very long time it is notin their interest that engines and engine management systems are tampered with in any way.
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2.4. COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG) TECHNOLOGY – STORAGE (ONBOARD)
CNG is generally stored onboard the vehicle in cylinders at a maximum pressure of around200 bar. [5].
Retrofitted private cars are typically fitted with a single cylinder of approximately 80 litrecapacity. Vans can be fitted with single or double 80 litre cylinders or with a single 120 litre cylinder,depending on the space available and the vehicle range required. OEM natural gas vehicles usuallyutilize more then one cylinder placed in different suitable places within the vehicle (i.e. IVECO Dailyhas 5 or 6). A heavy duty truck may carry up to 12 cylinders, whereas agricultural tractors may haveeven 18 cylinders.
Table 1 – CNG cylinder capacity
Internal capacity (litres) 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120CNG capacity (kg) 8.9 10.7 12.5 14.3 16.1 17.9 19.6 21.4Petrol capacity (litres) 13.2 15.9 18.6 20.9 23.6 26.4 29.1 31.8
Source: Chive fuels WEB site www.chiveltd.co.uk
Four types of CNG cylinders are available [6]:
Type 1 All metal cylinder made of carbon or light steel.
Type 2 – A cylinder with a metal liner made of steel or aluminium and hoopwound (eglass or carbonfibre) filament overwrap in a resin matrix.
Type 3 – A cylinder with a thin metal liner of steel or aluminium with a fully wound (eglass or carbonfibre) filament overwrap in a resin matrix.
Type 4 – Similar to type 3 with a linear made of non metallic (all composite) material with a fullywound (eglass or carbon fibre) filament overwrap.
MaterialsType 1 [1] SteelMetal
Type 2Metal lined [1.7] Steel/Glass Fiberhoop wrapped [2.1] Alum/Glass Fiber
Type 3Metal lined [2.3] Alum/Glass Fiber fullywrapped Fully wrapped
Type 4Thermoplastic [4.0] Thermoplasticlined fully Carbon/Glass Fiberwrapped
EquivEquiv. Gas /. Gas / WeightWeightMaterials
Type 1 [1] SteelMetal
Type 2Metal lined [1.7] Steel/Glass Fiberhoop wrapped [2.1] Alum/Glass Fiber
Type 3Metal lined [2.3] Alum/Glass Fiber fullywrapped Fully wrapped
Type 4Thermoplastic [4.0] Thermoplasticlined fully Carbon/Glass Fiberwrapped
EquivEquiv. Gas /. Gas / WeightWeightEquivEquiv. Gas /. Gas / WeightWeight
Picture 7 – CNG storage cylinders – volume versus weight comparison
Source: JanRaap, G. Natural Gas Vehicle Technology. Presentation, European Gaseous FuelTraining Institute
Comparison of costs and distribution of various cylinder types is shown in table below. As canbe seen, 90% of the market is still covered with type 1 cylinder (see also next chapter describingTechnical Data Base):
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Table 2 Cylinders Costs and Weights
Type Price(US$/litre) Market %
I 3 to 5 90II 5 to 7 4III glass 9 to 14 1III and IV carbon 11 to 18 3
Source: About Cylinders & Manufacturers. Gas Vehicles Report, Number 18, July 2003, p. 31
Table 3 Share of various cylinder types on largest NGV markets ((in alphabetical order)
Country Type I Type 2 Type 3 Type 4Argentina 100%Australia 87% 12% 1%Brazil 99% 1%Italy 80% 20%Japan 80% 15% 5%Russia & C.I.S. (FSU) 95% 4% 1%USA 23% 50% 15% 12%
Source: About Cylinders & Manufacturers. Gas Vehicles Report, Number 18, July 2003, p. 31
Further development of onboard natural gas storage is progressing in the following directions:
Currently all CNG cylinders are cylindrical and future CNG storage tanks may be “freeformed”.
Development of highpressure gas cylinder which brings substantial advantages in cylinderreliability and safety in comparison with Type 3 and Type 4 cylinder concepts (Type 3 – from lineardurability point of view, Type 4 – from gas isolation and thermal shock point of view). Theseadvantages are especially significant for hydrogen storage under very high pressure [7].
As mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, retrofitted vehicles usually use one CNGcylinder situated on the back of the trunk. With the introduction of OEM vehicles larger number ofnatural gas cylinders (more then one) of different sizes may be used.
Picture 8 – Various concepts of cylinder placements in the vehicle – OEMs (Original EquipmentManufacturers) products
16
Various concepts of cylinder placements in the vehicle – OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers)products continue
Source:Corso S. (February 2003). FIAT auto e il metano: una scelta per l´ambiente. Gas Vehicles Report p 17
(February 2004). Mercedes introduces another natural gas option NGV Worldwide, p. 8JanRaap, G. Natural Gas Vehicle Technology. Presentation, European Gaseous Fuel Training
Institute
Another concept has (again) been utilized within the European Project called “CLEVER”(Compact Low Emission Vehicle for Urban Transport), a new threewheeled vehicle with an innovativetechnology and powered by natural gas. CLEVER has gas cylinders that can be exchanged whenempty, or refilled at a normal CNG refuelling station (this system originates from Italy where during the1950s system of filling stations using exchangeable gas cylinders was utilized). Because the cylinderscan be removed from the CLEVER to refuel, the cylinder can easily be filled outside the vehicle i.e. ata standard CNG refuelling station similar to refuelling a CNG vehicle.
Another scenario is to store full cylinders in a kind of a protection cage directly at a standardrefuelling station. When the cylinders need to be exchanged, it is possible to disconnect the emptiedcylinders and exchange them for externally filled cylinders from the refuelling station. The emptycylinders are stored in another cage waiting to be refuelled. This system is a welltested solution usedfor many other industrial or medical gases.
This concept can also provide the possibility for filling on sites situated outside the reach onnatural gas grid [37].
Technology under development includes lightweight fuel container for adsorbed natural gasvehicles called ANG (Adsorbed Natural Gas). [104]
Basic differences between conventional methods for natural gas storage and ANG conceptare presented below:
ANG storage utilizes high absorbability of activated carbon. ANG concept is interesting, notonly for onboard natural gas storage, but also for offboard natural gas storage in CNG filling stations(possibilities for costs reduction in the future).
17
LNGLiquid at 162 °CLow temperature
CNGCompressed gas at 200 –
250 bar at 21 °CHigh pressure
Adsorbed natural gas(ANG)
Storage at 35 bar at 21 °CLow pressure and room
temperature
CNG fuel containerANG fuel container
Natural gas storage
Picture 9 – Storage methods for natural gas and comparison with ANG
Source: Mukaibo N. (October 2004). Development of Lightweight Fuel Container for Adsorbed NaturalGas Vehicle Honda R&D Co., Ltd., Tochigi R&D Center , Japan, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires,
Buenos Aires
Picture 10 – ANG storage principle
Source: Mukaibo N. (October2004). Development of Lightweight
Fuel Container for AdsorbedNatural Gas Vehicle Honda R&DCo., Ltd., Tochigi R&D Center ,Japan, IV Expo GNC in Buenos
Aires, Buenos Aires
The main difference compared to conventional CNG storage is higher methane storagevolume (four times of CNG at 35 bar, according to [104]. The performance of test container(developed by Honda R&D Co. Ltd., and Tochigi R&D Center, Japan) is achieved weight of 0.3kg/litter (or 3,33 litters/kg) with service pressure of 35 bar, compared to 1 litters/kg (type 1 CNGcylinder) to 4 litters/kg (type 4 CNG cylinder) at approx. 200 bar.
Once again, it is important to point out that this technology is promising, but still underdevelopment.
2.5. COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG) TECHNOLOGY – FILLING
With compressed natural gas, it is possible to take advantage of two types of refuellingoperation [8]:
Slow fill – In this concept a compact compressor, connected directly to the gas mains,compresses natural gas and directly fills the vehicle's CNG tanks through flexible filling hoses. Thevehicle can't be started during the filling process. Once final pressure is reached, the compressorswitches off automatically. The slow fill is recommended for fleets where vehicles return to centraldepot or for private cars, which can be refuelled overnight at home (see VRA). The usual filling time is
18
6 – 8 hours. During the times off service, the vehicles (cars, taxis, buses, forklifts, boats etc.) aredirectly refilled. [8]
12 3
54
1 Gas grid
2 Compressor station
3 Buffer
4 Dispensing posts
5 Connectors
12 3
54
1 Gas grid
2 Compressor station
3 Buffer
4 Dispensing posts
5 Connectors
Picture 11 – Slow fill Overnight fleet filling with a direct supply from the compressor station
Source: van Schoonhoven van Beurden G. (2004). Refuelling technology – Generic training 2004.Ingenieurbüro van Schoonhoven
Fast Fill – At a fastfill refuelling station, gas is compressed to a maximum pressure of 200 300 bar and stored in banks of buffer storage cylinders. First, the compressor fills a bank of pressurecylinders, the intermediate (buffer) storage bank. Via a dispensing unit, compressed gas then flowsinto the vehicles in a few minutes. This means that the vehicle's tank can be filled from the bufferstorage bank very fast comparable with a conventional petrol station. The compressor thenreplenishes the storage bank. [8] On equal terms, the fast fill reduces roughly by 20% the fuel storagecapacity of the tank, compared to slow fill. The reason is that the newentering natural gas rapidlybuilds up and compresses the natural gas which is already in the tank. The temperature inside thetank rises, which consequently reduces the natural gas density [38] except for starting refuelling in anempty tank; then temperature drops first that will fairly compensate the temperature raise later.
The main components of “classic” fastfill CNG station are presented below. The differencebetween fast and slow fill CNG stations is in the fact that slow fill CNG stations do not have bufferstorage (and a measuring device, if needed, on the low pressure inlet) which makes themconsiderably cheaper.
Picture 12 – Fastfill CNG station
Source: www.bauerkompressoren.de
It is imperative that CNG refuelling stations have equipment which blocks entry of compressor oil,ensures that the gas is free of moisture, that there is no contamination via various impurities, and thatsulphur levels are kept at an acceptable level.
Generally, following fastfill concepts which are available today are:
19
Fastfill stations with piston compressor and 3 bank storage:
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 10985
1 Gas grid
2 Gas filter
3 gas meter
4 Main valve
5 Check valve
6 Dryer
7 Compressor
8 Storage (3 Bank) 250 –350 bar
9 Dispenser
10 Nozzle
H
M
L1
2 3 4 5 6 7 10985
1 Gas grid
2 Gas filter
3 gas meter
4 Main valve
5 Check valve
6 Dryer
7 Compressor
8 Storage (3 Bank) 250 –350 bar
9 Dispenser
10 Nozzle
H
M
L
Picture 13 – Fast fill piston compressor and 3 bank storage concept
Source: van Schoonhoven van Beurden G. (2004). Refuelling technology – Generic training 2004.Ingenieurbüro van Schoonhoven
Fastfill stations with piston compressor plus booster and 1 bank storage:
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 10985 11
1 Gas grid
2 Gas filter
3 gas meter
4 Main valve
5 Check valve
6 Dryer
7 Compressor
8 Storage (1 Bank) 250 bar
9 Booster
10 Dispenser
11 Nozzle
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 10985 11
1 Gas grid
2 Gas filter
3 gas meter
4 Main valve
5 Check valve
6 Dryer
7 Compressor
8 Storage (1 Bank) 250 bar
9 Booster
10 Dispenser
11 Nozzle
Picture 14 – Fast fill piston compressor plus booster and 1 bank storage concept
Source: van Schoonhoven van Beurden G. (2004). Refuelling technology – Generic training 2004.Ingenieurbüro van Schoonhoven
Hydraulic compressor / booster:
1
2 3 4 5 6
8
119
7
5
125
7
10
1 Gas grid
2 Gas filter
3 gas meter
4 Main valve
5 Check valve
6 Dryer
7 3 way valve
8 Hydr. Compressor / Booster
9 Storage (1 Bank) 250 bar
10 Solenoid valve
11 Dispenser
12 Nozzle
1
2 3 4 5 6
8
119
7
5
125
7
10
1 Gas grid
2 Gas filter
3 gas meter
4 Main valve
5 Check valve
6 Dryer
7 3 way valve
8 Hydr. Compressor / Booster
9 Storage (1 Bank) 250 bar
10 Solenoid valve
11 Dispenser
12 Nozzle
Picture 15 – Fast fill piston compressor plus booster and 1 bank storage concept
Source: van Schoonhoven van Beurden G. (2004). Refuelling technology – Generic training 2004.Ingenieurbüro van Schoonhoven
20
Most common is 3 bank storage concept. The volume of the different banks (low, medium,high pressure) is unequal (usually, LMH = 421).
Combo Fill In the combination configuration, slowfill is used as the primary means ofrefuelling but has the added advantage of providing constant access to fuel with the fastFill system. Afleet of vehicles with different refuelling needs benefit from this system.
Motherdaughter concept – is used in locations outside the reach of natural gas grid.Compressed natural gas is transported in highpressure vessels (up to 350 bar) and refilled into highpressure storage onsite. This concept is widely used in AsiaPacific region (i.e. Thailand, Malaysia)and as a support of filling stations grid development in South America.
Daughter station [86] needs a mother station to supply the compressed natural gas. Onemother station supplies compressed natural gas to several daughter stations by trucking. Motherstations are normally situated on the gas supply pipeline so that a large amount of gas can becompressed and supplied to daughter stations at low handling cost. Daughter stations are normallyestablished in localities where CNG endusers are gathered, which are often trafficcongested areas.
Usually, two CNG transporting trailers are used for each daughter station. One trailer can beleft at the daughter station while the other is being filled with CNG at the mother station. At thedaughter station, the CNG transporting trailer is (i.e. case in Thailand) used as the lowpressure bankof the threebank cascade system.
Picture 16 CNG transporting trailer – motherdaughter filling concept
Source:ChaiAnun W.T., Boonchanta P. (October 2004). Thailand NGV Updates: Technology, Marketing and
Government Policy. IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
Seisler J., EUROPEAN & WORLDWIDE STATEOFTHEUNION, ENGVA NGV Workshop, EuropeanGaseous Fuel Training Institute
Home Vehicle Refuelling Appliances (VRA) Natural gas Vehicle Refuelling Appliances (VRA)[9] combines gas compression with controls, electronics, and software into a simple compact packagethat can be installed anywhere. The VRA has been certified and listed as being so safe that it can beinstalled at commercial establishments or in residential homes. The core technology was developedaround a series of modules that are used to build up the various VRA models. Each model is acomplete selfcontained appliance that takes a gaseous fuel, natural gas or hydrogen, from a lowpressure supply, compresses it to between 200 and 345 bar and delivers it to a vehicle. The serviceinterval of the VRA compression module is currently set at 3 000 hours.
21
1
3 42
1 Gas grid
2 Gas meter
3 Fuelmaker or Phill
4 Connector
House Garage
1
3 42
1 Gas grid
2 Gas meter
3 Fuelmaker or Phill
4 Connector
House Garage
Picture 17 – Home fuelling concept
Source: van Schoonhoven van Beurden G. (2004). Refuelling technology – Generic training 2004.Ingenieurbüro van Schoonhoven
Natural gas vehicles are fitted with refilling nozzles, high pressure tanks, high pressure piping,various safety valves, pressure regulators, and filters intended to deal with any impurities in the gas.Moisture, glycol, compressor oil and impurities in the gas could seriously damage sensitivecomponents in the fuel system and it is essential that the filling stations are regularly controlled for thepresence of such unwanted elements in the gas dispensed to the vehicles (it is not enough to justcontrol the quality of the gas flowing through the gas grid). It is also essential that the onboard filtersare regularly cleaned or replaced during regular vehicle servicing. Should water, oil or glycol be foundto be present in the onboard tanks it may be necessary to empty the tanks (e.g. flushing out thecontents with the aid of inert gas).
Demands concerning unwanted elements in the gas entering the vehicle are the samewhether the vehicle is refuelled at home, at a public filling station or at a depot. In areas where the gassupplied to households via potentially porous low pressure gas pipes (< 1 bar) there is probably anincreased risk for belowpar gas entering a vehicle when using a home refuelling unit. The fitting of adryer may not be enough if the household gas has too high moisture levels. It is essential that thequality of gas delivered into vehicles via home refuelling units is properly controlled.
Besides the motherdaughter concept using compressed natural gas transported in highpressure vessels, it is possible to develop a network of CNG filling stations out of reach of existingnatural gas transport system using LCNG concept LCNG (liquefiedtocompressed natural gas)described in next Chapter.
Among other things, one very important element of filling station is filling nozzles. ENGVApromotes the worldwide use of NGV1 connectors for light duty vehicles and NGV2 connectors forheavy duty vehicles:
NGV1 (8 mm) for cars,
NGV 2 (12 mm) for trucks and busses.
Regional distribution of various connector types is also presented in the next chapter describingTechnical Data Base.
In Europe it is primarily in Italy that vehicles and filling stations use an earlier Italian type ofconnector. The use of adaptors introduces a risk which many people find unacceptable, and adaptorsare, for this reason, illegal in several countries. It will, however, be impossible refill an old Italian cartravelling abroad unless an adaptor is used, and it will also at many Italian filling stations be impossibleto refuel vehicles from other parts of Europe unless an adaptor is used.
22
Other countries that use their own standards (besides Italy) and are also representatives ofthe largest NGV markets are Argentina (GEN1141 standard), Brazil, using modified NZIG standardand Russia. This variation in standards might, as mentioned before, pose a problem to drivers and towider introduction of “Blue corridors”, which until now was solved by using various adapters.
2.6. LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS LNG
When natural gas is cooled to a temperature of approximately 160 °C at atmosphericpressure, it condenses to a liquid (liquefied natural gas – LNG). The liquefaction process removes theoxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphur compounds and water. On the other hand, LNG cannot be odorizedand automatic onboard gas detection devices are needed to control that no leakages occur.
The fuelling infrastructure requirements include the LNG supply, the transport to the fuellingfacility, the fuelling facility itself and the onboard vehicle LNG fuel system.
Natural gas in most areas is only about 30% of the cost of conventional fuels at the well headexcluding taxes. This economic advantage is diminished because the refining of gasoline and diesel isless expensive than LNG production. In most developed areas, refineries are abundant anddistribution networks are well established. In contrast, existing LNG sources are fewer in number.Most plants are utilised for natural gas storage, for instance, peakshaving plants. The size thresholdfor economics is easily met if LNG imports or LNG for gas distribution peakshaving is available. OnceLNG is available, smaller projects become feasible and economic. [10, 11]
LNG can be produced onsite or in a central location (or in last case source can be LNGterminal). Onsite liquefaction requires smaller, less expensive storage tanks compared to refuellingsystems supplied by offsite liquefaction. Reliquefaction of boiloff gaseous natural gas coming fromthe storage tanks, pressure adjustments during transfer and cooldown of transfer lines can be readilyfed back to the liquefier. Pipeline natural gas has a range of compositions and pressures dependingon location: this system is largely immune to these variations because natural gas is cooled in aprocess stream. High purity methane (+98 %) can be provided. Where LNG is supplied offsite, it canbe transported by ship, barge, and rail or by highway trailer. For vehicle applications, the mostcommon transportation method is the highway trailer. These trailers carry approximately 55 m3 of LNGdepending on the weight limitations for the area. [10]
Picture 18 – LNG filling station
Source: (December 2002), Bellshill LNG station open, Gas Vehicles Report, Volume 1, Number 11, p.29
23
Components of an LNG fuelling facility include the storage tank, LNG pump and fueldispenser. Also, if LNG is available, CNG is easily produced by pumping the LNG to high pressureand subsequently vaporising the high pressure LNG to nearambient temperatures. This conversion ofLNG to CNG has acquired the name liquefiedtocompressed natural gas (LCNG). The LNG pump isphysically small and has a very modest horsepower requirement. A small pump can easily fill a vehiclewithout drawing on storage cylinders. Both the pumps and vaporisers are low cost compared tocompressors and storage cylinders for equivalent capacities.
Fuelling from a CNG station can result in the development of overpressure in the vehicle CNGcylinders due to the heat of compression. This is especially true in fastfill CNG stations. With LCNG,the fuel temperature is controlled to avoid the overpressure and still get cylinders completely filled torated capacity. The LCNG station is ideal for fastfill and eliminates fuelling rate falloff because thestation fuelling capacity relies on the vaporiser and pump sizing and not on the capacity of expensivebullet storage. Also, maintenance costs are perhaps only 20% that of dedicated CNG stations [11].
The vehicle LNG fuel system consists of the coupling used for filling, a storage tank, fuelvaporiser and pressure control for supply to the engine. The pressure required by the engine can besupplied by an intank fuel pump or by pressure. The latter is generally preferred because of simplicitybut typically requires a somewhat (20%) larger fuel tank. Other functions include overpressureprotection, pressure indication and liquid level. The fuel tank is vacuumjacketed for thermal insulationand typically has filling hydraulics which will signal the fuelling dispenser when the tank is full. [11]
In Europe there are several vehicle manufacturers using LNG, like LNG Iveco, Dennis Eagle,ERF, Scania and Foden DualFuelTM etc. [12]
Natural gas only changes to its liquid form when it is cooled to below minus 160 °C and then ithas to be stored in super insulated tanks. For comparison, diesel and petrol are stored at 1 bar at 15°C, LPG is stored at 8 bar at 15 °C, LNG is stored at 5 to 7 bar at 160 °C, and CNG is sorted ataround 200 bar at 15 °C [12]. Tank weight comparison between diesel, LNG and CNG in steelcylinders is shown in table below:
Table 4 – Tank weight comparison
Diesel Size Equivalent (kg) 250 kgDiesel 250LNG 290CNG (Steel Cylinders) 1 152
Source: James Lewis J. Patricia O. LNG Vehicles & Vehicle Fuelling. www.engva.org
24
LNG is carried onboard vehicles in cryogenic tanks that are effectively large thermos flasksconsisting of two tanks, one inside of the other, separated by a vacuum. Structure of a cryotank forLNG (or hydrogen) is shown in picture below:
Picture 19 – Structure of a cryotank (Linde) for LNG or liquefied hydrogen (LH2) and LNG tank fitted inLNG truck
Source (left): Cozzarini C., Geier M., Huss C. (May 2001). The Launch of Hydrogen as an AutomotiveFuel. Proceedings, 7th Annual European NGV Conference & Exhibit , Malmö, Sweden
As illustrated above, LNG tanks must be equipped with onboard facilities for controlled releaseof gas in vehicles which have been parked so long that there is too much pressure buildup inside thetanks due to vaporization caused by increasing temperature. LNG in vehicles might for this reasonprimarily be an option for heavy duty commercial vehicles in more or less continuous traffic, butperhaps not a good choice for normal passenger cars.
LNG is almost the best commercially available fuel for aircraft, railroad engines and watercraft.In the late 1980s the Tupolev company (Russia) has successfully flight tested the TU155 aircraft withLH2 and LNG engineers. Almost 100 flight tests have proven that LNG is not only cheaper andcleaner, but also much safer fuel compared to aviation kerosene.
2.7. BIOMETHANE
This chapter has been drawn from public documents of IEA Bioenergy [1314] and brochuresof biogas plants already in operation [1518]. Also, relevant experts from the field of biomethaneutilization in transport sector and ENGVA consultants were contacted and their views and opinions areincluded in this chapter.
In this text, the term biogas is used for raw product and the term biomethane for final purifiedand upgraded product (containing around 95%vol methane).
One technology that successfully treats the organic fraction of wastes is anaerobic digestion(AD). In the absence of hydrogen, anaerobic bacteria will ferment biodegradable matter into a mixtureof methane and carbon dioxide. Approximately 90 percent of the energy from the degraded biomass isretained in the form of methane.
Feedstocks for AD (although not all are suitable for production of biomethane that might notbe used in vehicles but in other sectors instead) are: sewage sludge, agricultural wastes, municipalsolid wastes (organic wastes from households and municipal authorities) and organic solid wastesfrom industry. AD technology is now being demonstrated and fully commercialised.
Landfill gas is gas captured from old deposits of all kinds of waste, including organic waste.Future legal restrictions on depositing organic waste means that the production levels for landfill gas
25
will gradually fall off. It is difficult to upgrade landfill gas due to the high nitrogen levels, and the gascould potentially contain heavy metals and other substances creating health hazards.
Therefore, most experts from the field of utilization of biomethane for automotive purposes donot believe that it is wise to defend the use of landfill gas via the natural gas grid, or in vehicles.
Raw biogas manufactured via anaerobic digestion in special reactors, on the other hand, usingvarious organic waste materials as feedstock, typically holds 6575 % methane, and is not consideredas potentially contaminated. To allow use of the biogas in vehicles, or distribution of the biogas via thenatural gas grid, the gas is purified (the CO2 and H2S removed) and sometimes further upgraded toreach an energy content corresponding with the gas distributed via the natural gas grid.
Illustration of biomethane production process is shown in the case of a biomethane plant inLinköping – Sweden. Here various products are converted to biomethane and bio fertiliser.Production is based on organic waste material, primarily from slaughterhouse remains and the foodindustry, together with manure from neighbouring farms. The material is mixed into homogenous slurryin a reception tank, after which it is hygienized by steamheating to above 70 °C for at least one hourin order to kill bacteria. After cooling, the material is pumped into a digester to be broken down bydifferent types of micro organisms in anaerobic environment at about 38 °C. The average detentiondwell time in the digester is one month and this is where the gas is produced. When ready, the gas ispiped to the upgrading facility where it is purified in a pressurized water scrubber before it is suppliedas vehicle fuel [15].
COMPLEX ORGANIC MATERIAL(protein, carbohydrates, fat, etc.)
SOLUBLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS(Amino acids, sugars, etc.)
hydrolis
fermentation
ACETIC ACID H2 + CO2
INTERMEDIATEPRODUCTS
(Fatty acids, alcohols, etc.)
CH4 + CO2(BIOGAS)
anaerobic oxidation
methane formation
Picture 20 Schematic diagram of the microbiological anaerobic breakdown of complex organicmaterial to form biogas and a simple scheme of biogas production process in Linköping
Source: Biogas – The environmentally friendly fuel, Swedish Gas Association – brochure,Biogas – for a sustainable society, Linköping biogas – brochure
Next to the biomethane plant, the sewage water treatment plant is located. The gas producedhere in the sludge digestion process can also be upgraded and used as a vehicle fuel. The two plantsare connected with a gas pipeline. The biomethane plant is equipped with LNG tank. At peak biomethane demand the LNG can be vaporized and mixed with the biomethane in the pipeline,guaranteeing an uninterrupted gas supply. The material remaining after digestion, the bio fertiliser iscooled to 20 °C and stored at the plant a day or two before distribution to farms. [15]
26
Picture 21 – Biogas plant in Linköping Picture 22 – Unloading slaughterhouse waste fromSweden´s first biogas driven industrial vacuumtruck
Picture 23 – Full biogas cycle – from garbage collection (using biogas garbage trucks) to utilisation inLinköping (source: ENGVA)
If biogas is upgraded and all components apart from methane are minimised, the result wouldbe very similar to natural gas. This means that techniques developed for distribution and use of naturalgas can also be used for biomethane.
27
Table 5 Average composition of biogas and landfill gas compared to average composition of naturalgas
Components Landfillgas(vol%)
Biogas(before
upgrading)(vol%)
Natural gas(vol%)
Methane 45 65 86Carbon dioxide 40 35 1.3Nitrogen 15 0.2 0.3Oxygen 1 0 0Hydrogen 03 0 0Hydrogen sulphide <100 ppm <500 ppm 1.5Hydrocarbons (other then methane) 0 0 12
Source: Biogas – The environmentally friendly fuel, Swedish Gas Association – brochure
To achieve this goal and use biogas as a vehicle fuel it must be upgraded to obtain a gaswhich: has a higher calorific value to reach longer driving distances, has a regular gas quality to obtainsafe driving, does not enhance corrosion, due to high levels of hydrogen sulphide and ammonia andwater, does not contain mechanically damaging particles, does not cause iceclogging due to highwater content and has a declared and assured quality. This means that CO2, H2S, ammonia,particulates and water (and sometimes other trace components) have to be removed so that the finalproduct has methane content above 95 vol%.
2.8. SYNTHETIC FUELS PRODUCED FROM NATURAL GAS
Besides its direct application, natural gas can be utilized as a feedstock for producing otherfuels. The option of converting natural gas into synthetic diesel through a FischerTropsch synthesis isincreasingly being discussed by companies such as Shell, BP, and VW (FTdiesel), Synfuel or gastoliquid (GTL).
According to [38] GTL process is similar to oil refining, as a number of different products(fractions) are obtained. For this reason, GTL could be regarded as a “natural gas refinery”, but GTLtends to produce mainly middle distillates. Since the production of other alternative fuels from naturalgas: methanol, DME and hydrogen is based on similar chemical process, these fuels couldprovisionally also be regarded as GTL products.
Lubes / Wax
Middle Distillates(Jet fuel / Kerosene ,
Gasoil , Diesel)
Naphta
Fuel oils
Middle Distillates
Gasolines
Naphta
LPG3%
10%
27%
40%
20%
15 25%
65 85%
0 30%
Picture 24 – Comparison of the fraction breakdown of oil refining and GTL
Source: Kavalov B. (January 2004) Technoeconomic analysis of Natural Gas application as anenergy source for the road transport in the EU, European Commission, Joint Research Centre
28
Gas and oil companies emphasise the opportunities offered by GTL technology to exploitnatural gas resources that are beyond the reach of pipeline infrastructures (remote associated orstranded gas). Associated gas is obtained alongside oil extraction. It is a type of stranded gas, as inmost cases there are no nearby users or gas pipeline network. With the lack of any potentialconsumption around, such gas is normally flared, vented or reinjected. [38].
Another potential source [38] for GTL is the socalled “substranded” gas. This natural gas haslower methane content, at the expense of other components like CO2, N2, H2S etc. Thesecontaminants make it not appropriate for direct use of CNG. Instead of purifying such gas, it can beused as a feedstock for other products, either LNG or GTL.
The final GTL product could be processed, transported and distributed like any otherconventional liquid fuel by using existing refineries and filling stations.
From a vehicle manufacturer’s perspective, GTL offers the advantages of a fuel ideally suitedto the needs of a future generation of diesel engines that are heading for significant gains andemission reductions (GTL might significantly support future diesel engine technology while reducingthe NOx emissions compared to usual diesel vehicles). In the same way GTL has the potential toproduce methanol attractive for fuel cell reformer technology [19].
Synthetic gas (Syngas) generated from natural gas or biomass (BTL) can be used as afeedstock for GTL. The capacity of currently announced GTL projects is about 8% of the projectedworld diesel consumption in 2010. GTL technology has the potential to pave the way to biomassbased fuels applications in classical diesel engines and fuel cell propulsion systems. [30]
Picture 25 Overall process scheme – Fischer Tropsch
Source: FischerTropsch (FT) process http://docserver.ub.rug.nl/eldoc/dis/science/g.p.van.der.laan/c1.pdf
Picture shows a blockdiagram of the overall FischerTropsch process configurationusing coal or natural gas (orupgraded biogas) as feedstock.
The commercial processinvolves three main sections,namely: synthesis gas productionand purification, FischerTropschsynthesis and product gradeup.
The synthesis gaspreparation (that is air separationplant, partial oxidation, steamreforming of natural gas, andSyngas cooling) is about 66 % ofthe total onsite capital costs.The FT synthesis sectionconsisting of FT slurry reactors,CO2 removal, synthesis gascompression and recycle, andrecovery of hydrogen andhydrocarbons is 22 % of the totalcosts.
Finally, the upgradingand refining section ofhydrocarbons is about 12 %.Consequently, cost reduction ofsynthesis gas production is themost beneficial. [30]
29
Conventional refinery processes can be used for upgrading FischerTropsch liquid and waxproducts. Fuels produced with the FT synthesis are of a high quality due to a very low aromatic andzero sulphur content. The product stream consists of various fuel types: LPG, gasoline, diesel fuel, jetfuel. New and stringent regulations may promote replacement or blending of conventional fuels bysulphur and aromatic free FT products. [30]
Methanol is produced through synthesis of Syngas [21]. Because the technologies required toproduce from methanol from natural gas are mature, this is an economical way to produce methanol.Furthermore, steammethanereforming (SMR) technology is widely used in existing methanol plants.
In the case of methanol, it can be used directly in the internal combustion engines or for theproduction of natural gas in fuelcell vehicles equipped with an onboard reformer, avoiding thenecessity to use high pressure hydrogen storage in cylinders with the working pressure up to 700 baror use of liquefied hydrogen tanks.
Problems with use of methanol for automotive purposes are that it is highly corrosive andtoxic, being hazardous to both people and the environment. Another major disadvantage is thatcombustion of methanol leads to formation of formaldehyde which is dangerous substance capable ofcausing allergies and skin irritation. Levels of formaldehyde with M85 (85% methanol, 15% gasoline)can be as 10 times those with gasoline. [31]
To exploit associated and/or stranded gas fields (deposits) there are three main possibilities,through the methanol synthesis, FischerTropsch diesel synthesis or liquefaction to LNG. Overview ofprocess chains to use the remote gas as a fuel is shown on the next picture. [19]
Picture 26 Overview of process chains for the use of remote gas a fuel
Source: Ramesohl S., Merten F., Fischedick M., Von der Brüggen T., Energy system aspects ofnatural gas as an alternative fuel in transport – Executive summary, Wissenschaftszentrum NordrheinWestfalen – Institut Arbeit und Technik, Kulturwissenschaftliches Institut, Wuppertal Institut für Klima,
Umwelt, Energie GmbH
The specific emissions of GTL are 99 gCO2eqv/MJ and CNG with intermediate LNG phase hasspecific emission of 74.8 gCO2eqv/MJ. Therefore, direct use of natural gas in the vehicles is usually abetter option taking into consideration fuel efficiencies and net CO2 effects. The GTL in diesel enginestill offers a higher efficiency than the CNG engine but the later has the prospect of approximating toits competitor [19].
30
2.9. HYDROGEN PRODUCED FROM NATURAL GAS
Hydrogen is not an energy source but an energy carrier. At the outset, energy input is used toextract hydrogen from compounds such as hydrocarbons or water. [32]
Hydrogen can be produced either via a chemical transformation process generally involvingdecarbonisation of a hydrocarbon or organic feedstock combined with thermal splitting of waterthrough electrolysis of water.
Since this project task includes analysis of possible hydrogen usage for automotive purposes,but only in the case where hydrogen is produced from natural gas, the emphasis in this Chapter is onsteam reforming of natural gas to produce hydrogen.
Steam reforming of natural gas is a fully commercial process that can be carried out either in acentral plant or at/near the refuelling station. Large plants can be made more efficient than small onesthrough heat integration and recovery.
Hydrogen is commonly transported in gaseous form in pipelines, in pressurised cylinders or inliquid form in cryogenic tanks. Depending on the technology used in the vehicle, the hydrogen can beeither delivered as a liquid at near atmospheric pressure or needs to be compressed to 880 bar at therefuelling station, to meet the needs of vehicles with 700 bar onboard tanks. [32]
Hydrogen as an energy carrier is disadvantaged by its low energy density per volume unit,compared to liquid and solid fossil fuels. The volumetric energy density of hydrogen can be increasedby compressing it to high pressures in gaseous form or even more so by cooling it down to liquid state.
Liquefied hydrogen provides relatively the highest volumetric energy density for hydrogen (8.5MJ/l). Just for illustration, energy density of diesel is around 36 MJ/l). Liquefaction requires around30% of the energy content carried by the hydrogen for liquefaction. Hydrogen loss rates through boiloff can be up to 5% (but with the possibility to lower it to 1%). Vehicle tanks at present are subjected toloss rates of 0.3 – 1% per day after initial filling. Tanks are already available for storing liquid hydrogenfor 90 days without losses, using improved insulation, with lowtemperature liquid nitrogen surroundingthe container of liquid hydrogen. Liquid hydrogen should be produced in central production facilitiesand distributed by trucks in liquefied form to the filling stations to obtain maximum energy efficiency.
Gaseous hydrogen has a lower energy density per volume than liquefied hydrogen. Hydrogencompressed to 800 bar has about 65% of the energy density of liquefied hydrogen. The energy inputrequired for hydrogen compression is lower than for liquefaction (1015% of energy carried by thehydrogen).
The process of hydrogen production from natural gas is illustrated using as an example a onsite small methane steam reformer (HCG50 – Hydrogen Compact generator with the 50 m3/hhydrogen production) in a hydrogen refuelling station for fuelcell buses in Madrid (as part of theEuropean CUTE and CityCells projects, built and operated by consortium formed by Air LiquideEspana, Repsol YPF, Gas Natural and EMT – Empresa Municipal de Transporters, the municipal busfleet operator). [34]
The complete system is containerised. Overall size reduction was a must for these smallhydrogen generators if their suitability for future hydrogen service stations is targeted.
The hydrogen generation process is divided into the generation of a hydrogen rich reformatstream by means of steammethanereforming (SMR) and the following hydrogen purification bymeans of pressure swing adsorption (PSA).
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Steam reforming – methane and steam are converted at approximately 900 °C in thepresence of a nickel catalyst to a hydrogen rich reformat stream according to the following reactions:
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
The reformat consists of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Depending on theactual pressure, temperature and steamtocarbon ratio, and different equilibrium conditions areachieved that determine the exact composition of the gas. In addition, the reformat stream containsunconverted methane and water as the steamtocarbon ratio is always higher than the reactionstoichiometry requires. Also, inert components of the natural gas stream can be found in the reformat.
Picture 27 Hydrogen generation process (from natural gas) – example hydrogen refuelling stationfor fuelcell buses in Madrid
Source: (January 2004), Onsite small methane steam reformer in a hydrogen refuelling station forfuel cell buses in Madrid“, prepared by Gas Natural for IGU WOC5 members, Gas Natural, Barcelona
Hydrogen purification – the CarboTech patented hydrogen purification process is based on aphysical adsorption phenomena, whereas highly volatile compounds with low polarity, as representedby hydrogen, are practically nonadsordable compared to molecules such as CO2, CO and CH4.Hence most impurities in the feedgas stream can be selectively adsorbed and highpurity hydrogenproduct is obtainable.
Hydrogen (with the quality suitable for PEM fuel cells) from the reformer is supplied at 200 barwhat is the same pressure in which hydrogen is transported in cylinders on platforms. This allows thestorage system to accept hydrogen either from the reformer or from platforms. One set of cylinders ona platform remains stationary as a buffer, upstream of a high pressure compressor inlet. Thiscompressor supplies hydrogen at 350 bar to the dispenser to fill tanks on the buses.
Two different propulsion systems are presently being developed for the use of hydrogen intransport, the internal combustion engine (ICE) powered by the thermal energy released fromhydrogen combustion, and fuel cell systems driven by electricity produced in a chemical reaction ofhydrogen with oxygen.
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Hydrogen fuelled vehicles have been built by all major car manufacturers as prototypes and insmall fleets, totalling about 250 worldwide at present. Due to a very limited operating range whenusing compressed hydrogen storage, existing hydrogen powered vehicles using internal combustionengines are usually fitted with a hydrogen cryotank and are designed for dualfuel operation. Cryotankschematic breakdown is shown in one of previous chapters describing LNG.
Mechanism of electricity production using fuel cell is explained many times, in both cases,stationary and automotive applications; so, it will not be explained in detail. As a reminder, schematicoverview is shown below.
Picture 28 Function of a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell and fuel cell stack used inDaimlerChrysler Necar II model
Source: Fjermestad Hagen E. (May 2001). An Energy Company View of a Hydrogen Future, 7th
Annual European NGV Conference & Exhibit Proceedings, Malmö, SwedenHajdarevic I. (June 2003). Alternativni pogoni motornih vozila razvoj i perspektive Pogoni na gorive
elije, DaimlerChrysler AG – Stuttgart, presentation held in Energy institute Hrvoje Pozar, Zagreb,Croatia
The main issues for the two lines of hydrogen use in fuel cells or internal combustion enginesare costs of fuel cells and the energy efficiency of the hydrogen in internal combustion engines. Itrequires a high tanktowheels efficiency to compete with overall energy efficiency and CO2 emissionsfrom the direct use of natural gas. High efficiency fuel cell vehicles may provide this, while hydrogeninternal combustion engines vehicles would have higher welltowheels CO2 emissions.
33
Picture 29 Fuel cell drive train in personal cars DaimlerChrysler NECAR 4 – concept and vehicleefficiency
Source: Hajdarevic I. (June 2003). Alternativni pogoni motornih vozila razvoj i perspektive Pogoni nagorive elije, DaimlerChrysler AG – Stuttgart, presentation held in Energy institute Hrvoje Pozar,
Zagreb, Croatia
Picture 30 Fuel cell drive train in public transport DaimlerChrysler NEBUS (Fuel cell engine fits inthe normal diesel engine compartment)
Source: Hajdarevic I. (June 2003). Alternativni pogoni motornih vozila razvoj i perspektive Pogoni nagorive elije, DaimlerChrysler AG – Stuttgart, presentation held in Energy institute Hrvoje Pozar,
Zagreb, Croatia
Conventional hydrogen production through methane steam reforming (MSR) causes specificemissions of 103 gCO2ekv/MJ which is for a factor of 8.4 higher than the gasoline/diesel fuel chain. Asthe fuel propulsion system promises to be some 3040% more efficient than the conventional internalcombustion engine, an overall (welltowheel) reduction of greenhouse gas emissions takes place. So,from climate point of view, there is no need for an accelerated introduction of the hydrogen internalcombustion engine as an enduse application [19].
Nevertheless, onsite reforming of natural gas will probably be the most efficient way offuelling initial offers of hydrogen powered vehicles. Every new CNG filling station is also a potentialnew CH2 filling station if equipped with a small reformer and hydrogen compressor and storagefacilities.
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In the transitional period, a mixture of hydrogen with methane (called Hythane) will probablybe widely used, mostly mixed with CNG up to a degree which does not impose the need for NGVmodification. Conclusions based on the results of existing tests with H2/CNG mixture with 8% and 20%hydrogen share made in Sweden are as follows:
Results and conclusions with 8%vol hydrogen without any modifications of the bus engine[109] showed: higher efficiency, more stable combustion due to faster combustion (less cycle to cyclevariations), a slight increase in power, lower HC and CO emissions, higher combustion efficiency,higher or similar NOx emissions and higher knock tendency.
As regards status of 20%vol hydrogen / CNG mixture, situation is as follows [109]: bench testsof the engine are finished, the main results from the 8% hydrogen tests are strengthened, highercombustion efficiency => lower HC and CO emissions, with optimised ignition angle and air/fuel ratiothe NOx emissions can be considerably lowered, the bus engine will be reprogrammed in the comingfield tests, safety study by engine manufacture will be made and no parts will be exchanged.
According to [110] for use of 30%vol hydrogen / CNG mixture, vehicle modifications will berequired, or the vehicle performance will be seriously compromised. Modification could include: use oflarger displacement engines, adding a supercharger for power recovery, use of higher pressure fuelstorage systems including tanks, valves and refuelling nozzles, use of a fuel consumption sensor todetect ratio of natural gas to H2 and adjust fuelling and engine boost properly.
Picture 31 – Dispenser, hydrogen and H2/CNG and „Hythane“ city bus in Malmö (Sweden)
Source: Ridell B.(September 2004). MalmöHydrogen and H2/CNG Filling Station and Bus project, CarlBro Energikonsult AB, Sydkraft Gas ABLTH, Lund University, Sweden, Toronto
Heavy duty vehicles are typically based on lean burn spark ignited dedicated CNG engines[110]. Because hydrogen is capable of burning much leaner than natural gas, the addition of a smallquantity of hydrogen to natural gas enables the selection of an overall leaner airfuel ratio. Coupledwith an associated adjustment in spark timing, the NOx emissions can be reduced significantly. As thefraction of hydrogen increases, the NOx emission can be further reduced, albeit at the expense of theengine power density.
Generally, with the use of HCNG, engine emissions of greenhouse gases are reduced. Forexample, a 20% hydrogen blend by volume represents a 7% blend by energy content, and if theefficiency is maintained, the CO2 emissions are reduced by 7% [110].
IANGV Technical Committee issued in 2005 a White Paper on HCNG as a key strategy for thedevelopment of hydrogen fuelling infrastructure [110].
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According to [110], one of the major challenges to the introduction of hydrogen fuel cellpowered vehicles is the need to begin developing a hydrogen fuelling infrastructure network beforefuel cell vehicles are commercially available. Having hydrogen fuelling stations in place with little or nousage in anticipation of fuel cell vehicle commercialization would actually undermine the prospects fora hydrogen transportation future.
On the other hand, a fuelflexible station strategy capable of fuelling hydrogen, CNG or ablend of hydrogen and CNG, maximizes the use of that station. The station can then be used bydedicated CNG vehicles (providing station base load), HCNG vehicles (low and high blends),dedicated hydrogen internal combustion vehicles (ICE) and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
In HCNG stations, typically, the hydrogen and natural gas are supplied to the fuelling moduleat high pressure, and are sequentially injected in the onboard storage vessels. The flow of each fuelis electronically monitored to achieve a blend with 1% accuracy. It is possible to have the dispenserwhich provides different mixture ratios, but this requires special consideration for ensuring thatvehicles calibrated for a particular mixture are not refuelled with a different mixture [110].
2.10. OFFROAD APPLICATIONS
In the light of constant increase of crude oil (and consequently) petroleum products prices andraising concerns regards the security of supply, this chapter is included to show that natural gas, orbetter methane, provides the solution not only for the road transport segment, but also for othertransport segments.
For instance, there is a history of natural gas use in marine applications. LNG tankers areprobably most known, but there are other cases, not known to general public [102, 117] like: Ktypediesel ferry owned by Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Corporation (BIWTC) converted by RPGCLunder its Marine CNG Project (1996 – 1997), LNG cement hauler Accolaide II (Australia, 1983), LNGshrimpboat (19831985), passenger and car ferries (M/F Glutra, Norway, a prototype introduced inJanuary 2000), LNG cargo ships for open sea (Viking Energy and stril Pioner, owned by Statoil,Norway, using dualfuel concept, introduced in July 2003).
Picture 32 – Examples of CNG use in marine applications
Source: (June 2005), Bolzano Fair, ENGVA 11th Annual European NGV Conference, Bolzano, Italy
European Commission started with LIFE (LNG Tanker for Inland Waterways) project in theNetherlands. The prototype ship has been developed to operate by the Knutsen/NaturgasVestcompanies on short sea waterways in Netherlands. It is the smallest LNGtanker in the worldmeasuring 68 m/1 100 m3. This ship has a dedicated, fully optimized natural gas engine resulting inthe lowest possible emissions of any similar type of vehicle running on traditional diesel fuel. Fuelling
36
is provided from the gaseous boiloff of the vessel's LNG cargo, thus making maximum use of energy(methane) that otherwise would be vented to the atmosphere. The ship was set into operation inMarch 2004.
Seven canal boats in Amsterdam (Netherlands) are using natural gas with 135 hp engine and8 x 80 litters tanks. Gas detectors are present on board. Fuelmaker series home refuelling units areused for refuelling. [102]. CNG canal boats were also demonstrated by Gazprom in Moscow andSaintPetersburg (Russia) in 1996 1997.
Dual fuel or dedicated natural gas locomotives are present especially in the US, and Russia,both CNG and LNG. New projects started in Latin America (Chile) and AsiaPacific region (Thailand, apilot project is set for a train to run between Bangkok and Chonburi using dualfuel concept). Also,today’s Russia and the C.I.S. has a long tradition of natural gas use in farm and agriculture equipment.
Picture 33 The K700 heavy duty agricultural tractor (Source: NGVRUS)
Probably the most intriguing problem is the possibility of natural gas (or hydrogen) use as fuelfor air transport.
The Soviet Union built the first world’s liquid hydrogen and liquid natural gas aircraft engineNK88 as far back as in the late 1980s. The Tupolev155 aircraft made first test flights on April 15th
1988 with NK88 LH2 engine and on January 18th 1989 with the first NK88 LNG engine. A liquidhydrogen Tupolev155 made 5 test flights and the LNG version made 100 flights. It is important tonote that LNG Tupolev155 flew to and was serviced and refuelled with LNG in Moscow, Minsk,Bratislava, Nice and Hanover.
Picture 34 – Experimental LNG / LH2 plane – Tupolev 155
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3. COUNTRY REPORTS
Country reports are based on a questionnaire designed by IGU WOC 5 Study Group 5.3members, country representatives and experts and then distributed within the group. A number ofcountry representatives and experts were recruited between ENGVA and IANGV members andpartners.
The questionnaire might be is composed from 3 groups of questions.
Trend Analysis Analysis of past trends in NGV market development and factors thatinfluenced such market behavior with following data required (for past X years): (1) number of naturalgas vehicles, (2) number of filling stations and (3) volume of gas sold, together with descriptive factorsinfluencing trends in 1 3 in respective period.
Overview of state of the art technologies used in each respective market – collecting datasuch are: OEMs products (companies and models), presence of natural gas–petrol or natural gas–diesel technologies, emissions control technologies used, onboard cylinder type (I,II,II or IV) presenton the market, filling connector type (NGV1, NGV2 or other), maximal allowed pressure in CNGcylinder, measuring units used (mass, volume, energy), availability of home refuelling units,information about biogas usage (methods for biogas purification (biogas upgrading technologies),biogas allowed to enter high pressure natural gas transport system?) in case that biogas is used intransport sector, sources of LNG if LNG is used, availability of LNG or LCNG filling stations etc.
SWOC Analysis – Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Challenges in eachrespective market.
Distributed Questionnaire (between the study group members called “Country ReportTemplate”) was designed to provide geographical overview of “state of the art” technologies (CNG,LNG, biogas) used in various countries (through Technical Data Base established based on thereceived replies), and to (together with identification of some statistical trends) provide an inside viewon key drivers causing upward or downward market trends.
Finally, through SWOC analysis, it was the intention to feel the “heartbeat” of the gas andNGV industry, because this part somewhat subjective in nature and should represent hopes, fears andthoughts of the respondents.
This Questionnaire has been distributed across 27 countries, of which 23 countries responded(hit rate of excellent 85%).
Countries that responded on the questionnaire were: Algeria, Argentina, Austria, Belgium,Brazil, Chile, Croatia, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Iran, Italy, Japan, Macedonia,Malaysia, Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Spain, Switzerland and Sweden..
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3.1. TECHNICAL DATA BASE
A technical data base has been established to provide a geographical overview of existing(state of the art) technologies in each specific NGV market covered by the Questionnaire. Thisgeographical overview should assist industry involved in utilization of natural gas for automotivepurposes (conversion components, OEM NGVs, refuelling system etc.) in defining possible expansiondirections and to analyze needs and/or possibilities for harmonization and regionalization.
Topics covered (country by country) within Technical Data Base are:
Vehicles: OEMs products (companies and models)
Natural gas – petrol, natural gas – diesel technology
Emissions control technology
Storage (onboard): Cylinder type (I,II,III or IV)
Filling: Filling connector type
Maximal allowed pressure in CNG cylinder
Measuring units
Home refuelling
Biogas: Sources
Methods for biogas purification (biogas upgrading technologies)
Biogas allowed entering into high pressure natural gas transportsystem?
LNG: Sources
The analysis includes presence of various natural gas vehicle technologies in personalvehicles, LDVs, HDVs, buses and offroad vehicles in each specific market included in the survey.
Technologies covered are:
− Dual fuel engine technology (gasdiesel) with pilot injection
− Direct injection natural gas technologies in diesel engines
− Spark ignition – converted – carburetted
− Spark ignition – OEM carburetted
− Fuel injected, computer controlled
and the geographical coverage of (above mentioned) technologies is presented below:
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Table 6 – Overview by country Dual fuel engine technology (gasdiesel) with pilot injection
Dual fuel engine technology (gasdieselpilotinjection)
Passengercars
Light commercialvehicles (< 3.5t)
Light andmedium trucks(>3.5t and <16t)
Heavy trucks(>16t) Buses Offroad
vehicles
AlgeriaAustriaArgentinaBrazilChile (p.u.)CroatiaDenmarkGermanyEgyptFinlandFranceIran (p) (p.u)ItalyJapanMacedoniaMalaysia (p.u.)NetherlandsPolandRussiaSpainSwedenSwitzerland
(p) – planned (p.u.) – pilot units
Table 7 – Overview by country – Diesel engines that use gas only(direct injection natural gas technologies in diesel engines)
Diesel engines that use gas only(direct injection natural gas technologies in diesel engines)
Passengercars
Light commercialvehicles (< 3.5t)
Light andmedium trucks(>3.5t and <16t)
Heavy trucks(>16t) Buses Offroad
vehicles
AlgeriaAustriaArgentinaBrazil (p.u.)ChileCroatiaDenmarkGermanyEgypt (p) (p)FinlandFrance
IranItalyJapanMacedoniaMalaysiaNetherlandsPolandRussiaSpainSwedenSwitzerland
(p) – planned (p.u.) – pilot units
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Table 8 – Overview by country – Spark ignition – converted carburetted
Spark ignition – converted – carburetted
Passengercars
Light commercialvehicles (< 3.5t)
Light andmedium trucks(>3.5t and <16t)
Heavy trucks(>16t) Buses Offroad
vehiclesAlgeriaAustriaArgentinaBrazil (p) (p) (p)Chile
CroatiaDenmarkGermany
EgyptFinlandFrance
Iran (p) (p)Italy
Japan
Macedonia
Malaysia
Netherlands
Poland
RussiaSpainSwedenSwitzerland
(p) – plannedTable 9 – Overview by country – Spark ignition – OEM carburetted
Spark ignition – OEM – carburetted
Passengercars
Light commercialvehicles (< 3.5t)
Light andmedium trucks(>3.5t and <16t)
Heavy trucks(>16t) Buses Offroad
vehiclesAlgeriaAustriaArgentinaBrazilChileCroatiaDenmarkGermanyEgyptFinlandFrance
IranItalyJapanMacedoniaMalaysia
Netherlands
PolandRussiaSpainSwedenSwitzerland
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Table 5 – Overview by country – Fuel injected – computer controlled
Fuel injected – computer controlled
Passengercars
Light commercialvehicles (< 3.5t)
Light andmedium trucks(>3.5t and <16t)
Heavy trucks(>16t) Buses Offroad
vehiclesAlgeriaAustriaArgentina
Brazil
Chile
CroatiaDenmarkGermany
Egypt
Finland (p)France
Iran (p)Italy
Japan
Macedonia
Malaysia
NetherlandsPolandRussia (p)SpainSweden
Switzerland
(p) planned
Geographical overview by type of cylinders (onboard) used (Type I, II, III or IV) is presentedon the map below, followed by the type of filling connector used.
As can be seen from the picture, standardization of filling connectors is needed. For instance,Italy is using its own standard, and it is surrounded with countries using NGV1 and NGV2 standards.Russia, Brazil and Argentina also do not use NGV1 and NGV2 standards. In case that the use ofadapters will be banned, it will, for instance in Europe, not be possible to fill the vehicle using Italianstandard outside Italy and vice versa.
Natural gas (or biomethane) delivered by filling stations are almost entirely measured in unitsof mass (kg) or volume (usually m3) and in some cases there is no measuring at all. Delivered energyis not measured (only in some cases, i.e. in Italy, where also volume and mass are measured, whichis probably site dependent).
Temperature correction during filling is present in all countries, except (in Europe) in Italy andNetherlands and Latin America. In Malaysia, temperature correction has been introduced with newdispensers installed from 2003 onwards. It is important to point out that those conclusions are basedon available sample.
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AlgeriaType I
IranType I
SwedenType I IV
ItalyType I , II
RussiaType I (80%)Type II (20%)Type III (0,1%)Type IV (0,1%)
FinlandType III
MalaysiaType I (majority)Type II (8 cyl inderson the MAN bus )Type IV (3000 onthe 1000 Enviro2000 taxis)
MacedoniaType I
BelgiumType I , II
PolandType I (99,8%)Type II (0,2 %buses)
EgyptType I
GermanyType I, II, III
AustriaType I, II
ArgentinaSteel cylinders type I and Type II . Main localmanufacturer has a production capacity of 400 000cyl inders/year and manufactures both types ofcyl inders and is in the process of homologation oftype III container .
JapanType I , III, IV
SwitzerlandType I , IV
CroatiaType I
NetherlandsType I , IV
SpainType I
FranceType I , III, IV
BrazilType I
ChileType I
Picture 35 – Geographical overview – distribution by cylinder type
AlgeriaNGV1
IranNGV1
SwedenNGV1 LDVNGV2 HDV
ItalyItalian type
RussiaRussian type
FinlandNGV1 LDVNGV2 HDV
MalaysiaNGV1
MacedoniaNGV1
PolandNGV1, other
GermanyNGV1, NGV2
JapanNGV1
ArgentinaGEN1141local standard
AustriaNGV1, NGV2
SpainNGV2, NGV2
CroatiaNGV1
NetherlandsNGV1
ThailandNGV1 (LDV)ISO profile (HDV)
SwitzerlandNGV1, NGV2
BelgiumNGV1
FranceNGV1, NGV2
BrazilNZIG modified
ChileNGV 1
Picture 36 – Geographical overview – type of filling connector used
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Iranm3
SwedenSales measured in Nm3
Kgs might eventually beintroduced as CNG billing unitinstead of Nm3
Italym3, kg, MJ
Russiam3
Finlandkg
MalaysiaCNG is measuredusing mass flowmeterbut displayed on thedispenser and sold aslitre equivalent of petrolto the customers .Litre equivalent ofpetrol (lpe) the massmeasured is convertedto litre equivalent ofpetrol using a factor . (1lpe is equivalent to0.0326 MMBTU).
Macedoniakg
BelgiumNm3, kg
Polandm3, kg, nomeasuring insome cases
Germanykg
Switzerlandkg
JapanMeasured by massflow (kg/s)and converted to volume (m3 )
Argentinam3
Austriakg
SpainkWh
Croatiakg
Egyptm3
Francem3
Brazilm3
Chilem3
Picture 37 – Geographical overview – measuring units used
IranY
SwedenY
ItalyN
RussiaY
FinlandY
MalaysiaFor new dispensersinstalled from 2003onwards
PolandY
GermanyY
AustriaY
SpainY
CroatiaY
EgyptY
AlgeriaY
NetherlandsN
FranceY
BrazilN
ChileN (only masscorrection)
Picture 38 Geographical overview – temperature correction (Y/N)
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Variations in gas quality are presented here in a uniform way using Wobbe index (calculatedwith upper heating value of gas), because it is possible to replace gases with each other if they havesimilar value of its Wobbe index.
Finland43.2 MJ/ m3
Malaysia48.3 MJ/ m3
Macedonia43.2 MJ/m3
Poland43 MJ/m3
Germany44.653.3 MJ/m3
Austria53. 1 MJ/m3
Spain54 MJ/ m3
Denmark55 MJ/m3
Belgium4655 MJ/m 3
France46. 155.5 MJ/m 3
Brazil49.5 MJ/m3
Chile49.55 MJ/m 3
Croatia43.2 MJ/m3
Iran48.8 MJ/m3
Egypt54.4 MJ/m3
Russia43.2 MJ/m3
Picture 39 Geographical overview – Wobbe index of gas used for vehicles in respective countries(MJ/m3)
At the time of writing this report home refuelling was popular in a number of countries. Therewere over 3 000 Vehicle refuelling appliances (VRA) in the USA and Canada each, almost 700 inJapan, 400 in the Netherlands and 200 in France. As of October 2005 there were more than 9 000VRAs around th world.
LNG filling stations are present in UK, US, Germany and Spain, and LCNG stations arepresent in Japan and Germany. Pilot LNGVs are being tested in Russia, and both LNG and LCNGstations are planned in Brazil.
In the scope of interest was also biomethane. Biomethane is analyzed from the productionpoint of view, since the same technology for utilization of natural gas for automotive purposes (storageonboard, conversion kits, OEM vehicles) is also applicable for biomethane utilization.
It is positive that two countries with the largest utilization of biomethane in automotive sectorin Europe (Sweden and Switzerland) participated very active (and proactive) in the IGU survey.
In Sweden, biogas is produced from waste water sludge, manure, and organic waste fromhouseholds, food industry, restaurants, agriculture, and specially grown crops (new plant in Linköpingcame on stream in 2005). Methods used for biogas purification (biogas upgrading technologies toreach the quality necessary for the use in vehicle engines) are water scrubbing, PSA, Selexol andchemical treatment.
One important question was whether it is permissible for biomethane to enter the highpressure natural gas transport system and is it biomethane used directly or mixed with natural gas?
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In Sweden, many cities are relying solely on upgraded biogas, but also the injection ofupgraded biogas into the natural gas pipeline grid (upgraded biogas fulfilling Swedish biogas standard,and with an energy content similar to relevant natural gas quality, adjusted via addition of smallvolumes of propane is allowed to enter high pressure transport system).
In Switzerland, the biogas market is flourishing with strong competition from biogastopowermarket. Tax law allows only limited production of biomethane for vehicle fuel (5 million litters of dieselequivalent for complete tax deduction). Sources of biogas are waste treatment plants and industrialanaerobic digesters of organic wastes. Purification is done by pressure swing adsorption PSA(desulphurization, drying). Biomethane is injected into the natural gas grid. It can principally beinjected in all pipelines regardless of the pressure.
Of other countries involved in the survey, future prototype is scheduled in Iran. In Italy, biomethane is used directly and it can enter the transmission system if it meets the Network Code interms of quality. Biogas is produced from garbage and upgraded by removing CO2 and sulphurcompounds.
In Finland, there is one demonstration project with one demonstration vehicle and biomethane produced from agricultural sources. In Russia and Poland, no biogas projects are planned. InJapan, biogas is produced from waste but there are no indications that it is used for automotivepurposes. Same case is in Denmark, where biogas is produced from both landfill and agriculturalwaste and used without purification. Since NGV market in Denmark is negligible, this biogas isprobably used in other sectors.
Finally, regarding LNG sources, in cases where LNG is available, in Sweden, Norwegian LNGis sometimes used as back up for cities depending upon biogas for city bus operations. In Russia,LNG is produced at CNG filling stations and city gates (gas distribution stations), but this LNG is usedfor heat/power generation, although pilot LNGVs are being tested.
3.2. TREND ANALYSIS
Trend analysis provided in this chapter might be considered as a backbone of this report.
The idea behind trend analysis is to; based on received replies on a distributed Questionnaire,analyze trends in number of new natural gas (or biomethane) vehicles and fuelling stations, andvolume of natural gas/biomethane sold, in observed period of last X years, together with the externalfactors that influenced such a trend. In this way, it is possible to identify key drivers for each specificcase.
This idea has been borne in mind based on the New Zealand case, with the aim to identifyreasons that caused similar “ups and/or downs” on each specific market.
46
0
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10000
11000
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Sept. 1979
Sept. 1980
Sept. 1981
Sept. 1982
Sept. 1984
Sept. 1985
Sept. 1986
Govt. CNGTarget
Announced
New Govt.Incentives
Announced
CNGvoucherscheme
Govt.CNGloans
scheme
Devaluation of NZdollar increases cost
of petrol
PetrolPrice
reducedby Govt.
Extensionof CNG
Incentivesto pioneer
areas
Govt. removesfavourable CNGloan conditions
Govt.modifies
loanschemes
loanschemes
terminated
0
1000
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7000
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10000
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Sept. 1979
Sept. 1980
Sept. 1981
Sept. 1982
Sept. 1984
Sept. 1985
Sept. 1986
Govt. CNGTarget
Announced
New Govt.Incentives
Announced
CNGvoucherscheme
Govt.CNGloans
scheme
Devaluation of NZdollar increases cost
of petrol
PetrolPrice
reducedby Govt.
Extensionof CNG
Incentivesto pioneer
areas
Govt. removesfavourable CNGloan conditions
Govt.modifies
loanschemes
loanschemes
terminated
Conversions per month
Picture 40 Trend analysis New Zealand case (source: ENGVA)
The number of replies on the distributed questionnaire has been really extraordinary covering23 countries, including champions like Argentina, Brazil and Italy and large markets like Russia, andalso the important emerging markets like Iran and countries interesting from the point of view of theselected development strategy (like Sweden and Switzerland oriented to biomethane besides naturalgas, or Malaysia with its motherdaughter concept etc.).
All data has been put into suitable graphic form (Trend Analysis Charts) as a handy andpowerful tool to illustrate consequences of past mistakes, but also positive effects of well shapedstrategies, and to identify key drivers that influenced upward but also downward trends. It was not theintention to collect latest available information, but to observe the whole period, from the start of NGVproject in each country/region onwards. Therefore, more descriptive overview is provided.
Most interesting cases (Trend Analysis Charts) are presented bellow. In addition to country bycountry overview, regional breakdown is provided based on available literature as a source ofinformation for missing countries or as a source of additional information for countries that respondedon a Questionnaire, but it was necessary to provide an extended (and updated) view.
Also, regional analysis has been made in order to observe specific strategies betweendifferent regions and capture key drivers influencing market development in each region. The purposeof this exercise was to see possible convergences in each region.
The conclusion is that different regions (Europe, North America, South America, Middle East,AsiaPacific etc.) use different key drivers or prime movers for market development, but which arequite homogenous within the region (except in Europe, although, smaller subregions with similardevelopment patterns also occurs there).
Achieved results and conclusions served as a basis for recommendations to relevantstakeholders (gas industry, Government authorities, automotive industry, NGOs etc.) and as guidingline for projection of scenario matrix for future market development.
47
Below, several signs has been used, like ↑ to indicate upward trend (market is increasing) or ↓to indicate the opposite situation (downward trend, market is decreasing), or ↔ to indicate marketstagnation, or ↓↑ to indicate market oscillations. These marks only indicate direction, but not theintensity (and are of subjective nature).
Country by country overview (based on Trend Analysis Charts) and region by region overviewis provided below.
EUROPE
This region has been divided into several subgroups or subregions that are following thesame patterns. Countries covered through country reports provided by Study Group members are:Belgium, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Macedonia, Netherlands, Poland,Switzerland, Spain and Sweden. We will start (more or less) from north to south, starting withScandinavian countries.
Sweden [↑]
In Sweden, behind the market growths are following players: State of Sweden, cities andmunicipalities (leadership by example) and domestic OEMs.
Cities and municipalities are showing great dedication in the support of rapid expansion of theuse of alternative fuels and clean vehicles offering incentives: free parking, use of taxi priority lanes,preferential treatment of transport companies offering clean vehicle transportation etc. (basically, bynontechnical and nonfinancial measures for energy efficient transport).
Several larger Swedish cities already operate bus fleets running on biomethane and more arecoming into operation and the state of Sweden is committed to a 25% share of clean vehicles.
Case study: SWEDEN
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The City ofGöteborgtogether w ithVolvo initiatedSw edishdevelopments
CBG = compressed biogas
The Cities of Malmö, Uppsala, andTrollhättan made a commitment togo for CNG buses (Uppsala andTrollhättan rely ing only on CBG –biogas)
The City of Linköping started large scale biogasoperations. Volvo Car Corporation startedfactory production of CNG cars.
The City of Helsingborgstarted up CNG/CBGoperations. FordonsgasVäst w as set up inGöteborg w ith the purposeof building an adequateCNG/CBG refuelling infrastructure in West Sw eden.
The City of Kalmar startedup CBG operations.
The City ofJönköping startedup CBGoperations.
Volvo introducedits secondgeneration of BiFuel cars.
The cities ofStockholm andSkövde s tarted upCBG operations.
The cities ofKristianstad andBorås started upCBG operations.
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Picture 41 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Sweden
48
The Swedish Government is also supporting the sales of new clean vehicles by offeringsubstantially reduced company car tax charges on clean vehicles.
Local OEMs are available. Volvo is the market leader with a market share of some 25%. Thesupport of NGV offer from the market leader has also meant great opportunities for other brands.
Natural gas is only available in the southwest part of Sweden. This disadvantage has led to aunique support of the biomethane option.
Swedish case clearly shows how something which might be considered as drawback in onecase, might become an advantage in the other case and how can the lack of transport pipelineinfrastructure been used for the development of biomethane option.
Switzerland [↑]
Swiss case is similar to Swedish case and therefore it is treated here. Similar to Sweden,behind the market growth are the State and cantons, together with Swiss gas industry and NationalEnergy Agency.
Key drivers moving the market forward are: revision of mineral oil tax (expected in 2007)causing higher prices of petrol and diesel, expected introduction of CO2 tax and canton detaxation ofclean vehicles (no vehicle tax 2003 ongoing). Foreseen is a budget neutral tax reduction in naturalgas, biogas and LPG. The energy label for cars (compulsory in Switzerland) favours NGVs due to theirlow CO2 emissions.
There is a strong promotion of natural gas/biogas by the National Energy Agency. Like in thecase of Sweden, biogas is seen as a valid vehicle fuel, although there is a strong competition frompower market and only limited production of biogas (50 million litters of diesel equivalent) is subjectedto complete tax deduction.
Picture 42 Planned Swiss Green Corridor (support to „Blue Corridor“ concept)
Source: Seifert M., Lanfranchi S. (October 2004) SWINGV – Swiss Initiative for Natural Gas Vehicles,Swiss Gas and Water Industry Association, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
49
One of the most important actions to raise public awareness towards CNG and biogas will bethe set up of a refuelling station network along the national highways from north to south and fromeast to west. Switzerland, located right in the heart of Europe, is a typical road transit country with amain northsouth axis facilitating the transport of goods from Germany to Italy. In 2001, the Swiss Gasand Water Industry Association SVGW presented the Green Corridor Initiative to build 4 to 6 NGstations at public service stations along the northsouth highway. It will also allow connecting theSwiss refuelling station network to those existing in Germany and Italy. According to plan the highwayCNG stations were scheduled for completion in 2005.
Finland [↑]
Basis for market growth has been provided by the State creating favourable tax conditions,giving permission to use CNG without tax if total vehicle weight is more than 3.5 tons and permissionto use all Euro IV CNG cars without extra fuel tax (10 000 EUR/year).
Case study: FINLAND
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Permiss ion to use all Euro IVCNG cars without extra fuel tax(10 000€/year)
Planned:2005: First public CNG station2006/2007: Goal is to open one CNG stationper year in Hels inki area
Special permissionto use CNG buseswithout tax
number of vehicles number of f illing stations,volume of gas sold
Picture 43 Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key drivers behindthat trend – case: Finland
Second subgroup might be classified as markets with stagnation or downward trends due tolack of strong leaders from industry or the State.
Netherlands[↔], Belgium[↓], Denmark [↓]
NGV program in Netherlands [105] started in the early 90s by gas companies in Groningenlater followed by others. All NGVs were of retrofit quality and in mid90s there were around 600converted personal vehicles and 20 converted (older) buses. Experiences were not so good (togetherwith the problem of the lack of filling infrastructure) and after merging of electric and gas companies,there was little enthusiasm to continue and only a few of them survived.
The City of Harlem adopted NGVs as its local policy for improving air quality. Now, there is arevival. More cities nowadays, responsible for local air quality, want their bus companies to switch tonatural gas. The first bus company to start using natural gas is in Harlem area (with 35 natural gasbuses) and more cities will follow.
50
Due to EU projects like NGVEurope and the establishment of NGVHolland (Dutch NGVCoalition) NGV program in Netherlands survived. According to [105] it is remarkable that, even whenthe gas price is 25% of gasoline price, fuel price is not the main driver to switch to natural gas, but theright experience and the awareness of its possibilities.
A lead is needed to create a positive climate (together with Government) for NGVs. Recently;Gasunie in combination with the Ministry of Economic Affairs opened the possibility to start tenders forprojects in 5 different pathways. Pathway 2 is the use of natural gas in vehicles also as a bridge forgreener biomethane or hydrogen.
In Belgium, there is a lack of support by national policy. Unfavourable political attitude is alsoreported from Denmark.
Characteristic of next subgroup is the presence of an agreement or a “pact” betweenGovernment, natural gas, petroleum and other industries and presence of OEMs.
France [↑], Germany [↑], Italy [↑]
In France, stakeholders are: French Government, petroleum and other industries with focus onmunicipal vehicles and large companies (Post, Telecom), service providers and public transportcompanies (30% of all buses are NGVs).
Key drivers are governmental support, strong industry support and favourable price difference.Private commuters came into focus with the aims of gas industry to develop market further through theuse of home refuelling stations. Gaz de France and Fuel Maker Co. signed a Cooperation Agreementfor the development of Home Refuelling Appliance for natural gas vehicles in France. GdF will play akey role in the testing, certification and market development of the home fuelling station. Estimatedsale of 15 000 home fuelling stations in the first year of production in France with a European marketpotential of over 200 000 units over the next 5 years. [79]
Major auto manufacturers (Fiat, Renault, Peugeot, Citroen, Opel/GM) are offering different bifuel natural gas vehicles for consumers to choose from.
Case study: FRANCE
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All HDV
All HDV. Star t of the promotion of NGV forgarbage trucks
All HDV
2800 HDV, 45000 LDV150 private + 200 public stations
2300 HDV, 15000 LDV. 2005 : commercialisation of theHome refuelling appliance (HRA)2006 : development of public f illing stations.140 private + 100 public stat ions
All HDV. in 2004: +300garbage trucks. 130 private
stations
3300 HDV, 90000 LDV160 private + 300 public stations
number of vehicles gas sold (energy)
Picture 44 – Trend in number of vehicles and volume of gas sold and key drivers behind that trend –case: France
51
Italy was the first country in the world to use CNG as a transport fuel and for more than half acentury natural gas vehicles have been used there. It was a situation that provided the country withselfsufficiency in transport fuels during World War II. In the mid 1950s about 1 500 CNG fillingstations were in use, operating in many instances on a system of exchangeable gas cylinders. [99]
The CNG business survived a critical period in the 1960s when gasoline was plentiful due toits costeffectiveness. By this time the cylinder exchange system had almost disappeared and vehicleswere fitted with fixed tanks.
By 1973 the number of filling stations had grown to 210 but the 80s saw a slowdown whengas supply became restricted a situation that was later corrected when natural gas imports fromAlgeria became available. Environmental pressures and new technologies of the 90s have brought anew emphasis to Italy's CNG industry.
Public administrators in Italy [99] are severely concerned about the air quality in urban areas;especially about the fine particles and the forthcoming limits of 40 µg/m3 from 2005 (Directive1999/30/CE). Since 2000 several measures have been taken: fiscal and financial incentives for nonpolluting vehicles (including financial contributions for new fleet dedicated natural gas filling stationsand general public natural gas filling stations), alternative mobility experiments (car sharing & carpooling, mobility management, nontechnical measures and traffic limitation (NGVs, LPG andelectrical vehicles are exempt).
There is a definite trend in establishing rules in advance instead of being compelled by lastminute emergency. Most Government incentives are “fuel neutral” in that they are addressed togaseous fuels and to electric propulsion (and some to “clean diesel”, be it CRTs, water emulsions, orbiodiesel). The reaction of the market is however in favour of compressed natural gas.
Also, the Government attitude has been a very strong driver of the NGV expansion: in 20032004 the orders of natural gas urban buses were higher than diesel and several nonItalian vehiclemanufacturers are appearing on the scene. [99]
Key drivers for pushing the market forward are: mature market and developed infrastructureand lately, incentives offered from Government agreement between OEMs, Ministry of Environmentand oil union. Many manufacturers are active in the NGV field (conversion kits, filling stations,components), together with OEMs (like Fiat).
Despite all the measures, in the last few years, market stagnation occurs. On the one side, thenumber of filling stations is continuously increasing and OEMs are offering a wider range of vehicles,but volume of natural gas did not show expected increase.
Reasons for that or important key drivers that are pushing the market downward (or, in theopposite direction) are:
diesel competition due to low taxes, good performance and wide model range and developedfilling infrastructure for diesel,
like most of the markets, Italian market is retrofit market and retrofitted vehicles are still necessary,but vehicle conversion is becoming more and more difficult because of technology and normativedrawbacks (OBD),
Filling nozzle is using Italian standard, incompatible with NGV1 standard, meaning that use ofadapters is necessary to fill up the cars supporting NGV1 standard.
52
Case: Italy
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Incentives fromGovernment; AgreementOEM Environmentministry Oil unionIncreased environmental
concerns. New modelsOEM NGV LD and HD
Picture 45 – Trend in number of vehicles and key drivers behind that trend – case: Italy
In Germany prime movers pushing the market forward are: Government, major Germancompanies in cooperation with mineral oil companies and OEMs.
Main key drivers are: foundation of Erdgas Mobil by major German companies in cooperationwith mineral oil companies with the aim to install 1 000 CNG stations in Germany, German widecampaign on natural gas as a fuel for vehicles by gas industry, car manufacturers and Government,political funding through reduced mineral oil tax fixed up to 2020, more types of dedicated NGVsavailable and sales incentives by OEMs together with gas industry.
Case study: GERMANY28000
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o Reduced mineral oil tax (up to 2000)o Political fundingo First OEM NGVs (BMW)
o Foundation of Erdgas mobil by majorGerman gas companies in cooperation w ithmineral oil companies (aim 1.000 CNGstations in Germany)o Reduced mineral oil tax f ixed(up to 2020)o More types of dedicated NGVs available
o Fuel prices for gasoline and diesel keep risingo Sales incentives by OEMs together w ith gasindustry
o Increased number of OEM NGVs at themarket availableo First NGvs w ith under f loor gas tankins tallation (Fiat Multipla)o German w ide NGV campaign on naturalgas as fuel for vehicles (gas industry, carmanufacturers, government)
number of vehicles number of f illing stations
Picture 46 – Trend in number of vehicles and key drivers behind that trend – case: Germany
53
Next subgroup is composed from countries using natural gas mostly in the HD vehicles andLNG with United Kingdom as leading country followed partially with Spain (focus on buses and LNGtrucks with the sources of LNG available), although Spain is, like Portugal and France focused onbuses to build up the market.
United Kingdom [↑]
UK had no representative in the Study Group, so necessary data was acquired from availableliterature.
In the UK, the driving force is trucks because price regime for truck operators is highlyattractive as a result of high diesel prices (amongst the highest in Europe) and low natural gas prices.Key players pushing the market forward are Government, Energy Savings Trust and OEMs.
UK market has seen a very large growth in the use of LPG for cars and small vans as a resultof low taxation on LPG a Government grants.
TransportEnergy programs at the Energy SavingTrust (EST) were available since 1997offering the financial support through: grants of up to 75% to offset additional purchase/conversioncosts of natural gas vehicles, grants for the building of a natural gas refuelling station, grants for thedemonstration of innovative low carbon vehicles and technologies. There was also a reduction of £500per annum in vehicle excise duty. Finally, grants to target urban distribution fleet operators usingdedicated gas vehicles become available. Together with subsidies mentioned, other forms of indirectsubsidies are available, i.e. NGVs are exempt from congestion charging (since 2003).
In 1994, fuel duty was higher on CNG than on diesel. In 1995 for the first time, duty on CNGwas reduced below diesel, and further reduction in duty was in 1996, 1999 and in 2004 (when ESTgrants become over subscribed). As regards low fuel duties, favourable price differential will bemaintained for at least the next 4 years (consistent policy over time). [98]
According to [98], the Government has aspirations to convert 10% of the fleet.
Government incentives were at the end of 2004 up to £3 100 for HDV (35017499kg GrossVehicle Weight GVW) and buses with 1724 seats, and up to £2 000 for HDV (750013999kg GVW)and buses with 2535 seats, and up to £12 000 for HDV (1400027999kg GVW) and buses with morethen 36 seats. Finally, grants up to £18 000 were available for HDV with more then 28000 kg GVW).Grants for refuelling stations were up to 50% of hardware costs to a maximum of £70 000. NewVehicle Technology Fund was introduced covering up to 50% of the eligible project costs. [98]
Spain [↑]
In the Spanish case, the key drivers are: reduced tax for LPG and natural gas vehicles, andexistence of players like Gas Natural and SDG (all projects are pushed only by Gas Natural and SDGwith participation in filling stations building or offering good price for natural gas (orientation mostly tobus fleets and garbage trucks) and demonstration projects (CNG and LNG) in several cities).
In 1994, after the presentations made by Gas Natural, the IRS department made an allowancethat natural gas could be uses as fuel, making it equal to LPG in all aspects, which means: restrictionof use to local public services (range of action inferior to a 100 km); selflifting barrows in privaterooms and engines under prove with reduced taxes for mentioned uses. For any other uses the taxhas been established at the point where price competition is out of range for comparisons with otherfuels (more that two times higher compared to diesel). [78]
Due to previously mentioned reasons, Spanish NGV market is oriented mostly to buses andgarbage trucks (local public use).
At the beginning of 1994, Gas Natural started a series of test trials (with a promotionalcharacter) using urban public transport buses and garbage vehicles. In time, these trials became a
54
direct and important part of the necessary literature for investments, which include refuelling stations,as well as buses, trucks and selflifting barrows using CNG, and in some cases LNG.
Also, there is a lack of specific norms and standards for NGVs, and expansions of SpanishNGV market will also depend on the development and adoption of applicable standards.
Case study: SPAIN
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24 buses in Madrid andBarcelona
31 bus. Demonstrationprojects in sev eralcities.
119 Buses + garbage trucks+ 1 LNG truck. CNGgarbage trucks in Madrid, 1LNGV demonstration projectin Barcelona (13 CNGstations + 1 LNG station).
300 Buses + garbage trucks+ 28 LNG trucks. 19 CNG +2 LNG stations. 18 LNGgarbage trucks and 10lorries.
188 Buses + garbage trucks+ 1 LNG truck, 15 CNG + 1LNG station. CNG garbagetrucks in Madrid.
602 Buses + garbage trucks+ 36 LNG trucks. 19 CNG +2 LNG stations.
701 Buses + garbage trucks+ 36 LNG trucks. 21 CNG +2 LNG stations.
Future development depending on: EU regulation Spanish administration collaboration OEMs Standards
number of filling stations,volume of gas sold
NGVs (w ithout garbage trucks)
Picture 47 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Spain
Portugal [↑]
Portugal, next country in the region, had no representative in the Study Group. Therefore,necessary data was acquired from available literature. Portugal is also oriented on bus fleets.
Key driver for market development was leadership by example with introduction of OEMsnatural gas buses by public transit operators in cities of Braga and Porto, followed by Lisbon’s busoperators. OEMs are more present in heavy duty then in light duty sector. Only OEM vehicleshomologated to the use of natural gas are allowed in the Portuguese market. State support to NGVprogram is through lower VAT for CNG (fuel, but not vehicles) which is 5% instead of usual 17%.
Austria [↑], Czech Republic [↑]
Next subgroup includes Austria and Czech Republic with somewhat similar patterns(development by main gas and oil company aiming to establish corridors throughout the country (toprovide to the customers ability to drive from one side of the country to another without a need to fill uppetrol as a backup fuel, due to shortage of natural gas filling stations) and lack of incentives from theState.
55
Austria [↑]
OMV recognized early the considerable market potential and in 1993 started with first projectsfor the setting up of an infrastructure for the supply of the natural gas vehicles.
Today, the natural gas transit route is complete and it is now possible to cross Austria withouta problem with the NGV which is a valuable contribution to “Blue corridor” concept.
Austrian market is suffering from the lack of political support and needs a guaranteed taxregime. Austrian market is not a retrofit market, and it will exist only if OEMs are available. German carmarket which is developing well with new models entering the market, is influencing Austriaintensively. Finally, biomethane is considered as a valid future option.
Case study: AUSTRIA
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The German car marketdevelops very well >influences Austriaintensively
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Picture 48 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Austria
Czech Republic [↔]
Czech market is experiencing a period of stagnation after promising start in the early 1990swaiting for new market leader. RWE Energy Czech Republic is considering the concept of building anetwork of CNG refuelling stations across Czech Republic (it would be necessary to stabilize a lowerexcise duty on CNG for transport purposes). NGV Coordinating Task Force is established with a viewof promoting and advancing relationships, help and cooperation among relevant players. DomesticOEMs are present (Ekobus CNG transport company using 50 CNG buses).
Next subgroup is countries with an: absence of governmental support or leadership byexample, absence of subsidies and strong LPG market and favourable price difference.
56
Poland [↑]
In the 1950s Poland had about 3 000 transport trucks and delivery vans which could run onCNG and 17 refuelling stations catering for their needs. In the 70s, when petrol and diesel oil wererelatively cheap, the use of CNG powered vehicles decreased. In Poland at the present time, NGVvehicles belong mostly to gas companies but there are also a growing number of private cars.Additionally, five Polish plants use 320 CNG powered forklift trucks for inplant transportation. Allthose plants have their own CNG refuelling stations. At the end of 2004, there were 24 CNG smallinternal and public refuelling stations, five of which accessible to the public. At the time of writing thisdocument, there was only one company in Poland which converts conventional fuel vehicles (dieseloil, petrol) to CNG fuel. Another single company produces steel containers suitable to CNGtechnology.
In Poland, a strong LPG market, with 2 500 LPG service stations is considered an advantage,and LPG as a complementary instead as competitive fuel for natural gas. According to responds on aquestionnaire from Poland, these 2 500 servicing points could be prepared to install CNG equipment.Together with a favourable CNG price, important key driver is own experience in building CNGstations, designing compressors and converting vehicles to natural gas. Problem is lack of financialsupport from the Government today (at the beginning in 1989, CNG program was financed by thecentral Government, although, according to [119] there is an exemption from excise duty on CNG)and unclear policy regards environment protection standards, to be put into force.
According to [95] Polish National Oil and Gas Company PGNiG S.A. announced a marketingstrategy based on economical aspect (flexible pricing policy with CNG price fixed in relation to dieseloil price) as the key driver and concentrated on municipal and local fleet operators.
Case study: POLAND
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Light duty NGVsonly. National CNGprogram wasfinanced by thecentral Government
6 buses in Cracow,about 75 Gas Worksservices cars and10 private cars
17 buses inPrzemy l, in Krakówthe end of NGVProject
47 buses inPrzemy l,Inowroc aw,Warszawa,Rzeszów
number of vehicles volume of gas sold
Picture 49 – Trend in number of vehicles and volume of gas sold and key drivers behind that trend –case: Poland
Bulgaria
Bulgaria had no representative in the Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquiredfrom available literature.
57
In Bulgaria, key driver is again favourable price difference which makes for a large potentialdue to high price of diesel. On the other hand, the price of CNG equipment is considered to be toohigh and there are no subsidies available. There are no OEMs present on Bulgarian market. Severalcompanies are providing conversions to natural gas of cars, buses and trucks, but the LPG market isalso very strong (60 – 70% of gasoline cars are converted to LPG), what is, in this case, seen as acompetitive fuel. One of the drivers that might provide market development is that there are norestrictions on certification because any world accepted certificate is valid (acceptable).
Croatia [↔]
Situation in Croatia is very similar. There is, at the moment, lack of support by local or nationalpolicy. Public transport companies favour diesel (or biodiesel as possible alternative fuel) and there isa strong LPG competition from focused LPG companies, primary daughter company of Croatiannational oil and gas company interested to increase LPG demand in domestic market and reduceexport (Croatia exports 70% of its LPG and imports 40% of natural gas needed).
Also, as in the rest of Europe, there is a large increase, with further upward trend, in a numberof new diesel personal cars. CNG is at the moment used mainly by the fleet (LDVs) of main gasdistribution company, which is also the owner of only fuelling station in Croatia. Price difference isvery favourable, but potential customers consider the price of CNG equipment too high.
Key drivers that might push the market forward are: proximity of developed markets like (Italy)and fact that CNG and LPG vehicles are exempt from, so called, “Ecotest” during annual technicalvehicle inspection, which makes it interesting for older, more polluting vehicles, but on the other hand,this is influencing more increase in the number of LPG then CNG vehicles. International standards areaccepted by national legislation and there are no obstacles for import of OEM vehicles.
In 2005, new Fund for Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency, financed mostly fromfees from automotive sector, announced strategy to return part of the Fund income back to automotivesector (probably in the form of grants) instead of using them entirely for stabilization of landfills, whichis case today. Fund recently introduced favourable loans for projects aiming to decrease air pollution:loans up to (226 500 EUR) with 5 years repayment period + 2 years grace period or subsidy of interestrate of commercial loans up to 2% [97].
Case study: CROATIA
3337
4844
78
16
75
48
75
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,07
0,10 0,10
0,070,06
0,06
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030,00
0,01
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,10
Number of natural gas vehicles Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)
• Start of the project. New filling station opened in December 1994 on thepremises of GPZ (Zagreb Gas Distribution Company) in the centre of thetow n.• Favourable CNG price compared to the price of petrol or diesel.• Taxi drivers and driving schools converted also (besides GPZvehicles).
• Existing converted bus is out of order. Public transportcompany (ow ned by the Municipality of Zagreb (GPZ isow ned by the Zagreb municipality also)) notrecognized natural gas as a transport fuel. No new busconversions. All new buses are diesel buses.• No leadership by example, no subsidies f orconversions.• Favourable CNG price compared to petrol or diesel.State control over petrol and diesel prices.
• Strong marketing campaignof w ider use for LPG forautomotive purposes .
• Liberalization of petrol and diesel pr ices – (rapidincrease in prices) boosting LPG but not CNG market.• Ac t about necessary conditions for appliances andequipment f or gas vehicles ( issued in National Gazette).
• INA, main petroleum company,es tablished daughter (LPG) company.Even stronger marketing campaign ofLPG for automotive purposes.
• Strong m arketing campaign of LPG f or automotiv e purposes(TV commercials, WEB sites , audits etc. by LPG company ).• Import of diesel c ars is increasing.• New Act on technical inspection of v ehicles – af ter 1st
October 2003 all v ehicles should pass Ecotesting (exhaustgases should be bellow presc ribed limi t depending on the ty peof v ehicle), except CNG and LPG v ehicles, to pass regularcar inspec tion.• Ministry of Env ironment started new project f or use ofbiodiesel in public t ransport in the municipality of Zagreb. LPG com pany f in ished project of sm all compact containerty pe LPG f illing station that s hould boost the number of LPGf illing stat ions in Croatia. LPG com pany got approv al f rom Ministry of I nterior toreduce saf ety distance f or LPG f illing stations which mighthelp to int roduce m ore widely LPG on petrol stations.
number of vehicles volume of gas sold
Picture 50 Trend in number of vehicles and volume of gas sold and key drivers behind that trend –case: Croatia
58
Macedonia [↑]
In Macedonia there are no subsidies and no direct Governmental support, but unlike inCroatia, there is cooperation between national oil and gas company and public transport company, aspublic transport company recognized natural gas as a transport fuel. Also, like in Croatia, legalbackground for OEM import is already in place.
Case study: MACEDONIA
2
30
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
2003 2004 2005
Number of natural gas vehicles
2 CNG bus(PTC –Skopje)
• Start of the project.Public transport company PTC(owned by the Municipality ofSkopje) recognized natural gasas a possible transport fuel. Two bus convers ions. All newbuses are diesel buses.• Favourable CNG pricecompared to the price of petrol ordiesel. State control over petroland diesel prices.• Taxi drivers and l ightcommercial vehicles will beconverted also (besides PTEvehicles).• DVGWG651 & R110 standardwas recommended as valid.• Existing more than 40 LPGstations.• No leadership by example.
28 new busconversions
• New filing station opened on theprem ises of MAKPETROL in thegarage of PTCSkopje• PTC –Skopje, is responsible forconversion of 28 more thenexis ting 2 buses• Favourable CNG pricecom pared to petrol or diesel.State control over petrol anddies el prices.• DVGWG651 & R110 standardnot yet approved.
100 CNG buses (PTC) according to estimates,total number of NGVs around 100 / year
• PTC needs to convert 70 oldbuses. All other and new busesare diesel buses.• No subsidizes for conversions.• Favourable CNG pricecompared to petrol or diesel.State control over petrol anddiesel prices .• DVGWG651 & R110 standardone should be valid.
5 years from today
>100 CNG busconversions (PTC),plus severalpassenger cars & lightcomercial vehicles
Actions needed:• To make available subsidizes onconversions• Reorganization of Energy marketfocused on Natural Gas retail.Strong marketing campaign forwider use of CNG.
Posible key drivers:• EU legis lation• OEMs• “Ecotes ting”
Picture 51 – Trend in number of vehicles and key drivers behind that trend – case: Macedonia
Serbia and Montenegro
In Serbia and Montenegro, main stakeholder is national oil and gas company using NGVs inits own fleet (pilot program with 8 OEM delivery vehicles and filling station on the premises of gascompany).
Study about possibilities of utilization of natural gas in transport sector in Serbia was finishedin 1996.
There was a pilot testing in progress of domestically developed CNG bus with good resultsafter 5 years of exploitation (home fuelling unit is used for filling). Possible OEM with CNG deliveryvehicles program is in final stage of preparation.
There is no domestic regulation in force but foreign standards are acceptable. So far, keydrivers are promotion and positive company image and favourable price difference. [97]
59
SUMMARY FOR EUROPE
In each successful case there is cooperation between governmental bodies, oil and gasindustry and/or other large companies. What seems to lack in Europe is regionalization (or evenbetter, internationalization) since it is possible to identify several subregions with similar key driversfollowing similar development patterns. What is a key driver in one subregion is not a key driver inanother.
Regionalization (internationalization) by using the same standards making vehiclehomologation process easier and use of Blue corridors for creating one large market instead replacinga number of small individual markets and providing positive business climate for OEM natural gasvehicles is a priority. Retrofit market will probably decline over time in Europe due to technology andnormative drawbacks (OBD) and originally manufactured natural gas vehicles will be necessary toeven maintain the existing market.
Projects like Blue corridor are also highlighting the issue of different natural gas qualityavailable in Europe (route Berlin – Rome is almost finished and projects like Green corridor inSwitzerland or established corridor across Austria provides valuable support to this concept) or in theWorld, which might impose demand for new gas engines equipped with automatically adjustablecombustion systems.
Technical standards for vehicles and fuel infrastructure are rather developed and most typesof natural gas storage equipment are also covered by international framework of standards andregulations, but unified standards related to the fuelling stations are necessary.
First example to illustrate this conclusion is regards dispensing nozzle currently covered byNGV1 standard. However, not all existing stations are compatible with this connector i.e. Italy.Second example are large regulatory differences across Europe for new natural gas refuelling stationsfor making natural gas available on existing petrol/diesel stations.
The fuel connector standard adopted by ISO (ISO 144691) is the basis of a 2006 amendmentto UN regulation ECE 110 that will require conformity by the signatories to the 1958 treaty governingcooperation among member states to conform to the international regulations. Italy, at this writing, ismoving to adopt the new NGV1 standard and to transition to the new international protocol.
Since the name of this report is “Natural gas as a transport fuel for today and tomorrow”, it isworthwhile to tackle the subject about the projects for use of hydrogen in transport sector. Main EUprogram is CUTE (Clean Urban Transport for Europe) which started in March 2001 in Amsterdam(Netherlands) where European bus operators expressed interest to introduce fuel cell buses into theirfleets and test their behaviour in regular driving conditions (public transport). Each bus operator signeda contract for three fuel cell MercedesBenz Citaro public transport buses manufactured by thecompany EcoBus Gmbh, 100% owned by DaimlerChrysler. Total number of buses involved in thisproject is 30 in 10 European cities. First phase of this project was scheduled to be finished be finishedby the end 2005. Cities involved in the project are Amsterdam, Barcelona, Milan, Hamburg, London,Luxembourg, Porto, Stockholm, Stuttgart and on Iceland. Project participants are obliged to provideinfrastructure for production, distribution and filling of vehicles with hydrogen. So far, steam reformingis used in Madrid, while other cities mostly use electrolysis using hydroenergy or green energy as asource of electricity. OEM manufacturers are present on the market, like mentioned DaimlerChrysler(Nebus and Necar programs), BMW (hydrogen for the use in internal combustion engines models) etc.
Regionalization and standardization of national NGV markets cope with the activities of theEuropean Commission regards alternative fuels as integral elements of a policy framework that aimsto secure energy supply (Green Paper on the security of energy supply) and reduce greenhouse gasemissions (White Paper on a common transport policy). The concept of introducing alternative fuels inthe EU energy system, starting from the sector pressing the most for fuel diversification and emissionreductions, i.e. the transport sector, was put forward in a Communication from the Commission thatwas presented in November 2001. Three types of alternative fuels were identified that have thepotential of substituting at least 5% of conventional fuels each, in the road transport sector by 2020,namely biofuels, natural gas and hydrogen. Share of natural gas in total transport fuel replacement
60
(figures for EU15) should be 2% in 2010, 5% in 2015 and 10% in 2020. Share of biofuels should be2% in 2005, 6% in 2010, 7% in 2015 and 8% in 2020. It is important to point out that biomethane isalso a biofuel. Share of hydrogen should be 2% in 2015 and 5% in 2020.
RUSSIA AND THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES (C.I.S)
The environmental and economic advantages of compressed natural gas were understood bySoviet scientists as far back as in the 1930s [92]. The first CNG filling stations and NGVs werecommissioned for regular operation in 1939. Italian engineers were introducing NGVs at the sametime. Unfortunately, before WW II the USSR could not execute effective NGV programs.
The country returned to the NGV concept in 1980. The national leadership has resolved todevelop and implement a large scale program aimed at massive substitution of oilbasedtransportation fuels with natural gas. By the end of 1990 the Soviet Union has built 357 CNG fillingstations in all 15 republics. Cylinder and gas equipment production was launched. Compressorequipment was supplied by Russian, Ukrainian, German and Italian companies. In 1990 NGVsconsumed 1 billion m3 of natural gas.
In 1990 there were 350 000 NGVs in the FSU. Three major truck manufacturers – the ZIL,GAZ and KAMAZ plants – were selling OEM NGV trucks. Almost all types of light, medium and heavyduty gasoline and diesel engines were reengineered to use natural gas. Cars, buses, trucks, railwayengines, air and water craft were using CNG and LNG. Agricultural and stationary engines powered bynatural gas were developed.
In 1991 the Soviet Union gave birth to 15 individual states. Some have joined a regionalinternational organization which is called the Commonwealth of Independent States – the C.I.S. Fivecountry members – Armenia, Belarus, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan and Ukraine – kept their nationalNGV programs running.
From the perspective of natural gas sales, the CNG market in the C.I.S. is growing fast. Since1998 Ukraine and Armenia increased the sales of gas to vehicles four times. Russia has almost tripledconsumption of CNG. In 2004 Tajikistan sold 20 times more CNG then in 1998. Belarus and Moldovaare not that fast, but they are on the rise now.
As regards key drivers, the prices of CNG in the C.I.S. countries are significantly lower thanprices of gasoline or diesel. The price differential is actually the only NGV market driver in that part ofthe world. However it was the strongest incentive during the recent five years [92].
Russia [↑]
Russia is the second CIS country in terms of sales of natural gas and NGV population.
Key players are: Government, OEMs, strong Russian NGV Association and Gazprom
Trend in Russia might be observed in two periods. First period is between 1984 and 1998characterized with downward trend. Initially, CNG program was financed and implemented by centralGovernment. OEM NGV trucks were produced by ZIL, GAZ and KAMAZ but production and salesdiscontinue. There were no private light duty NGVs and the management of state owned fleets waspoor. At the end of observed period, first private auto transport companies emerge. In 1993, RussianGovernment adopted the upper limit for natural gas prices for NGVs. Private fleets had not enoughfunds to buy CNG equipment. In 19961997 Gazprom adopted corporate NGV program.
61
Upward trend is present from 1998 onwards (according to [92] in 1998 a renaissance on theRussian NGV market began). Fuel prices (petrol and diesel) keep rising. CNG becomes more popularamong private vehicle fleet owners. In 2004, KAMAZ and UAZ restored OEM NGV programs. Nationaltruck and bus manufacturers start development of heavy duty LNG vehicles. As regards filling stations,Uraltransgaz is the only CNG station manufacturer that reached commercial phase.
Case study: RUSSIA
140000
38300
28200
1790012700 11900 12600 14400
54400
74800
107000
17800
23700
33100
44100
207207207207207207
182 184 185
199207 207
190 191 196
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040
50
100
150
200
250
NGVs NGV Filling s tations
USSR: No priv ate light duty NGVs. Only state ownedheav y duty NGVs: trucks and buses. National CNGprogram is f inanced and implemented by the centralgov ernment. ½ Bcm of NG sold to NGVs – the recordtrade since 1984, when first filling stations werecommissioned. ZIL, GAZ and KAMAZ produce and sellOEM NGV trucks.
Russia. OEMs discontinue production and sales of NGVs (trucks). First priv ate autotransportation companies emerge. In 1990 – 1998 due to the economic recession, inf lation, poormanagement, lack of discipline and salary pay ment crisis driv ers of stateowned f leets deconv ert NGVs back to gasoline/diesel and "appropriate" f uelfrom the tanks and resell it with discount. In 1993 Russian Government adopts the upper limit of NG price f or NGVs.The price of 1 ncm of NG shall not exceed 50% of the price of the cheapestgasoline. Priv ate f leets hav e no enough funds to buy CNG equipment. In 1996 – 1997 Gazprom dev elops and adopts corporate NGV program.
Fuel prices keep rising. CNG becomes more and more popular among privatev ehicle/f leet owners. Sales of NG grow some 15 – 20% annually . In 2004 KAMAZ and UAZ restore OEM NGV programs.
number of vehicles number of f illing stations
Case study: RUSSIA
1440012600119001270017900
28200
38300
140000
54400
74800
107000
1780023700
33100
44100
160,0140,6
116,097,4
81,464,2
511,6
435,6
364,5
89,375,2
60,2
253,7
151,8
114,2
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
NGVs Natural gas sales (x 1 000 000 m3)
USSR: No priv ate light duty NGVs. Only state ownedheav y duty NGVs: trucks and buses. National CNGprogram is f inanced and implemented by the centralgov ernment. ½ Bcm of NG sold to NGVs – the recordtrade since 1984, when f irst f illing stations werecommissioned. ZIL, GAZ and KAMAZ produce and sellOEM NGV trucks.
Russia. OEMs discontinue production and sales of NGVs (trucks). First priv ate autotransportation companies emerge. In 1990 – 1998 due to the economic recession, inf lation, poormanagement, lack of discipline and salary pay ment crisis driv ers of stateowned f leets deconv ert NGVs back to gasoline/diesel and "appropriate" f uelf rom the tanks and resell it with discount. In 1993 Russian Gov ernment adopts the upper limit of NG price f or NGVs.The price of 1 ncm of NG shall not exceed 50% of the price of the cheapestgasoline. Priv ate f leets have no enough f unds to buy CNG equipment. In 1996 – 1997 Gazprom develops and adopts corporate NGV program.
Fuel prices keep rising. CNG becomes more and more popular among priv atevehicle/f leet owners. Sales of NG grow some 15 – 20% annually . In 2004 KAMAZ and UAZ restore OEM NGV programs.
number of vehicles volume of gas sold
Picture 52 – Trend in number of vehicles, number of filling stations and volume of gas sold and keydrivers behind that trend – case: Russia
62
Russian industry manufactures all types of NGV equipment for CNG filling, storage and/oruse. However the growing demand could not be met with domestic products.
CNG price is limited by the Government and can not be higher than 50% of the low gradegasoline. At the moment of writing this text, CNG price was 46% of the price of diesel and 39% of theprice of gasoline.
The price differential is actually the only market driver.
The major role in the rebirth of the Russian NGV market belongs to Gazprom which wasmaintaining the network of filling stations, financing R&D, promoting the NGV philosophy amongpoliticians and general public (5.7 thousand company vehicles out of 28 thousand are NGVs). SinceSeptember 2004, Gazprom start lobbying for the federal law on alternative transportation fuels.
Belarus [↑] and Ukraine [↑]
In Belarus and Ukraine there is a long experience with natural gas from historical reasons frompast Soviet era. Key player is usually one large dedicated NGV company or State gas company. Inboth countries, a high technical level of filling stations has been achieved.
Belarus [↑]
Belarus has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromthe available literature.
In Belarus, all stations are owned and operated by the state gas company (Beltransgas). AllCNG filling stations in the country are linked into the closed computerized realtime system. EveryNGV driver has smart card that logs the important information about the vehicle and authorizes thefilling process. During filling, the operator’s computer automatically charges the buyer’s bank. All dataabout this filling is stored into the computer and may be retrieved at any moment from a computer atthe station or at the company’s central NGV office.
Use of the smart card system might at the same time be an advantage and disadvantage.Advantage is that the the computer automatically charges buyer’s bank during filling operation, whichmight provide a good basis for linking those stations into wider network, like in the case of projectssuch as Blue Corridor. On the other hand, it might become an obstacle if special smart cards (issuedby Beltransgas) are accepted only and not other classic credit cards.
In October 2003 the Byelorussian Cabinet of Ministers approved a national NGV programwhich aims to triple the number of NGVs by 2010 and build 44 new daughter stations. Theimplementation of the national program will hopefully expand the Belarus NGV market.
There are OEM truck and bus factories in Belarus. That country also produces agricultural andcommunal tractors. This could be a very fertile ground for the Byelorussian gas equipmentmanufacturer – the Novogrudok plant – which will definitely be part of the national NGV program.
CNG retail price is 60 % of diesel and 50% of gasoline. However there is a strong competitionwith LPG which is rather cheap in Belarus [92].
Ukraine [↑]
Ukraine has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
Ukraine is the NGV leader in the former Soviet Union. Ukraine holds the 5th place in the worldin terms of CNG sales.
63
Ukraine is a well developed NGV nation. It manufactures cylinders, filling stations and gastransporters. Strangely there is no gas equipment production in the country. CNG price encouragesthe individual drivers and fleets to use natural gas instead of gasoline or diesel. Among other drivers ofthe NGV market one shall mention Federal Law on the use of alternative fuels and National NGVprogram [92].
As in the previous case, there is one strong NGV leader. Majority of the stations belong to thededicated NGV company (Ukravtogaz) and recently a few independent operators emerged.
In 2004, a refuelling station of a new generation, one of the largest and most technicallyadvanced of it’s type in CEE has been commissioned, and reached support from UN ECE as apractical step forward an all European infrastructure within the Blue Corridor project.
Armenia [↑]
Armenia has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature. [92]
Main NGV players in the country are private investors with plans for further development.
During the recent seven years the Armenian NGV market has grown 4.5 times. Today every10th vehicle in Armenia runs on natural gas. Consumption is approximately 4 000 m3 per an NGV.
Armenia does not produce oil or gas. All mineral fuel is imported. Never the less, CNG price isstimulating: 61 % of diesel and 53% of gasoline.
One of the nearest challenges for the Armenian Government is to develop and enforcemodern NGV legislation and regulations [92].
Azerbaijan [↓]
Azerbaijan has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquiredfrom available literature. [92]
With oil reserves and current production/consumption ratio Azerbaijan will not suffer from theshortage of oilbased fuel for at least another 30 years. Hence, there are no incentives to promotenatural gas for automotive use. During 1985 1991 five filling stations were commissioned. Now onlythree operating sites remain.
Tajikistan [↑]
Tajikistan has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
In 1997 the Government of the republic has adopted the legislation that stimulates the use ofnatural gas and boosted the NGV market development.
Unlike Moldova or Belarus the NGV market in Tajikistan is growing very fast. In 1991 therewere only 3 CNG filling stations in that country. Now the have 53. Since 1998 – the worst NGV yearfor the country – the sales of CNG have grown 23 times from 1.8 to 41 million m3 in 2004.
Tajikistan has very small, almost negligible, oil and gas resources. Regardless of this, pricesfor motor fuels in Tajikistan are at the same level as in other CIS countries. Tajikistan makes neithercompressors, nor cylinders, nor gas equipment for CNG vehicles. All NGV related technologies areimported. The country brings in a lot of secondhand equipment.
NGVs make about 7 %of the national onroad fleet. In 2004 an average Tajik NGV consumeda little less than 4 000 m3 per year, which is similar to other CIS nations.
64
Moldova [↓↑]
Moldova has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
The number of NGVs and volumes of consumed CNG kept falling since 1991 through 2000.The growing oil prices made natural gas more attractive and since 2001 the Moldavian NGV market isgrowing. The price differential between gasoline, diesel fuel and natural gas is the major driving force.
There is no dedicated NGV legislation in Moldova. However the price for CNG is favourable:42% of diesel and 36% of gasoline. This is actually the only incentive for the drivers to switch on tonatural gas. NGV related equipment – conversion kits, cylinders and compressors – are imported.
Although Moldova does not produce oil or natural gas, CNG has become more popular. Since1991 five new compressor stations were commissioned. After 2000 the sales of CNG started growingand have reached the 1998 level of 14.2 million m3. One may conclude that Moldavian NGV market isstill to wake up. [92]
ASIAPACIFIC REGION
One of the main reasons to develop NGV programs in this region is the aim to reduce importof petroleum products and to reduce pollution in large urban areas. Therefore, NGV programs in theregion in most cases have a strategic character and started and are governed on governmental level.
Iran [↑]
Iran has second largest natural gas reserves in the world, and country incomes depend on oilexport. At present, [83] since the capacity of the oil refineries in the country is too low to meet thedemands, large portion of the fuel consumed in Iran (diesel fuel and petrol) is imported.
Another important point [83] is subsidies paid by Government for the difference betweenpurchase and local petrol retail price. These subsidies are about 175 percent and are substantialburden for the country budget. No limitation of consumption for vehicle owners (because of cheap fuelprice) also creates negative effects on Iran economy. Due to its low price (approximately free ofcharge) LPG consumption in Iran is continuously increasing, and LPG as well as import of petrol,imposes high burden to the Government.
Today, the biggest environmental problem in Iran is air pollution especially in Tehran. Forpreventing air pollution, Environment Protection Organization mandate plating of new vehicles tocompliance with the standards including ECE1504 standard which was later changed to EURO 1standard. At present, Environment Protection Organization intends to enforce EURO 2 standard. InTehran there are more than two million vehicles on the road whose average age is 15 years. Most ofthese vehicles have between 10 and 22 years.
According to a study made in past five years [83, 84], based on the average growth rate ofvehicles in transport fleet of Iran by year 2020 the number of vehicles will increase, from present 7million (end 2004), to 14 million vehicles of which more than 6 million has been targeted as bifuel orCNGdedicated vehicles.
Key drivers for market developments are therefore utilization of abundant natural gas reservesto increase volume of crude oil and oil products available for export, lack of domestic refiningcapacities and to reduce air pollution problems in the same time.
Therefore, the Government is supporting and subsidizing CNG through subsidies onconversions, refuelling stations and CNG consumption. Usage of the natural gas as alternative fuel forvehicles in Iran is has been confirmed by Government [84] and defined in 121st article of economical,social, and cultural development law.
65
This article has been authorized to National Iranian Oil Company (N.I.O.C) and executed byIranian Fuel Conservation Organization (I.F.C.O). Based on the results of some studies andresearches performed in this regard, IFCO has prepared its own strategic plan for usage of CNG fuelin country fleet and started development activities in natural gas vehicles and required infrastructure inthe country. I.F.C.O execution plan [84] is divided into four following categories: light duty vehicles,heavy duty vehicles, refuelling stations and localization.
Plans for light duty vehicles include: conversion of 100 000 inuse vehicles in 23 cities withpriority of public vehicles within three years, conversion of 554 000 vehicles in two main automotivemanufacturers, Iran Khodro and Saipa within four years (one of the main programs of IFCO) anddevelopment of a common platform with foreign joint venture companies for production of 1 000 000OEM CNG vehicles within five years.
On the field of heavy duty vehicles Iran has some programs including contract with mainmanufacturers for production of CNG vehicles of all classes, international tender for production of 6000 CNG dedicated buses and pilot study of dual fuel technology for minibuses and buses.
Construction of 180 CNG stations in 23 cities and intercity roads by I.F.C.O and constructionof 375 CNG station by private sectors with governmental incentives are some programs of Iran in partof refuelling stations infrastructure.
On the field of localization, Iran decided to transfer know how for producing CNG kits, cylinderand compressor units simultaneously with execution of CNG project. Four joint venture companies aregoing to produce CNG kit locally during two years and the other two joint venture companies produceCNG cylinder locally during three years and five joint venture companies are going to producecompressor during three years.
Case study:IRAN (updated)
3962
764000
202000
507864558420858
960624001200
2 4 14
72
400
450
2434 70
40,211,6
3,12
112,3
237,7
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
900000
1975 1983 2004 (March) 2004 (July) 2004(Decem ber)
2005 (June) 2005 (Augus t) 2006 (March) 2007 (March)0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of fil ling stations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)
all retrof it all retrof it
2 788 R etrof it519 OEM655 Bus
6 623 Retrof it1 776 OEM1 207 Bus
16 764 Ret rof it2 922 OEM1 207 Bus
38 607 Retrof it5 433 OEM1 544 Bus +m inibus
43 186 Retrof it6 056 OEM1 544 Bus +minibus
100 000 Retrof it100 000 OEM2 000 Bus,…
200,000 Retrof it554 000 OEM7 000 OEM Nativ e3 000 Bus ,…
vehicles
Gov ernment policy towards NGVsTax exemption on CNG ki t componentsTrend of gasoline/diesel to high pric esHigh subsides m ust be paid by gov ernment f or petrol/ Diesel f uelsHigh f uel consum ption in t ransportation sector because of old nav igationWidespread gas distribution network entire countryGov ernment policy to reducing air pollutionGrants f or ref uelling stationsGov ernment Inc entiv esGov ernment subsidies on CNG Ret rof it and OEM’s conv ersion
number of f illing stations, volumeof gas sold
Picture 53 – Trend in number of vehicles, number of filling stations and volume of gas sold and keydrivers behind that trend – case: Iran
66
India [↑]
India has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
Key drivers for successful market development in the case of India are as follows:
In Mumbai, due to the growing vehicular pollution problems, the Hon'ble High Court has directedcertain category of vehicles such as taxis (Light motor cars), auto rickshaws (3 wheelers),transport vehicles like trucks, buses etc of certain age group (over 8 years old [85]) to eitherphase out or convert to clean fuels (CNG or LPG). On 28th July 1998 [85] Hon'ble Supreme Courtdirected 80 CNG stations to be set up in Delhi by March 2000. All public transport vehicles in Delhiwere directed to be on single fuel mode of CNG. Hon'ble Supreme Court has identified nine otherpolluted cities in India for CNG projects where the air quality is critical.
In 1999 the Supreme Court ordered the City of Delhi to submit a "White Paper" on theenvironment and the impact from transportation. After seeing the results, the Court ordered thecity to convert 10 000 buses to CNG in a short time.
Penalties for operating city buses on diesel.
Supreme Court Order in 2003 acknowledged success of Delhi CNG Project and issued directive tothe Union of India and the state governments to draw plans to introduce clean fuels in 11 pollutedcities [113].
India Clean Air, Clean Fuel Vehicle Initiative sponsored in part by the Clean Cities program apublicprivate partnership that deploys alternative fuel vehicles and builds support for alternativefuel infrastructure.
The rriver that pushed the market downwards was the attitude of the Government of Indiawhich acted in opposition to the Court, and so has the gas industry. While the Court has ordered theNGV market expansion, Government has penalized the market by adding, first, an 8% tax and soonafter another 8%.
In Delhi, Government has a positive influence through help in allotment of land for pipelines,filling stations, sales tax exemption on CNG kits, banning old vehicles from registering in Delhi andmandatory exhaust checking for all vehicles [113].
Of the four main stakeholder groups that supply a product to the market: the oil industry isinvolved but needs more involvement, the gas industry is committed down stream but upstreamneeds more commitment, the OEMs are involved when it comes to buses, but not for cars or autorickshaws.
The Indian market is estimated to have more than two million vehicles that can be convertedto cleanburning gaseous fuels.
Pakistan [↑]
Pakistan has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
Key players involved are private companies and companies associated with large oil and gascompanies (Shell, Pakistan State oil company etc.), present OEMs (Honda, Toyota, Suzuki, Kia etc.)and Government.
Key drivers pushing the market forward are: Government policies about promotion of NGVs,no custom duties on import of CNG equipment and conversion kits and no sales tax, easy approvalsfor the installation of CNG refuelling stations, no customs on import of CNG buses and favourable
67
price of natural gas (price of natural gas for buses is 35% lover then diesel price), natural gas tariff forCNG linked to petrol (favourable price difference) and priority of natural gas connection for CNG.
According to [118] investors have found the CNG business very profitable and financialinstitutions have shown keen interest. Car manufacturers are producing factory fitted CNGpetrol cars,and 3Wheelers (Rickshaws) have also been converted on CNG. So far about 100 000 OEM NGVshave been produced in the country and major producers are producing more than 50% cars as NGVs.Also, CNG equipment (dispensers, kits etc.) is being manufactured / assembled locally. Negativedrivers are: procedural delays from local authorities, lack of safety consciousness of smaller investorsand regulatory system that could not grow as fast as the industry.
At the moment the price difference between diesel and CNG is not large enough to justify theinvestment in switching over to CNG. On the other hand, Government has allowed to duty free importof dedicated CNG buses and HinoPak started production of dedicated CNG buses.
Bangladesh [↑]
Bangladesh has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquiredfrom available literature.
Key players involved in development of CNG market in Bangladesh are Government ofBangladesh, Government company RPGCL and Ministry of Energy and with support of ADB (AsianDevelopment Bank).
Bangladesh is natural gas producing country; according to [65, 117] CNG pilot project waslaunched in 198182 through Government company (RPGCL).
After stagnation of the project development occurred through the implementation of the newmeasures [65]: the Government of Bangladesh issued Policy Package for the establishment of CNGactivities to makeup all the previous lapses, free registration/permission for business enrolment,financial support through bank loans and leasing companies, onestop service facility for Gas,Electricity, Water and Municipal permits etc., technical assistance through RPGCL., lease of unusedland on long term basis by Government, duty free import facility for CNG stations, cylinders, kits andCNG dedicated vehicles, Dhaka Clean Fuel Project for extension of NGV use in private and publictransport in Dhaka City, national standard under preparation and Government Law to ban 12 000 twostroke three wheelers and intention to encourage introduction of CNG dedicated buses and four strokebaby taxi through reduction of duties.
The Energy Ministry monitors the program to ensure [65]: conversion of all the Governmentvehicles to CNG (by 2005), reduction of air pollution and saving huge foreign currency by reducingimport of liquid fuels. Government is not encouraging conversion vehicles, which are more than 8years old [117].
Malaysia [↑]
Key player on Malaysian NGV market is PNGV (Petronas NGV), a subsidiary incorporated bynational oil and gas company Petronas.
Key drivers pushing the market forward are mostly linked to PNGV. Start of the Natural Gasfor Vehicles Commercial Program (NGVCP) was in 1991 in Kuala Lumpur, using motherdaughterconcept. PNGV was established to streamline development, marketing and promotion of CNG/NGV inMalaysia. PNGV provided marketing through Natural Gas for Vehicles Conversion Promotion Schemeand offered rebates for taxi conversions. Also, company is involved in production of CNG taxis incooperation with French company Mantra.
68
Case study: MALAYSIA
13002670
3980
56000
293014801050
34000
14000
6710
5470
9309008607700
70
117,6
50
1176
151511660
90
20 2022
31
60,83
44,59
30,7820,5913,198,254,443,83,44
4,194,664,561,380
193,4
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 20090
50
100
150
200
250
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)number of f illing stations,
volume of gas sold
Planned
Planned
vehicles
Start of the Natural Gasf or Vehicles CommercialProgramme (NGVCP) inthe Malay sian capital ofKuala Lumpur (usingmother – daughterconc ept as there was nogas p ipelines in KualaLumpur). Ref uellingstations and v ehicleconv ersion workshopunder constructions.
Stations start sellingCNG in Feb 1992. 1mother station, 5daughter stations startedoperation in KualaLumpur an 1conv entional (online)station started operationin Sarawak, EastMalay sia.
Marketing andpromotion workscontinued.
Ref uelling stationshad reached itsmaximum capacities.Long queues at moststations. Waiting f orcompletion of gaspipeline sy stem inKuala Lumpur to buildadditional stations.
C ustomers was discouraged by longqueues thus use less CNG. Oneadditional conv entional station wasbuilt at the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur.On Feb 14th, 1995, PETRONASincorporated a wholly subsidiary ,PETRONAS NGV Sdn Bhd (PNGV),to streamline and spearhead thedev elopment, marketing andpromotion of CNG/NGV in Malay sia.
Customer still not increasing theirusage of CNG. Gas pipelineswere av ailable in certain areas ofKuala Lumpur. PNGV rev iewed themarket situation and build 4additional conv entional stations inKuala Lumpur – these stationsstarted operations towards the endof 1996.
Marketing andpromotion workscontinued.
PNGV c ontinued to build additionalstations and during the October1998 Commonwealth Game inKuala Lumpur, introduced theEnv iro 2000 taxis. This is af actory designed and productionmonof uel CNG taxis. 1000 unitswas produced by PETRONAS andMatra (F rance).
In conjunction with the f irstFormula 1 race in Sepang Circuitin Malay sia, PETRONAS prov idedf ree CN G conv ersion to 1000taxis in return f or adv ertisementon F1 / PETRONAS on the taxibodies.
In conjunction with the f irstFormula 1 race in Sepang Circuitin Malay sia, PETRONAS prov idedf ree CNG conv ersion to 1000taxis in return f or adv ertisementon F1 / PETRONAS on the taxibodies.
Owners continued toconv ert their taxisunder the NCPS.
PNGV continued to build additional stationsincluding daughter stations as certain strategicareas in Kuala Lumpur did not have gaspipelines. PNGV continued the marketing andpromotional efforts by introducing the NaturalGas for Vehicles Conversion PromotionScheme (NCPS) for taxis in Kuala Lumpur.Under this scheme, rebate of MalaysianRingg it RM1500.00 was provided for 3000conver sion of taxis (the taxi conversion cost wasRM2500.00).
Conv ersion under theNCPS cont inued andPNGV cont inued tobuild additionalstation.
PNGV continued to buildadditional stations andplanning to move intoheavyduty vehiclesmarket esp. city buses.
PNGV continued to build additional stations and th isincluded 1 mother station, 3 daughter stations and 1conventional stations in the city of Johore Baru (~ 5 00km south of Kuala Lumpur, near Singapore), and 1conventional station in Penang (~ 400 km north of K ualaLumpur). PNGV also continued the NCPS withadditional 1000 taxis in Kuala Lumpur and 750 taxi s
Picture 54 – Trend in number of vehicles, number of filling stations and volume of gas sold and keydrivers behind that trend – case: Malaysia
Thailand [↑]
Thailand has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
The Thai Government has the target to achieve the following objectives [86]: reduce importedcrude oil dependency, save foreign currency by using indigenous natural gas instead of imported fuelto reduce the country’s trade deficit and alleviate the air pollution problem from vehicles.
A program for wider use of natural gas for taxis was introduced in 2004. Development andpromotion of alternative fuels (due to expected economic growth slowing caused by high oil prices)becoming a national agenda, with the Government planning to mandate the use of natural gas fuel forbuses, taxis and garbage trucks and to give investment privileges, cut vehicle registration fees orextend financial assistance to private operators who produce or use NGVs. [86]
The program is governed by the Royal Thai Government and Thailand’s National EnergyPolicy Office (NEPO) with a program to increase the number of NGVs from around 2 600 in 2004 to 44500 by 2008 and number of refuelling units to 120 (refuelling stations are designed for the fast fill andthe filling pressure of 200 bars with threebank storage system.). This plan has been later revised andapproved by the Government on 17th May 2005 and expanded to 180 filling stations and 180 000NGVs in 2008 in the Greater Bangkok and provincial areas along the gas pipeline and highways. Inthe second phase (2009 2016), the utilization of natural gas in transport will expand throughout thecountry. The NGVs and refuelling service stations are projected to increase to 260 000 – 500 000units and 500 stations respectively. [115]
PTT Public Company Limited, whose majority shares are owned by the Thai Government, hasserved as the key mechanism in the implementation of this project [86].
69
Key drivers are (according to [115]):
NEPO will cooperate with PTT in arranging financial support for vehicle owners, such as: loanswith special low interest rate and long term repayment for taxi conversion and grants to BMTA andBMA for additional cost of purchasing NGVs instead of diesel powered vehicles.
Creating price advantages for natural gas by maintaining current pricing structure for refined crudeoil products which are imposed with excise tax, municipal tax, oil fund levy and energyconservation fund levy as well as VAT, while natural gas is exempted from any taxes, except VAT.This pricing regime allows natural gas vehicle fuel to be priced lower than any other fuels (about50% of diesel price).
Reducing import duties for NGV as follows: NGV refuelling facilities: compressor 3%, otherequipment 1%. Vehicle conversion kits: equipment 1%, NGV cylinder 1% for all material types.
Reducing excise tax for CNG passenger car from 30% 40% to 20%
Revising existing natural gas powered vehicle regulations to accommodate the latest NGVtechnologies.
Introducing new BMTA buses and garbage collector trucks to use NGV.
Developing NGV refuelling station regulation.
Allocating land for NGV service stations.
Setting NGVs as the first priority for natural gas use, especially gas from onshore fields.
Technological tieups with various countries for the testing of the NGV equipment with dieselvehicles [86].
Almost all current stations are added to the existing conventional fuel service stations in order toreduce investment cost by sharing common infrastructures i.e. rest room, mechanic shop andconvenience store etc.
PTT has arranged NGV card systems to facilitate the collection of loans by the financinginstitutions as follows: Gold Card for those who do not have any loan liability, they will pay onlyCNG price; Silver Card for those who have a loan liability, PTT has joined with SME Bank and theGovernment Saving Bank to provide an excusive loan for taxis. Taxi owners will repay their loanat 3 Baht per kilogram of CNG every time they refill their CNG tank. Orange Card forgovernmental organization’s vehicles, PTT pays all the conversion costs for them which are thenrepaid at 5 Baht per kilogram of CNG every time the converted vehicles refill with CNG.
70
THAILAND
1628225103
2 35 1240 12 100
1000
3000
5097
1
10 12
34
4
11
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1992 1993 1994 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 (July)0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
HD NGVs LD NGVs Filling stationsnumber of vehicles number of f illing stations
NGV dedicated conversion of 5 city busesusing New Zealand technology. Time fill,on line station for use in bus fleetexperiment.
Repeating the conversion technologyof the previous year.
Same as in 1985 but moreoriented to commercialapplications.
Dedicated NGV conversionof small 4wheelers fornormal road use.
Dedicated NGV conversionof 2stroke 3wheelers (TukTuk) in an attempt to reduceexhaust emissions and fuelcost.
NGV Diesel Dual Fueltrucks using electronicfuel control devices.
As a result of poor performance of the inuseconverted buses, the ThaiGovernment decided to give a grant to BMTAfor the purchase of 82 OEM dedicated CNGbuses (44 MAN & 38 Mercedes Benz) whilePTT invested in a CNG fast fill refuelingstation to service these buses at their depot.
NGV Diesel Dual Fuel trucks using gasinjectors and electronic controls for both NGVand diesel. Not much success due to itscomplication and inadequate robustness.
Economic crisis in Thailand, the Thai Baht was devalued, but the crude oil price was still relatively high. TheThai government has gradually removed its oil price subsidy for both diesel and gasoline. The NGV projectwas reestablished to promote natural gas as an alternative vehicle fuel to alleviate the impact of the high oilprice as well as addressing the environmental problems in the greater Bangkok area. PTT, as a state ownedagency, turned to focus on inuse vehicle conversion again in 1999. NGV Diesel Dual Fuel system installed in13 city buses and 3 garbage trucks with improved control system and parts to withstand the local severerequirements. Some success with respect to exhaust emission improvement but not accepted due to poor fuelconsumption and power loss when compared to original diesel mode. Dedicated NGV conversions ofpassenger cars (company’s utility cars). Six cars with timed port gas injection system and the rest withconventional gas mixers.
Conventional gas mixer type NGVgasoline bifuel conversion in taxis. Off line, fast fill stationsincorporated into existing gasoline service stations. NGV transportation is done via storage cylinder trailers.
Gas multipoint port injectiontype NGVgasoline bifuel conversion of taxis. 1 Mother station 3 Daughter stations. Thestations ware built taxis. Beginning of the commercial stage.
Gas Multi point port sequential injection type NGV gasoline bi fuel conversion to taxis. First 2 conventional stations 8 daughterstations. To expand NGV to areas and serve more greater Bangkok.
1 Mother station 1 Conventionalstation 10 Daughter stations.
OEM NGV Dedicated Garbage collectiontrucks. The tender document for bidding 65trucks was sold up to May 25th ,2005. Thebid submission deadline is Oct 25th, 2005
Picture 55 Trend in number of vehicles, number of filling stations and volume of gas sold and keydrivers behind that trend – case: Thailand (Desk research – data source [115])
In the first phase (up to 2008) PTT aims to use NGV to replace 10% of diesel and gasolineusage. [115]
Philippines
Philippines have no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquiredfrom available literature.
Key drivers seem to be [116]:
Government issued Natural Gas Vehicle Program for Public Transport (NGVPPT) aiming toreduce dependence on oil import. The NGVPPT targets that 700 CNG buses shall have been inoperation by 2007, and 2000 by 2014.
Department of Energy (DOE) and the Philippines Shell Petroleum Corporation (PSPC) signed aMemorandum of Agreement (MOA) that would make CNG available to public transport buses. TheMOA puts into consideration the possible growing market for CNG. There would be no limitationon the number of CNG terminals, and the right to put up a terminal will not be exclusive to PSPC.
DOE, the Department of Transportation and Communications, and the participating buscompanies signed a Memorandum of Agreement signifying the prospective bus operators’commitment to procure CNG buses for delivery from June to December 2005 under a negotiatedCNG price that is favourable to the bus operators.
On September 3, 2004, these bus operators and CNG bus manufacturers in Beijing, China signeda contract for the purchase of 100 CNG buses, and the DOE and the Natural Gas consortiumsigned a Memorandum of Agreement for the acquisition of an initial batch of CNG fuelled Chinesemade buses. DOE shall facilitate the participation of at least 200 CNG buses.
Privileges to participating companies: income tax holiday for qualified pioneering projects, zeropercent rate of duty on imported NGVs, NGV engines and other NGV industryrelated equipment,facilities, parts and components as certified by DOE, issuance by the Land Transportation Office
71
of Certificates of Compliance with Emissions Standards to NGVs, preferential and exclusivefranchises for NGVs to newly opened routes, accelerated issuance by the Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources (DENR) of Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) forNGV facilities and refueling stations, affordable and commercially tenable financial packages fromgovernment financial institutions. To avail of these incentives, any individual or participatingcompany should apply for a Certificate of Accreditation and Certificate of Authority to Import withthe DOE.
Adopted standards.
Price of gas fixed on the level of 40% of diesel price for next seven years.
China [↑]
China has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
Since China joined WTO in December 2001, one of the most significant commitments that itmade was to cut its automobileimport tariffs from over 80 percent to 25 percent or less by 2006. Thefirst set of tariff decreases took place in January 2002. Membership in the WTO will stimulate otherchanges in China. There is increasing demand for quality, concern about safety and a desire to reducelevels of pollution. There will be further growth in the road network, with the number of super highwaysforecast to more than double between 2000 and 2005 [112].
In 2003, China surpassed Japan and became the world’s second largest consumer ofpetroleum products. Currently, less than 2% of Chinese urban residents have cars and to encouragecontinued use of public transit, China is trying to avoid the uncontrolled vehicle growth mistakes of theWest by dispatching large fleets of low emissions natural gas transit buses in its major cities [112].
Key players on Chinese market (regarding use of natural gas in transport) are: StateGovernment, regional governments and local manufacturers.
Government has a very important role and it sponsored a “Countrywide Clean Vehicle Action”to promote the development and application of clean fuel vehicles. Also, Government set up a nationallevel office and a board of experts to coordinate the above action: in the 9th Five Year Plan, 12 citieswere selected as model cities for the application of clean vehicles and in the 10th Five Year Plan, 16cities and regions have been selected. [64]
Some regional governments issued preferable policies to attract drivers and fleet owners toconvert and use CNG or LPG vehicles. Some of the policies for encouraging NGV from different localgovernments are listed bellow [119]:
When a new CNG refuelling station is taken as part of the city infrastructure, the land will beallocated and the administration fee will be halved.
For new stations, manufacturing of NGV products, and the vehicle conversion business, the VATtax decrease from 17% to 15%.
Building new CNG stations can be treated as HighTech business with loan interest subsidiariesfrom the government.
Reduced taxes when importing products for CNG stations and conversions.
Waiving of connection fees for new station connections.
Natural gas price reduction (20%) for CNG refuelling stations from typical domestic prices.
Same electricity price as for the industrial sector for CNG stations.
Car conversion from petrol to NG can be subsidized by the local government.
Taxis converted to NG can extend their service period by 12 years.
72
The Beijing municipal government encouraged the implementation of CNG buses bymandating that only CNG buses can run within the city and offering capital support to Beijing PublicTransit for procurement of CNG buses. The Beijing public transport authority has committed toreplacing 90% of its 18 000 city buses to NG prior to the 2008 Olympic Games and other Chinesecities are making similar commitments for world events [114]. For example, Shanghai’s Governmentlaunched an energy diversification plan in 1999, which expanded the use of natural gas to 1012% by2010 [112].
Also, a series of industrial standards and regulations have been developed and issued by thecentral Government to standardize the process from manufacture of conversion kits to setup ofrefuelling stations. Government and manufacturers are being engaged in the development and OEMapplication of CNG and LPG, especially of dedicated CNG and LPG vehicles.
Finally, China undertaking an R&D on fuel cell, methanol and electro mobiles.
Energy diversity is therefore the key driver [108] and large volume market potential could drivecapital costs lower. Increasing road infrastructure and limited incumbent supply impose the need tobuild fuelling infrastructure regardless of fuel. HD vehicle market is growing, but there is a need forChinese engine platform for significant volume growth in HD sector.
In May 2005, for wider strategic reasons, the Chinese Government announced the formationof a new agency to oversee its energy sector in the face of rising power demands and oil imports. In amove similar to their US counterparts, Chinese officials have labelled dependence on foreign oil andgas as a national security risk and are looking at the introduction of widespread energy reforms. TheOffice of Energy will form a powerful central body that will assume control of the diverse Chineseenergy portfolio currently spread between numerous ministries and staterun companies, with theintent of solidifying energy regulation and policy enforcement.
Republic of Korea [↑]
Korea has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
The Ministry of Environment (MOE) is facilitating the replacement of diesel powered transitbuses (20 000 altogether) by 2007 and solved problems as regards securing the budget, creatingappropriate financial incentives, determining CNG pricing and revising refuelling station safetyregulations. State and regional governments play an important role in the NGV sector development.[69]
Key drivers are [69]:
From 1991, Korean Government provided R&D funds (20 million US$) to automobile researchorganizations to develop low emission core technologies related to CNG engines.
Nation wide natural gas piping infrastructure developed in the mid 1990s.
Construction Law and Urban Development Law revised to make the construction of refuellingstations possible within the development restriction zone. Revising of safety distances onrefuelling stations.
Budget allocation (subsidy) and tax incentives to bus companies and gas station owners (by MOEand local governments).
Exemption of VAT and acquisition tax in case of purchase of CNG bus.
Exemption from environment improvement charges imposed on diesel vehicles.
Presence of OEM developed buses (Daewoo, Hyundai)
73
Japan [↑]
Key players in Japanese NGV market development are: Ministry of International Trade andIndustry, Japanese Gas Association (JGA), Japanese Government, local governments and truckingassociations.
In 1990 Ministry of International Trade and Industry granted the Japanese Gas Association(JGA) a subsidy and began a feasibility study on NGVs. JGA established within its own organizationthe NGV Project Department in 1992.
In 1995 safety standards under the Road Vehicle Act were revised and the amendedregulations made it possible to treat the NGV as being equal to gasoline and diesel fuelled vehicles.
In 1998 Japanese Government upholds a market penetration target of 1 million NGVs for theyear 2010.
National standard of vehicle emission substantially strengthened from the year 2005. Somelocal governments are going to reinforce the municipal by law about vehicle emission standardssticker than the national standards.
Case study: JAPAN
3640
12012
7811
5252
20931211759
20638
16561
34
82
107
62
47
138
181
271
224
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Small cars 618 956 1554 2462 3375 4539 6123 7661 9123
Buses 39 86 153 239 332 410 529 770 937
Garbage trucks 21 46 83 151 237 456 872 1433 1951
Trucks 81 123 303 788 1308 2406 4488 6697 8627
Number of vehicles total 759 1211 2093 3640 5252 7811 12012 16561 20638
Refuelling stations 34 47 62 82 107 138 181 224 271
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
In 1990. Ministry of International Trade andIndustry granted the Japanese GasAssociation a subs idy and began a f easibilitystudy on NGVs.The JGA established within its ownorganisation the Natural Gas Vehicle ProjectDepartment in 1992.
Large number of trucksowned by transport operat orsdue to: strengthening ofv ehicle emission standardand the subsidies f ortransport operators f romtrucking association inadittion to national and loc algov ernments.Route buses: Some publictransport operators suchToky o MetropolitanGov ernment, Yokohamacity , Osaka city introducedNGV buses but only a f ewpriv ate bus operators hav eintroduced sizeable numbersof CNG buses.Diesel substitution: Numberof dies el substitutions isgrowing rapidly because ofthe rein f orcement of exhaustemission standard and theincrem ents of subsidies.
National standard of v ehicle emission will be substantially strengthened f rom the y ear 2005. Andsome local gov ernments are going to reinf orce the municipal by law about v ehicle emissionstandards stricter than the national standards. Truck operators can buy NGVs at near ly the sameprice as diesel v ehicles bec ause national gov ernment, some local gov ernments and t ruckingassociat ions subsidies. A lo t of truck operators shif t diesel trucks to CNG trucks. Aut omanuf ac turers are tackling to dev elop clean diesel v ehicles to pas s 2005 emission st andards.
In December 1995, the saf ety standardsunder the Road Transport Vehicle Act wererev ised and the am ended regulations m ade itpossible to treat the NGV as being equal togasoline and diesel f ueled v ehicles.
Through a consultation process wi th the competent authorit ies, a range ofconcessions were obtained that eased the regulations in various respects,including a reduction of the safety distance required for refueling stationequipment (like compressors). National and local governments created subsidybased incentive schemes. Under these measures, part of the price differencebetween the NGV and the ordinary vehicle and/or part of the construction costsfor CNG r efueling stations, were to be covered by subsidies .
In 1998, JapaneseGov ernment upholds amarket penetration targetof one million NGVs f orthe y ear 2010.
number of vehicles
num
ber o
f ref
uellin
g st
atio
ns
Picture 56 – Trend in number of vehicles and filling stations and key drivers behind that trend – case:Japan
Truck operators can buy NGVs at nearly the same price as diesel vehicles with subsidiesissued by national Government, some local governments and trucking associations. A lot of truckoperators shift diesel trucks to CNG trucks (but auto manufacturers are tackling to develop cleandiesel vehicles to pass 2005 emission standards). Through a consultation process with the competentauthorities a range of concessions has been obtained that eased the regulations in various respectsincluding a reduction of a safety distance required for refuelling station equipment (like compressors).National and local governments created subsidy based incentive schemes. Under these measures,part of the price difference between the NGV and the ordinary vehicle and/or part of the constructioncosts for CNG refuelling stations were to be covered by subsidies.
74
Australia
Australia has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
In Australia, low fuel price potential is providing strong economic incentive. There is limitedrecognition of NOx or PM, while GHG reductions provide funding potential. [108]
SUMMARY FOR ASIAPACIFIC REGION
Natural gas for vehicles programs are mostly part of national strategy or Government policy,and usually large national bodies (large Government companies or national oil and gas companies)are leading such projects.
Development and promotion of alternative fuels is mostly governed by expectations ofeconomic growth slowing caused by high fuel prices (and opportunity for saving foreign currency byreducing import of liquid fuels) and pollution problems (certain types of vehicles are banned in a sensethat they should phase out or convert to clean fuels). Strong government commitment is therefore animportant driver (Thailand, Malaysia, Korea, Japan, Pakistan).
Key drivers which might be considered (more or less) typical for this region are:
Tax allowances and exemption on import duties on CNG equipment) are usually available(Malaysia, Bangladesh, Philippines, Korea).
Easy approvals and permits and fast procedure for installation of CNG refuelling stations andmore efficient regulation regarding, for instance, safety distances.
Subsidies for CNG related projects (Japan, China, Korea).
Allocation of land for CNG purpose (India, Bangladesh).
Mandates for conversion to natural gas or certain vehicle groups.
In oil producing countries, there is also an interest to release part of crude oil and oil productsand to make them available for export.
Standardization of filling connectors will also be necessary to make Blue Corridors a realitysince, for instance, Russia is using its own filling connector standards.
In the AsiaPacific region [41] some countries, notably Pakistan and India, have alreadysuccessfully embarked on programs. The program in Pakistan has been going for many years while inIndia are more recent. Other countries which are indicating the growth of substantial programs are:Korea, Bangladesh, China, Thailand, Malaysia, Iran, Japan and Indonesia with smaller programs inPhilippines, Taiwan and Singapore.
A common difficulty in many countries in Asia is the poor regulatory environment. Existingliquid fuelled vehicles are often gross emitters of smoke and particulates. If NGVs are not subjected toan appropriate set of enforceable regulations, they too will not perform well.
In some countries, the price of diesel is linked to the price of kerosene which is the fuelcommonly used by poor families for cooking. The price of kerosene is often kept artificially low tosubsidise poor families, if the diesel price is raised, vehicle operators will mix kerosene with diesel withundesirable effect on diesel vehicles. Thus it may be difficult to introduce CNG to replace diesel at acompetitive price.
75
SOUTH AMERICA
South America may be considered an homogenous region from the point of view of thereasons behind introduction of natural gas into transport sector.
Argentina [↑]
Argentina is the largest NGV market in world, and most facts about the Argentinean successstory are widely available to the general public.
Therefore, key drivers that are pushing the Argentinean market are:
Replacement of crude oil and oil products with natural gas to make them available for export.
Government commitment to CNG. At the beginning of the 90’s the National Government, throughDecrees, promoted the introduction of NGV buses to the Argentinean market. The decreesincluded both the National and Provincial scopes, allowing for the implementation of theexperiences in Mendoza, Buenos Aires, Rosario City, Córdoba City, Buenos Aires City, amongstothers, with the participation of all the bus companies of that time. This strong initial activity waslittle by little disappearing due to not only technical problems but also economics, such as diesel(fuel oil) subventions. These aspects made this project economically not viable [100].
A very proactive position of the authorities which managed the project by means of a very simplescheme and took upon themselves the initiative to construct fuelling stations and make availableconversion kits to car drivers. Steel cylinders (light and heavy), conversion kits, parts andaccessories, electronics, compressors, dispensers, gas engines for urban transport, NG Buses,Diesel to Gas engine conversion kits and OEM NGVs are manufactured in Argentina.
Very updated stateowned gas entity which could establish the specifications and regulatorystandards for CNG equipment and service right from the beginning.
Good price differential.
Incipient local manufacturing interest in equipment and components for CNG system.
Crisis of Argentine economy responsible of the notorious increase of the rate of vehicleconversions in 2002 – 2003. The relationship between January and December 2003 showed atotal CNG sales increase of 27 percent.
The future of NGV market in Argentina undoubtedly lies in the conversion of diesel fuel. Formany years, diesel has had very low taxes to allow low cost fuel for cargo and passenger transport.After the devaluation of the peso, and certain tax adjustments, the price of diesel fuel has raisedsignificantly boosting the interest for NG in heavyduty transport.
76
Case study:ARGENTINA
630500
756000
1165000
879000
5145001007
1091
1270
14121508
1681
1860
2650
771
1050983
872
104
1100
2041
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
19851990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations Volum e of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)number of filling stations
volume of gas sold
1) A clear unders tanding of the adv antages of liquid f uel replac ement. It has to do with the exportof crude oil and subproducts since Argentina , not an “oil country ” though, is self suf f ic ient andpref erred t o export ins tead of burning its oil.2) A consc ious position of t he Gov ernment promot ing the use of nat ural gas not only f or domesticuse but als o f or indust rial applicat ion i.e.: elec tric power generation3) A v ery proact iv e position of the Authorities which managed the project by means of a v erysimple scheme and took upon themselv es the initiativ e to cons truct f uelling stat ions and makeav ai lable c onv ersion k its to car dr iv ers.4) The adv antage of hav ing a v ery updated State Owned Gas Entit y whic h could establish thespec if ications and regulatory standards of the GNV equipment and s erv ice right f rom thebeginning t hus av oiding teething problems and poor control perf ormance5) A growing interest in the improv ement of the air quality and t he general f eeling that care ofenv ironment is a committment of gov ernment and people.
number ofvehicles
NGV, as a project, was launched on December, 1984 as a Gover nment Plan aimed at r eplacement of l iquid fuels from the abundant domestic natur al gas reserves.The economical conditions of the time made it impossible to think on a policy of subsidi es to make the project fly in Ar gentina.Way to promote and impulse the NGV proj ect was based on the significative price differential between liquid fuels and natural gas.The sales pr ice of CNG to the car driver was established at a 45% of the price of premium gasoline. The gross mar gin gr anted to the fuelling stations was about 13 cents per cubic meter The launching of the projectrequi red the first investments. They were made by the Government. Two Public Service Entiti es, YPF the State Owned Oil Company and Gas del Estado, the Gas Transportation and Distribution Company, initiated thecontr uction of a fuell ing station each of them.At the end of 1985 the first private fuelling stations were fully operative. These investor s demonstrated their confidence in the offic ial project and, what is more important, in the product itself.. The total private NGVs wereabove 2.000 units. The first conversion kit manufacture was born also in 1985. It was the starting point of a new industry.
The crisis of Argentine economy was responsibleof the notorious incr ease of the rate ofconversion of vehicl es in the period 2002 2003.This caused a sing ular increase of CNG sales.The relationship between January and December2003 showed a total GNC sales increase of 27%.
Picture 57 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Argentina
Brazil [↑]
The Brazil case presented here has been prepared by the Brazilian representative, backedwith other sources from literature. The Brazilian case is very interesting for analysis due to its rapidmarket growth in the last five years.
NGV project started in early 80´s, considering the international fuel price, especially of diesel.The National Plan of Natural Gas – PLANGÁS [91] was focused on replacement of diesel fuel bynatural gas in urban transport sector (conversion to Ottocycle or Dualfuel concept). Several buseswere converted in São Paulo, Rio de Janiero, Natal, Recife and Salvador. Implementation in bus fleetsdidn’t succeed due to lack of markets for the resale of the NGV buses, fuelling stations andworkshops, nonexistence of a clear strategic guidelines to increase the share of natural gas in theBrazilian energy matrix and because the fuel price in Brazil favoured diesel with fixed price of thenatural gas in relation to diesel of around 80 percent which was not enough to attract customers [91].
Second phase, which was most successful, has been governed by the following identified keydrivers [91]:
The Natural Gas Program launched by the Brazilian Government with concentrated efforts on theexpansion of infrastructure for natural gas distribution.
In 1991 the trading of NGV in gas stations operated by fuel distributors or third parties wasauthorized.
In 1992 the use of NGV in urban and interurban bus fleets, taxis, exclusive fleets of companiesand public services and in cargo vehicles was authorized, representing a substantial growth of themarket.
According to [91], third phase resulted in the drop of the sale of natural gas for vehicles. Sincethe purpose of this study is to describe key drivers pushing market upwards but also downwards,those trends are analyzed in detail.
77
With the introduction of a new economic plan of the Government, and drastic drop of inflationas a consequence of its implementation, natural gas lost its economic importance. New vehiclesbecame affordable and attractive, which led to the renewal of taxi fleets as main consumers, and nointerest for their conversion to natural gas.
It was necessary to increase the consuming market. Therefore, in 1996, under a newlegislation, the use of natural gas in passenger vehicles has been introduced causing continuousmarket evolution. The currency exchange gap was another rather relevant factor that raised the pricesof oil products establishing again favourable price difference. Slowly the market became aware of thescope of the liberation that happened in 1996 that allowed the use of gas for any vehicle including theprivate ones [91].
After this period of market recovery, in time period since 1999 onwards, NGV market in Brazilis facing continuous growth.
The price difference between natural gas and gasoline started to favour conversions [91]. Theconstant exchange devaluation, forced gasoline prices to be constantly corrected. The price of gas,since it followed a different policy of correction, became more distant and a favourable aspect wascreated in this aspect.
Other important drivers (factor of influence) are:
Recent gas discoveries (still not exploited) gave the society and investors confidence in theevolution of the national market (the country has its own reserves around 650 bcm and recentestimations show that they will double till 2010. The country, through Petrobras has a 30 yearcontract to explore, sell and transfer Bolivian gas (5 000 km long connection to Sao Paulo) withforecasted reserves of 640 bcm.
Strategy to reduce costs and to guarantee more stability in prices with respect to the current costs,since the price of liquid fuels is somewhat unforeseeable due to OPEC's changeable decisions.
Presence of emissions control programs similar and parametered by Euro Program stimulatessevere supervision in all vehicles including NGVs. Only approved kits can be installed. Awindshield seal has being created for vehicles, and since October 2003, those vehicles that arenot properly inspected and showing the new seal, are not allowed to refill their car tanks.
Converted vehicles provided by the local assembly companies.
Bifuel OEMs entering the market.
Brazil is the market that will have the most important growth and along the next five yearsNGVs will be close to one million units. Natural gas is facing another alternative fuel competitor –alcohol, by launching at the end of 2003, so called flexfuel vehicles. This type of system allows thecar to run on gasoline, alcohol or any proportion between them, all mixed in one tank in the vehicle.Despite that fact, Brazil is going to most likely outdo what Argentina has accomplished in the numberof converted vehicles.
78
Case study: BRAZIL
4800 1865857693
9258
969359
835959
643507
144917
292871
449435
11 18 25
119
281
513
953
1094
6246
723
41 37 42
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
vehi
cles
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
fillin
g st
atio
ns
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations
Licence to install the first NGV stationhas been given in 1991. In 1992;authorization has been given to usenatural gas in buses, taxi cabs, fleetsand trucks.
Denatran* Act 775 establishes thelicence to run a NGV throug h acertificate issued by Inmetro.
ABNT* NBR Std 12236 giverequirements to design, buildand operate NG refueling sta.at a max.pressure of 250 bar.
Conama* Act 15establishes vehicleemission controls to startbeing applied in 1996.
Inmetro Act 32 establishesminimum requirements to bemet by mass metering devicesin NG dispensers.
Clear perception offavourable natural gasprice relatively to gasolineand ethanol (50%savings); NGVs markets wereconcentrated in Rio andS.Paulo; Expansion toNortheast has beeninitiated.
Reduced Annual NGV Licence in the State of Rio de JaneiroANP* Act 20 establishes safety and environmental practices to build NGrefueling stations; Inmetro* Act 71 give requirements to inspect vehicle chang es by qualifiedagents; Federal Law gives permission to uti lize natural gas as a fuel, in any kindof vehicle.
ANP Act 116 regulates refueling sta. Activities; ANPAct 243 regulates the commercialization of CNG; NGVs new components manufacturing plants havebeen built.
Conama Act 273 establishesenvironmental conditions to be met by NGrefuell ing sta. operation; ABNT Std. NBR ISO 4705 specifiesrequirements applied to the design,manufacturing, and tests of HP cylinderswith 1 to 150 litres capacity; ABNT Std. NBR ISO 11439 specifiesrequirements to the design and fabricationof NGV cylinders Conama Act 291 establish environmentalrequirements to NGV system components; Inmetro Act 150 g ives the technical qualityregulations to inspect NGVs Inmetro Act 132 establishes qualityrequirements to qualify conversion serviceshops.
ABNT Std. 113531 establishesminimum requirements to NGVcomponents and installation.
Inmetro Act 170 establishminimum requirements tofabricate and commercializeNGV conversion kits; Reduced NGV AnnualLicence Costs in the States ofS.Paulo and Parana; Petrobras announced anatural gas massificationprogram.
Stronginvestment inexpanding thedistribution andfueling .infrastructure.
Continued investment inexpanding the infrastructure.
It is forecasted to have an NGV fleet superior to 1mill ion vehicles sti ll this year; Government announces concerns on importednatural gas availabili ty and prices; Discussion on a new Natural Gas Law and EnergyBil l generates concerns.
2005 = July
Case study: BRAZIL
4800 1865857693
449435
292871144917
643507
835959 969359
92580,03
0,70
1,75
2,69
4,23
5,19
0,130,12
2,46
0,220,36
0,07 0,13
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
vehic
les
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Volume of gas soldNumber of natural gas vehicles Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3/day)
Licence to install the first NGV stationhas been g iven in 1991. In 1992;authorization has been given to usenatural gas in buses, taxi cabs, fleetsand trucks.
Denatran* Act 775 establishes thelicence to run a NGV through acertificate issued by Inmetro.
ABNT* NBR Std 12236 giverequirements to design, buildand operate NG refueling sta.at a max.pressure of 250 bar.
Conama* Act 15establishes vehicleemission controls to startbeing applied in 1996.
Inmetro Act 32 establishesminimum requirements to bemet by mass metering devicesin NG dispensers.
Clear perception offavourable natural gasprice relatively to gasolineand ethanol (50%saving s); NGVs markets wereconcentrated in Rio andS.Paulo; Expansion toNortheast has beeninitiated.
Reduced Annual NGV Licence in the State of Rio de JaneiroANP* Act 20 establishes safety and environmental practices to build NGrefueling stations; Inmetro* Act 71 g ive requirements to inspect vehicle changes by qualifiedagents; Federal Law gives permission to util ize natural gas as a fuel, in any kindof vehicle.
ANP Act 116 regulates refueling sta. Activities; ANP Act 243regulates the commercialization of CNG; NGVs new components manufacturing plants have been built.
Conama Act 273 establishesenvironmental conditions to be met by NGrefuelling sta. operation; ABNT Std. NBR ISO 4705 specifiesrequirements applied to the design,manufacturing, and tests of HP cylinderswith 1 to 150 l itres capacity; ABNT Std. NBR ISO 11439 specifiesrequirements to the design and fabricationof NGV cylinders Conama Act 291 establish environmentalrequirements to NGV system components; Inmetro Act 150 gives the technical qualityregulations to inspect NGVs Inmetro Act 132 establishes qualityrequirements to qualify conversion serviceshops.
ABNT Std. 113531 establishesminimum requirements to NGVcomponents and installation.
Inmetro Act 170 establish minimumreq uirements to fabricate andcommercialize NGV conversion kits; Reduced NGV Annual Licence Costs inthe States of S.Paulo and Parana; Petrobras announced a natural gasmassification program.
Stronginvestment inexpanding thedistribution andfueling.infrastructure.
Continued investment inexpanding the infrastructure.
It is forecasted to have an NGV fleet superior to 1mill ion vehicles stil l this year; Government announces concerns on importednatural gas availabil ity and prices; Discussion on a new Natural Gas Law and EnergyBill generates concerns.
2005 = July
Picture 58 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Brazil
Bolivia [↑]
Bolivia has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
NGV program seemed to be governed by strategy to reduce costs and to guarantee morestability in prices with respect to the current costs, since the price of liquid fuels is somewhatunforeseeable due to OPEC's changeable decisions. Country itself is very rich in natural resources,including natural gas.
NGV development began in the 1990s and number of vehicles grow to 4 000 by 1998. Sincethen the numbers have reached 10 000. Demand for NGVs is said to be inhibited by conversion coststhat can't be afforded by relatively poor taxi drivers, a limited natural gas distribution network andcompetition from traditional fuels. The price of CNG at the dispenser is half that of gasoline. LPG is
79
forbidden in vehicles. Recent data show forecasts for opening a range of new fuelling stations andincreased number of conversions.
Chile [↑]
Chile has practically restricted the conversion of vehicles to new units. The certificationprocedures are very stringent, and this has resulted in prices that are about double those in Argentinaand Brazil (more information below [87]).
By the end of year 2000 the Government authorized the conversion of taxis and commercialvehicles not older than five years. According to [87], this is the inflection point in which is possible toaffirm that the most important change in NGVs takes place in Chile, with an important increase ofconversions, installation of new shops and dispensing stations. This decree is supplemented with theordinance that authorizes the Approval of vehicles to use CNG as fuel (gasoline CNG) and theinstruction that demands special identification of CNG vehicles. Regarding Safety rules, there aresome Chilean standards that regulate the minimal safety requirements for the conversion systems touse CNG as vehicle fuel; components of the fuel system production and operation requirements,conditions for construction, installation and operation of NGV dispensing stations, and finally periodiccertification of steel containers.
Therefore, the Chilean law allows conversion of vehicles that have been previously approvedand certified by institutions recognized by the authority (the 3CV Center of Control and VehiclesCertification), dependant of the Ministry of Transport and Telecommunications of Chile.
Nevertheless, there is quite some interest by private companies to push the approval of newmeasures to widen the program.
The gas tax regime [87] is ruled by law that establishes a fixed annual specific tribute togaseous fuels (NGV and LPG) differed by vehicle type.
Modification of the specific tax is a permanent debate and one of the aspirations of thetransportation industry, since the current payment structure is one of the conditions that limit thedevelopment of natural gas, and still is a big topic to be solved. The modifications aim to change theway tax is collected, passing from a yearly of fixed régime, to one of variable type which is paid everytime that the user is supplied with fuel, in a similar way to the existing tax for liquid fuels
The specific tax for the diesel oil is considerably less than for the gasoline, showing a strongdiscrimination in favoring diesel oil (which seems to be the general case in South America). Thedifference of a payment base for unit of used fuel (for the diesel petroleum and the gasoline) incomparison with a fixed base (for the NGV and LPG), generates incentives depending on the use ofthe vehicle. The more intensive the use of the vehicle, considering an increase in the fuels used; therewill be a bigger incentive to use fuels with a fixed payment base. [87]
The specific tax differential of gasoline and diesel fuel has strongly increased since the earlynineties. From a minimum value of about US $50 for m3 at the end of the eighties, the differentialbetween both taxes have been enlarged to a current (end 2004) US $225 for m3 due to diverse taxmodifications. The tax benefits have enabled reduced operational costs for diesel vehicles comparedto the gasoline vehicles, with a significant impact in the diesel vehicles sales. This “dieselization”[87]of the automotive parks it still growing. While in 1998 the diesel share of the total sales of vehicles wasless than 2% in cars, 16% in small trucks and 63% in vans, in 2003 these values surpassed 3%, 50%and 85% respectively.
According to conclusion by [87] given the current tax structure conditions, the only segmentwhere natural gas is competitive is for new taxis and some commercial fleets using gasoline. Thelimitations for converting old taxis to natural gas makes the environmental benefit of its use worthlesssince emissions of a new natural gas taxi are comparable to those from the same taxi that usesgasoline and a 3ways catalytic converter. More over, as there is a market where an offer of newdiesel taxis exists, considering the current tax structure benefits the use of diesel over gasoline, it is
80
reasonable to think that an important part of the new taxis will be in the diesel segment. This lastsituation will not only affect the tax collection, but it will also impose an additional environmental socialcost unless the authority takes specific environmental measures for this segment.
Nevertheless, despite an unfriendly tax structure that does not reflect environmental and otherexternal costs, some positive movements are expected.
To promote the NGV market, Metrogas has developed a business model through theimplementation of a network of collaborators. The strategy of collaboration is focused in a “marketpull”, supporting the final Client (who converts the vehicle to natural gas), so value for different agentsof the value chain is generated.
In the next years, an important renovation of taxis will take place in Santiago, and for year2010 an estimate of 45 570 vehicles will be reached. In an optimistic scenario, it is feasible that for the2015 over 34 700 NGV vehicles will be circulating just in Santiago. If so, at least 72 dispensingstations are expected. [87]
Case study:CHILE
5540
6281
14000
7000
4606
2000
2700260025003342
13
28
10
10
6
1113
42 4
68,0
31,626,2
22,816,7
12,210,810,3
7,910,0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
1987 1997 199899 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2010*vehicles
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
f illing stationsvolume of gas sold
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling s tations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)
Start of the Natural Gas f or Vehicles CommercialProgramme (NGVCP) in Punta Arenas, the southeas tregion in Chile. Ref uelling stations and vehicle conversionworkshop under constructions. NG landf ills available inthe region.
NG arriv ed to Santiago (capitalcity ) in 1997 f rom Argentinathrough the International pipeline“Gas Andes”. Two new stationswere built and started theiroperations in 1997. They wereowned by Oil Companies. 100%were oriented to LDV.
The env ironmental authoritystarted the f irst Pilot Programf or NG buses in SantiagoChile. The experience testedthe perf ormance andemissions of dedicated NGbuses, bif uel NGdieselbuses and diesel buses.
New conversions are allowed by thegov ernment. Bef ore this year, theywere f orbidden by a governmentdec ree. New emiss ion standard f ornonmethane hydrocarbons wasimplemented in this y ear f or naturalgas LDV. Metrogas (the largest NGdistributor in Chile) promoted thecreation of the NGV network, usingcollaboration business model, toexpand the number of workshops andf illing stat ions. One more f illing stationwas built in the twelve regions (PuntaArenas Chile). Two new Mercedesdedicated CNG buses startedoperation, sponsored by a largemunicipality of Santiago.
Marketing and promotion works continue for new conversions. Two new fi ll ing stations were built inSantiago. As well, NGV start in the fifth region of Chile, building two new fil ling stations. The firstcommercial fleet of 6 dedicated NG Volvo buses started to run in Santiago Chile. Metrogascontinued supporting the NGV network.
Marketing and promotionworks continue f or newconversions,implementing clean airprograms.
Marketing andpromotion workscontinue f or newconversions. Anew NG fillingstation was built inthe twelve regionof Chile (PuertoNatales).
Marketing andpromotion workscontinue f or newconversions. Twonew f illingstations were builtin Chile. One wasin Santiago, andthe other was inthe second regionof Chile.
Customers were discouragedby long queues thus use lessCNG. Due to the NG crisis, nonew investors c ontinuedev aluating new NGV projects.New regulations and taxpolicies promote LPG uses f orv ehicles. Right now is underconstruction a large LNGproject to bring gas f rom As iaor somewhere else, to solv eChilean energy crisis. Thisproject has been sponsored bythe Chilean gov ernment andsev eral private companies(gas, electricity ). New sourcesof energy are under study(Biogas, solar, wind).
(*) Due to the high volati lity of NG supply, right now it is not possible yet to forecast NGV development. If the supply problems are solved it is possible to expect growth.
Picture 59 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Chile
Colombia [↑]
Colombia has no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquired fromavailable literature.
Like Bolivia, the NGV program seemed to be governed by strategy to reduce costs and toguarantee more stability in prices with respect to the current costs, since the price of liquid fuels issomewhat unforeseeable due to OPEC's changeable decisions and domestic gas reserves sufficientfor 34 years (taken into consideration annual gas consumption from 2003). The reserves fromneighbouring Venezuela provide additional warranty regarding security of supply.
81
Colombia has facilitated the automation of the control process in real time, making itimpossible to refuel CNG in case the formal regulations are not met (it is called “Joint InformationUnique System or SUIC in Spanish). This is due to the fact that Colombia has introduced a system bywhich a chip is controlled and installed in all the vehicles converted by a "Certifying Organism", whichmakes it possible to retrieve information about such vehicles in computer language. [88]
Every vehicle has installed an electronic identification system that is qualified by the certifier atthe time the conversion takes place and requalified during the car’s annual inspection. The systemidentifies the customer’s recorded information with an electronic device (Chip) and authorizes the fuelsupply.
Several programs have been developed through this system: settlement and salesadministrative control (in cubic meters), annual and 5year inspection due date control, settlement andfuelling fee collection of the conversion financing, sales and fidelity plans for frequent customers,customer post sale report: consumption per vehicle report, refuelling hours, consumption per servicestation, etc. [88]
There have been some problems for units travelling around the country, as their IDs are notalways authorized outside the area in which they were registered.
Also, the fuelling devices are different than in Argentina and Brazil.
Diesel fuel had a 60% subsidy, provided by the Government. Contrary to situation in Chile, thissupport goes down and it was expected to decrease gradually till it is totally eliminated in December2005.
As regards governmental supports according to [88], besides cutting the subsidies on dieselfuel, this support (NGV popularization program) includes the cutback of taxes in the conversion kits,elimination of mechanic shops and service station implementation procedures, and the elimination oftraditional fuel subsidies.
Besides, the Government is conscious of the favour this would do to the country’s economy byfinding a substitute for fuel imports, with the consequent foreign currency savings. Essentially, theseinstruments are the incentives regarding the commercial discounts to those new clients interested inconverting their vehicles to natural gas fuel that could be provided today. This discount is the result ofan alliance between the producers (Colombian Petroleum Company ECOPETROLGovernment andCHEVRON TEXACO), conversion workshops, transporters (ECOGAS), fleet owners, dealers andmarketing managers, among those GNC S.A., and the purpose is to offer incentives in order toincrease the NGV conversions and as a consequence, NGV consumption. There are proposals topromote the use of natural gas in public transportation with vehicle parts that could be made inColombia.
Venezuela [↑]
Venezuela had no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data was acquiredfrom available literature. The NGV program in Venezuela has been pushed by the Government andstate oil company.
The state oil company fulfilled a CNG project aimed at raising the low retail price of fuel, (6cents per litre) to a level equal to export prices. Since haulage contractors profited from this low costalternative, the State was able to double the price of fuel without facing any kind of popular reaction significantly reducing the subvention cost over the total domestic consumption of fuel unlike otherinstances, which took place prior to the implementation of CNG. Problems regarding gas emissionswill be significantly reduced once these new technologies are massively applied since they will make itpossible to improve the technological advances. It is the only country in the area that has had agovernment funded subsidy program in order to push NGVs.
82
Peru and Uruguay
Peru and Uruguay have no representative in Study Group. Therefore, necessary data wasacquired from available literature. Peru and Uruguay are newcomers on the market.
CNG is recently commercially available in Peru, with new gas discoveries through theCamisea project. Potential market is seen for one million light vehicles. First two NGV service stationsstarted in 2005. Project of a “Blue Corridor” on route Lima – Pisco – Ica was announced.
As regards drivers for market growth, there is strong Government support to promote NGVuse (no ISC tax for natural gas, own fleet conversion, financing) and great interest from the localauthorities and private transportation companies to use NGV as fuel in public transportation buses.
Peruvian service station owners have shown interest in the NGV market but a lack ofknowledge in this industry could restrict investments. Foreign investors have the opportunity to enterthis new market from the beginning.
In Republica Oriental del Uruguay natural gas is available very recently by means of anunderwater pipeline crossing the River Plate from Argentina. There is great enthusiasm and it isexpected that natural gas fuelling stations will soon be built. The standards and procedures for NGVsare similar to the Argentine, and vehicles from Argentina and Brazil will refuel freely throughout thecountry. It has been estimated that 50% of the natural gas used in the country shall be for vehicles.
Uruguay also supports the “Blue Corridor” concept for the active integration of infrastructurerequired to convey natural gas in the Uruguayan territory [89].
SUMMARY FOR SOUTH AMERICA
In South America, the initiative to develop a NGV market usually comes from the State andGovernment authorities with the aim to replace crude oil and oil products to make them available forexport or to reduce costs and to guarantee more stability in prices with respect to the current costs,since the price of liquid fuels is somewhat unforeseeable due to OPEC´s changeable decisions, or toraise a low retail price of fuel to at least a level equal to export prices, providing in the same timecheaper alternative to the consumers. Second goal is the aim to reduce the level of exhaustemissions.
It is interesting that the prime mover or a key driver for market development from thecustomer’s point of view was favourable price difference with the absence of the policy of subsidies.Governmental support in form of tax cutbacks was introduced recently in Colombia and Peru andsome financial incentives in Colombia and Venezuela.
In South America, unlike in Europe, natural gas for transport has been better recognized as abusiness opportunity for local manufacturing of fuelling stations, light and heavy still cylinders,conversion kits, parts and accessories, electronics, compressors, dispensers, gas engines for urbantransport, natural gas buses, diesel to gas engine conversion kits and OEM NGVs, which satisfieddomestic market and reached export levels. The basis for such development were (in case of marketleaders, Argentina and Brazil) established specifications and regulatory standards for CNG equipmentand service, right from the beginning (but, together with favourable price difference; in the oppositecase i.e. in Chile, where there is a good base with established specifications and regulatory standards,but no favourable price difference due to subsidized diesel fuel, such trends did not occurred).
Other countries, like Uruguay, use standards and procedures for NGVs similar to Argentina(and vehicles from Argentina and Brazil will refuel freely throughout the country).
Also, the reason behind such development of equipment manufacturing is in the fact thatabundant domestic natural gas reserves are available (in Argentina, Bolivia, Venezuela, Brazil andPeru).
83
In the time frame parallel to the period of NGV market development, diesel had a favourableprice in almost all South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia...) to provide low cost fuel forcargo and passenger transport, which today put on the table need for an alternative to cheap dieselthrough the use of natural gas in heavy duty transport (using market forces or obligatory measures).
It is very important to breed the idea of integration. South America should follow commonstandards, and copy the European idea of a Blue corridor. South America is progressing well towardsthe regionalization / internalization of the NGV market although standardization of filling nozzle (forexample, fuelling devices in Colombia are different than in Argentina which use GEN1141 standardand Brazil) is needed. To be able to fuel in Argentina, NGV has to be registered, and carry aGovernmentsupplied sticker on the windscreen. It is not possible for either foreign tourists orinternational transport to run on natural gas. Chilean residents often have their cars fitted in Argentina,to fuel on either side of the border, as Chilean regulations are somewhat more permissive for the timebeing. Also, it seems that the situation will deteriorate, with the introduction of electronic devices todetermine the acceptance of fuel dispensing. Even while the intention is good to improve safety andkeep unregistered vehicles from fuelling the result will be that it shall be practically impossible tomove from one country to another on natural gas, unless harmonization of standards takes place.
Picture 60 – Project of integration of Southern Cone
Source: Fernandes R. (October 2004), NGV Market Challenges in Brazil, IV Expo GNC in BuenosAires, Buenos Aires
But, the project of integration of the Southern Cone (BiOceanic Blue Corridor Project); fromSantiago de Chile (San Antonio) across Montevideo and Porto Alegre to Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiroand Belo Horizonte (any stretches that do not have supplies on natural gas will be served using abattery of transportable storage tanks – motherdaughter concept) is a step forward in right direction.
Also, according to [120] as a road to integration, to overcome a problem with different fillingnozzles, common adapters are being studied and common regulations for filling negotiated.
84
NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA
United States [↑]
Most important market drivers influencing the US market are: growing concerns about oildependence, tightening air quality, emissions and fuel standards, and pending legislation providingsubstantial alternative fuel incentives.
Renewed focus on reducing oil dependence: US now imports 56% of its oil; by 2010, thatcould soar to 70%. US produce 85 % of the natural gas it consumes and the rest is produced inCanada. The Energy Policy Act (EPAct) was enacted in 1992 to decrease US dependence onimported oil by mandating prescribed decreases in the amount of petroleum used by Government andother fleets and made a substantial impact on the AFV market in the US but, because of loopholes inthe law allowing vehicles to be purchased but not run on alternative fuels.
Higher concerns regarding security of supply emerged after September 11th, 2001.
Stricter air quality standards: The Clean Air Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for harmful pollutants. "Nonattainment"areas are required to implement aggressive pollution reduction programs or risk losing critical federalhighway funds. This mandate has spurred local action in more than 125 areas, creating new marketsfor NGVs.
Tighter heavyduty engine standards: New EPA emissions standards for heavyduty enginespose a big problem for the diesel industry, with the 2004 standards requiring a 50% reduction innitrogen oxides (NOx). Because these engines will include new, more sophisticated technologies, theyare expected to be more expensive, less energy efficient and less durable. In 2007 even morestringent standards will go into effect (to cut NOx by another 90 percent and particulates by about 90percent). There are already a number of heavyduty natural gas engines available that meet the 2004standards and there is confidence that efficient and costcompetitive natural gas engines and vehicleswill be available to meet the 2007 standards.
Stricter fuel standards: Beginning in 2006, the sulphur content in diesel and gasoline must bereduced drastically. This will mean an increase in fuel prices for gasoline and diesel and possibleregional shortages in lowsulphur fuels.
Increasing Government economic support: has been essential to the growth of the NGVindustry in the United States.
Successful programs: Department of Energy's Clean Cities Programs (88 communitiesworking together to increase the use of alternative fuel vehicles, covering 58% of US population; usespublicprivate partnerships to facilitate the use of alternatives to petroleum fuels in the transportationsector and ensure sustainable, safe and effective AFV programs; activities covers: review of codes &standards, coalition formation, air quality analysis, technology tours & information exchange andtraining for technicians, policymakers and drivers [93]), Department of Transportation's (DOT)Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) program (hundreds of millions of dollars have beenused to buydown the cost of NGVs and to put in additional refuelling stations), DOT's ILEAV programis another innovative program created to improve air quality by encouraging alternative fuel vehicleuse at airports, Clean Green School Bus program with the aim to replace older, dirtier, unsafe schoolbuses with new high tech and alternative fuel vehicles, provisions of the CLEAR Act that includes taxincentives for dedicated alternative fuel vehicles, tax credits for the sale of alternative fuels andincentives for fuelling infrastructure).
Over 30 states have some type of alternative fuel incentive. Also, number of OEMs NGVs areavailable (CNG, LNG, LDV and HDV, transit buses, garbage trucks, public transport buses, companyfleets etc.)
“Shopping mall strategy” is used in development of the network of CNG, LNG and LCNGstations (which are placed near the shopping malls).
85
In early 2003 [93], the Clean Efficient Automobiles Resulting from Advanced CarTechnologies (CLEAR ACT) bill was introduced in the U.S. Senate. Legislation includes: incentives forpurchase of NGVs, purchase of natural gas as a vehicle fuel and installation of NGV fuelling stations.Despite of wide support, legislation stalled in Congress. As a result, many fleet operators havepostponed buying NGVs.
R&D activities: Recent focus on hybrid vehicles (natural gaselectric hybrid buses greatlyreduce emissions, increase fuel economy and run much more quietly than diesel buses) has beenshifted to fuel cells.
The Federal Government has shifted its focus from hybrid vehicles to fuel cell vehicles; everymajor automaker has forged a partnership to develop and massproduce fuel cell vehicles at somepoint; and fuel cell vehicles have captured the imagination of the media. Natural gas will be a primarysource of hydrogen for these fuel cell vehicles.
Year 2004 was a very challenging year [93]. Administration’s policies (e.g., Iraqi war, tax cuts)have led to major federal budget deficits. As a result, private sector and municipal Governments wereslow to invest in new equipment and less Government funds were available for alternative fuel vehicleincentives, and (as mentioned before), gasoline hybrids and hydrogen have captured media and policyfocus with hydrogen and fuel cells touted as the dependence and urban emissions. Also, federal NGVincentive legislation stalled in Congress.
South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) is the very powerful regulatoryagency in Los Angeles area. SCAQMD had issued regulations that resulted in a sharp increase inNGV purchase and use (transit buses, school buses, garbage trucks, airport vehicles and Governmentvehicles). U.S. Supreme Court invalidated some on them which resulted with confusion and lessNGVs purchased.
Ford announced cancellation of NGV program and announced that their “alt fuel” focus wouldconcentrate on hybrids and hydrogen. Additionally, General Motors announced cancellation of NGVvans.
In 2005, four major changes have occurred that are repositioning the U.S. NGV industry [123]:
World demanddriven rising petroleum prices.
Impact of hurricanes Katrina and Rita on oil availability and prices.
Emergence of vocal national conservative organizations lobbying for reduction in foreign oildependence.
Passage of the CLEAR ACT incentives and other proNGV Energy and Highway Bill programs
86
Key drivers that are expected to push the NGV market forward are [93, 123]:
U.S. still has strong NGV engine/vehicle suppliers.
Oil prices will continue to rise (petroleum prices have been setting price records and this is not ashortterm trend. Worldwide competition for oil will exceed producer’s capacity to meet demand,and the gap between oil and natural gas prices will increase).
More cities failing new (described above) air quality standards. Under new U.S. EPA standardsregarding ozone and particles emission, part or all of 474 counties in 31 states are in nonattainment. This is 15 % of counties, but over half the population. Switching more vehicles to nonpetroleum fuels (especially NGVs) will have to be part of many of these areas complianceprograms.
New fuel/engine rules will increase cost of using diesel.
SCAQMD is moving forward with new regulations (SCAQMD is enforcing rules on Governmentand other fleets not affected by Supreme Court Ruling. SCAQMD has petitioned California andfederal Government to have original rules approved and SCAQMD is discussing expandingregulations to ports and other facilities.
Extensions of tax credits: (vehicles December 31, 2010, infrastructure: December 31, 2009 andfuel: September 30, 2009). All three tax credits must be extended.
Despite all the interest, hybrids alone can’t solve America’s problem of overdependence onforeign oil. DOE has concluded that, even if all personal vehicles were hybrids (which are notlikely), by 2025, the US would use the same amount of oil it uses today. In other words, hybridscan reduce the growth but not the base.
Despite continued hype, more negative reports about the future of hydrogen vehicles keepappearing. Issues include: fuel cost, vehicle cost, vehicle range, station safety and locations.National Academy of Sciences study concludes that hydrogen vehicles will not make a significantimpact on petroleum use until 2050.
Increased recognition that NGVs are the pathway to hydrogen. Among critical path issues are: onsite hydrogen reforming of natural gas at NGV stations, hydrogen ready garages and otherfacilities, mechanics, inspectors, etc. experienced with gaseous fuels, customer experience andacceptance of gaseous fuels. HCNG vehicles also may play key role because HCNG HD engineare being certified in California at 0.08 gm per bhphr with no after treatment (versus 0.2 2010standard).
Canada [↑]
Canadian market is characterized by well developed public and private NGV fuelling network.From the beginning, the Canadian NGV program has been well supported by federal, provincial andmunicipal governments.
NGV is now recognized as Part of the Federal Climate Change Plan for Canada andinvestments were issued by Federal Government for the purpose of reducing the cost of natural gasvehicles in the Canadian marketplace.
Canadian industry is developed with manufacturers of conversion components, heavy dutyengines and refuelling systems of all sizes (exporting 95% of their production).
According to the last report from June 2005 [108] in Canada there were at that moment nofederal or provincial taxes on natural gas. Focus is placed on greenhouse gases (GHG) reductionswith little recognition of NOx or PM reductions. LNG availability is limited, although there are currentproposals for 8 LNG terminals. There is no broad incentive or policy from Government.
87
Mexico [↑]
Mexico has been included recently with a project that aims at reducing pollution and savingliquid fuel for export.
SUMMARY FOR NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA
NGV programs in North America (United States, Canada) have been well supported byfederal, provincial and municipal governments. Like in the case of major market players in SouthAmerica, natural gas for transport has been recognized as wide range business opportunity formanufacturing conversion components, light and heavy duty engines, refuelling systems of all sizesand OEMs NGVs, for domestic market but also for export (Canada is today exporting 95% of itsproduction).
Generally, key market drivers are growing concerns about oil dependence, with the abundantdomestic natural gas reserves in the same time (United States today import 56% of it’s oil, which couldreach 70% in 2010, but produces 85% of natural gas it consumes, and the rest is produced in Canada.Similar trends occurred in Europe, through Green paper about the Security of Supply, but generally, itis possible to recognize elements of national strategy inducing market movements.
While in the first case the aim is to reduce import, in second case (Mexico) the aim is toincrease export (by saving liquid fuels for export and use natural gas instead).
Generally, like in the case of Asia, it is possible to recognize elements of national strategyinducing market movements. Other key drivers are: tightening air quality emissions and fuelstandards, and other pending legislation providing substantial alternative fuels incentives.
88
AFRICA
In Africa, the sample was generally not adequate to recognize patterns. Both, Algeria andEgypt have abundant gas reserves. Algeria is natural gas exporter (through Transmed and Maghrebpipelines and in the form of LNG). On the other hand, Egypt is seeking way to utilize its gas reservesin a form of LNG or by pipeline to Israel.
Algeria [↔]
In Algeria, the majority of country’s income is from fuel exports. Therefore, it is somewhatexpected that there is no wider NGV development (compared to the amount of natural gas reserves).Government NGV policy has been announced, although legislation for import of OEMs products andcomponents is still unfavourable.
Case study: ALGERIA
1 1
50
75
125 125
1 1 2
131,8
2
3 31,11,1
52,5
78,8
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0
20
40
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1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 20040
10
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Number of natural gas vehicles Number of f illing stations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 m3)vehiclesnumber of f illing staitons
volume of gas sold
NGV Governmentpolicy announced
Some governmentincentives announced
Unfavourable legislationfor import of OEM
products
Picture 61 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Algeria
Egypt [↑]
Egypt has for several years been subject of numerous success stories analysis due to itswisely programmed NGV market development in which it managed to solve famous “Chicken and egg”dilemma by providing prerequisites for simultaneous development in filling infrastructure with increasein number of vehicles powered on natural gas.
In Egypt NGV program started as a strategic national project initiated by Egypt's PetroleumMinistry to utilize Egypt’s potential gas reserves, but also as a potential export opportunity for liquidfuels, and a way to solve huge pollution problems.
Program started as a joint venture between Egypt’s gas companies, private sector partnersand relevant ministries providing necessary regulatory base to ensure the safety and performance ofthe CNG fuelling stations and the customers' vehicle conversions and offering customers financialprograms with a small down payment with monthly payments available for up to 3 years, and grantsfor a fiveyear tax holiday to each approved CNG company.
The USAID commodity import program (CIP) grant the CNG companies a 36months interestfree loan from the date of the shipping the station from the U.S. with no devaluation risks.
89
Egypt’s CNG industry implemented a "Gas Card" system. All customers who have outstandingconversion loan balances, and all new financed conversion customers, will begin paying the gasolineprice each time they fuel with the difference being credited against their receivables’ balance. Finally,at all time, favourable price difference between fuels is maintained.
So, prime movers for market development are consistent governmental policy, establishedregulatory base, consistent financial and fiscal instruments and friendly financial schemes (togetherwith favourable price difference).
Case study: EGYPT
34236
50000
180 180 180 813
570211900
18946
25105
41416
81000
69000
59000
66
84
75
104
128
23
9
4
54
39
32
555
0
10000
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/1993
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Number of natural gas vehicles Number of fill ing stations
Second company incorporated (E.I.G. TEC = IEOC(ENI ), Petrojet, Ministry of Petroleum, Ministry ofInsurance, Egy pt Gas ). NGVC and E.I.G. TEC areof f ering customers f inancing programs with a sm alldown pay ment with montly pay ments av ailable f orup to 3 y ears .
Joint v enture com pany NGVCincorporated. NGVC is of f eringcustomers f inanc ing programswith a small down pay ment withmontly pay ments av ailable f orup to 3 y ears.
All f inancial incentiv es s till available. NGVCand E. I.G. TEC are of f ering customersf inancing programs with a small downpay ment with m ontly pay ments av ailable f orup to 3 y ears. General Authority f orInv est ment (GAFI) grant s a f iv ey ear taxholiday to each approv ed CNG c ompany . TheUSAID commodity import program (CIP)grant t he CNG companies a 36m onthsinteres t f ree loan f rom the date of theshipping the station f rom the U.S. with nodev aluation risk s. Price of natural gasf av ourable com pared to petrol and diesel.
Third company aprov ed in 2002 (Shell Egy ptC NG Com pany = Shell Egy pt, Egy pt ianN atural Gas Holding Company , Egy ptianpr iv ate sec tor partners). Four new companiesare approv ed and expected to be operationalby 2004.
Egy pt´s C NG indus try implemented"Gas Card" sy stem All cus tomers whohav e outst anding c onv ersion loanbalances, and all new f inanc edconv ersion custom ers, will begin pay ingthe gasoline price each time they f uelwith the dif f erence being creditedagainst their receiv ables’ balance.1 new private company entered the market.
• 2 new pr iv ate com panies entered t hem arket.• Diesel retail prices increas ed by 50%. Retailprices of other f uels should be increased unt il
• Expecting 2 com panies to enter the market.• Expecting reduct ion in cus toms and tax on CNGequipment.
Memorandum of understandingbetween BP Egy pt, Egy pt Gas andENPPI to f orm a joint company .
Two pilot projects initiated by Egy pt'sPetroleum Ministry and realized byGUPCO, BP Egy pt, EGPC part nershipand Petrobel (ENI and EGPCPartnership). Petroleum Ministryissued a decree to ens ure the s af etyand perf ormance of the CNG f uelingstations and t he custom ers' v ehicleconv ersions. This includes stric tadherence to "Egy pt's VehicularNatural Gas Standards andSpec if ications ". General Authori ty f orInv es tment (GAFI) grants a f iv ey eartax holiday to each approv ed C NGcompany . The USAID commodityimport program (CIP) grant the CNGcompanies a 36months interes t f reeloan f rom the date of t he shipping thestation f rom t he U.S. with nodev aluation ris ks.
number of vehicles number of f illing stations
Case study: EGYPT
50000
34236
59000
69000
81000
41416
25105
18946
119005702
813180180180
210,2
260
88,3
114,6
165,6
0,8 5,5
54,8
345
300
239,5
0
10000
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30000
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50000
60000
70000
80000
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/1993
1994
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1997
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2005
2006
0
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300
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Num ber of natural gas vehicles Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m 3)number of vehiclesnumber of f illing stations
Picture 62 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Egypt
90
SUMMARY FOR THE WORLD
In Europe, in each successful case there is cooperation between governmental bodies, oil andgas industry and/or other large companies. What seems to lack in Europe is regionalization since it ispossible to identify several subregions with similar key drivers following similar development patterns.What is a key driver in one subregion is not a key driver in other subregion.
Projects like Blue corridor are also highlighting the issue of different natural gas qualityavailable in Europe (or in the World) which might impose demand for new gas engines equipped withautomatically adjustable combustion systems. Also, unified standards related to the fuelling stationsare necessary i.e. in case of dispensing nozzle currently covered by NGV1 standard, because not allexisting stations are compatible with this connector i.e. Italy.). Retrofit market will probably declineover time in Europe due to technology and normative drawbacks (OBD) and originally manufacturednatural gas vehicles will be necessary to even maintain the existing market.
Regionalization and standardization of national NGV markets cope with the activities of theEuropean Commission on alternative fuels and are integral elements of a policy framework that aimsto secure energy supply (Green Paper on the security of energy supply) and reduce greenhouse gasemissions (White Paper on a common transport policy). The concept of introducing alternative fuels inthe EU energy system, starting from the sector pressing the most for fuel diversification and emissionreductions, i.e. the transport sector, was put forward in a Communication from the Commission thatwas presented in December 2003. Three types of alternative fuels were identified that have thepotential of substituting at least 20% of conventional fuels in the road transport sector by 2020, namelybiofuels (58%) including biogas, natural gas (10% in 2020) and hydrogen (2% in 2020).
In Russia and the C.I.S., Middle East and AsiaPacific region natural gas (for vehicles)programs are mostly part of national strategy or Government policy, and usually large national bodies(large Government companies or national oil and gas companies) are leading such projects.Development and promotion of alternative fuels is mostly governed by expectations of economicgrowth slowing caused by high fuel prices (and opportunity for saving foreign currency by reducingimport of liquid fuels) and pollution problems (certain types of vehicles are banned in a sense that theyshould phase out or convert to clean fuels).
Key drivers which might be considered (more or less) typical for this region are tax allowancesand subsidies and other sources of financial support which are (unlike in Europe) usually available,easy approvals and permits, fast procedure for installation of CNG refuelling stations and moreefficient regulation regarding, for instance, safety distances. In oil producing countries, there is also aninterest to release part of crude oil and oil products and to make them available for export.Standardization of filling connectors will also be necessary to make Blue Corridors a reality sinceRussia is using its own filling connector standards.
The Blue Corridor concept might be the prime mover of future integration, and regionalizationinside Europe (within European market), but also on more global scale with integration betweenEurope and Russia and the C.I.S. with routes (predicted for HD transport): (routes: Moscow – Minsk –Warsaw – Berlin (along the route E 30, PanEuropean corridor No. 2); Berlin – Rome (along the routesE 55 and E 45); and Helsinki – St. Petersburg – Moscow (along the routes E 105 and E 18, panEuropean corridor No. 9) considered with potential for the use of LNG.)).
The selection of the three pilot corridors does not mean that the practical implementation ofthe project will concern only and exclusively the above corridors. In particular, the Blue Corridor TaskForce expressed the opinion that another pilot corridor could be ParisZurichViennaBudapestBucharestPlovdivIstanbulAnkara considering the potential for transboundary trade along this midWestEast route in Europe.
As regards progress with the Blue Corridor concept [94], on route Moscow – Minsk – Warsaw– Berlin, German and Belarus parts of the corridor are practically ready to ensure the pilot functioningof the corridor, while the Russian part and especially the Polish part required the construction of aminimum of 4 stations in total.
91
In principle, the Berlin – Rome corridor is ready for NGV transit. At the same time, furtherinvestigations should be made to check that all these fuelling stations are suitable to service HDVs inan acceptable length of time.
In 2004 Gazprom (Russia) and E.On Ruhrgas (Germany) have launched a new initiative withinthe framework of Blue corridor concept. Russian, German and Polish companies are evaluating thefeasibility of a new route from Kaliningrad (Russia) to Berlin (Germany). The concept will becomereality if the gas industry, in particular, decides to make it a priority by investing in the fuellinginfrastructure.
In South America, an initial initiative to develop the NGV market is usually from State andGovernment authorities with the aim to replace crude oil and oil products and make them available forexport or to reduce costs and to guarantee more stability in prices with respect to the current costs,since the price of liquid fuels is somewhat unforeseeable due to OPEC´s changeable decisions, or toraise a low retail price of fuel to at least a level equal to export prices, providing in the same timecheaper alternative to the consumers. Second (non economic) goal is the aim to reduce the level ofexhaust emissions.
The prime mover or a key driver for market development from the customer’s point of view isfavourable price difference with the absence of the policy of subsidies. The only country in the areathat had a Government funded subsidy program is Venezuela. The basis for development ofmanufacturing equipment for vehicles and filling stations were (in case of market leaders, Argentinaand Brazil) established specifications and regulatory standards for CNG equipment and service, rightfrom the beginning. Also, the reason behind such development of equipment manufacturing is thatabundant domestic natural gas reserves are available (in Argentina, Bolivia, and Venezuela andrecently in Brazil). South America is trying to copy the idea of Blue Corridor (with the concept ofintegration of Southern Cone, so called BiOceanic Blue Corridor project between Santiago de Chile(San Antonio) across Montevideo and Porto Alegre to Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte;any stretches that do not have supplies on natural gas will be served using a battery of transportablestorage tanks)).
South America is progressing well towards the regionalization of the NGV market althoughstandardization of filling nozzle (for example, fuelling devices in Colombia are different than inArgentina which use GEN1141 standard and Brazil) is needed.
In North and Middle America, unlike in South America, subsidies and other forms of financialsupport are available. Generally, key market drivers are growing concerns about oil dependence, withthe abundant domestic natural gas reserves in the same time (while in the case of Mexico, the aim isto increase export by saving liquid fuels for export and use natural gas instead). Other key drivers are:tightening air quality emissions and fuel standards, and other pending legislation providing substantialalternative fuels incentives. Natural gas for transport has been recognized as wide range businessopportunity for domestic market but also for export. Generally, like in the case of Asia, it is possible torecognize elements of national strategy inducing market movements.
In Africa, the sample was not adequate to recognize patterns. Both analyzed countries, Algeriaand Egypt have abundant gas reserves. In Algeria, majority of country’s incomes are coming from fuelexport with developed export corridors (pipelines and LNG) while Egypt is still developing it’sinfrastructure for natural gas export. Therefore, in Egypt, NGV program started as a strategic nationalproject to utilize Egypt’s potential gas reserves, but also as a potential export opportunity for liquidfuels, and a way to solve huge pollution problems (in Algeria, Government NGV policy has beenannounced).
92
3.3. STRENGTHS – WEAKNESSES – OPPORTUNITIES – CHALLENGES (SWOC)ANALYSIS
In previous chapter, Trend Analysis and analysis of different key drivers that influenced theupward (or downward) trends in NGV market development have been made country by country, andregion by region.
In this Chapter, overview of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Challenges of NGVbusiness has been made, but composed exclusively from the inputs provided by relevant experts andcountry representatives from that field, within the IGU 5.3 Study Group. Inputs were provided throughthe replies on a distributed Questionnaire.
Therefore, SWOC analysis described bellow, reflects solely the view of this group of relevantexperts (from natural gas, biomethane and automotive sector).
If we observe the answers solely, main STRENGTH of the use of natural gas in automotivesector is favourable price difference and the fact that natural gas (and biomethane) is environmentallyfriendly fuels (with the highest share between 14 and 17% in the total sample).
Large domestic gas resources are on the third place, followed by subsidies or favourable taxregime, Government and/or municipality support and developed (and/or growing) distribution network.Once again, it is important to point out that these results are based on the available sample.
Grouping answers into suitable categories leads to same conclusions. On the first place isfavourable price difference followed by ecology and existing experience with natural gas utilization intransport. Security of supply and long term increase of oil products prices are on fourth place (as anadditional long term potential). Experts were more oriented on the situation that exists today, and mainstrengths to develop NGV market today are favourable price difference, pollution problems andexisting experience and/or some stage of development of NGV (or natural gas as a whole) marketalready achieved.
It is interesting to see that, what is the strength in one country might be the weakness in othercountry, and also the fact that weakness (like the absence of governmental support) which might be inone case an obstacle or even stop the further development of NGV projects (market) might easilyprovide a strong impetus if the governmental support is achieved. Obtained results are illustratingsuch a trend pointing out the importance of such drivers in positive or negative side. If one driver ismissing, it might almost stop the development, but on the other hand, in large and developed marketsit was obviously present.
The conclusion is that above mentioned drivers are present in developed markets or inmarkets with fast development (respondents from the markets / countries with slower developmenthad not filled this field in the Questionnaire with lot of data, but filled other fields like Weaknesses orChallenges, so this represents mostly the view of more developed markets, and the more precise termwould be “success factors” instead of “key drivers”).
As stated above (in other markets), main WEAKNESSES (observed solely) are (still) highcosts of fuelling stations and limited offer (or lack of offer) of OEM vehicles, scarcity of CNG fuellingstations (partially as a consequence of its high costs) and high initial costs of vehicles. Obviously,room for additional costs reduction should be found. Then come lack of national policy and lack offinancial support (subsidies or tax reductions).
Conclusions are somewhat different if answers are grouped into suitable groups. Thenunfavourable stockholder’s perception comes in first place, followed (with little difference) by lack ofinfrastructure and equipment (and/or vehicles) supply and then costs (on the third place) followed bycompetition of other fuels and unfavourable fiscal policy and financing. On the end of the line aretechnical drawbacks and security of supply (in the sense of international dependency of natural gassupply). While analyzing strengths, the conclusion was made that favourable price difference is mainstrength today and environmental concerns are strong, but somewhat potential driver.
93
SWOC STRENGTHS
1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4%2,8% 2,8% 2,8% 2,8% 2,8% 2,8% 2,8% 2,8%
4,2%
6,9% 6,9% 6,9%8,3%
13,9%
16,7%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
18%
NG
V as
a s
trate
gic
proj
ect
Larg
e N
GV
park
or i
nfra
stru
ctur
e (fi
lling
stat
ions
) dev
elop
ed
Cus
tom
erfr
iend
ly fi
nanc
ial p
atte
rns
EU G
reen
pap
er g
oals
for
yea
r 201
0 an
d 20
20
Hig
h ga
solin
e an
d/or
die
sel p
rices
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utes
to im
prov
e en
ergy
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urity
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tribu
tes
to im
prov
e th
e ba
lanc
e of
of t
he li
quid
fue
lssu
pply
Nat
ural
gas
pric
ing
and
avai
labi
lity
is n
ot d
irect
ly a
ffect
ed b
yO
PEC
dec
issi
ons
Cre
ates
inve
stm
ent f
easi
bilit
y to
exp
and
the
gas
dist
ribut
ion
netw
ork
for
othe
r sec
tors
(res
iden
tial e
tc.)
NG
fillin
g st
atio
ns
high
er p
rofit
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an g
asol
ine
on s
tatio
ns
Inte
grat
ing
biog
as is
pos
sibl
e
Gen
eral
acc
epta
nce
for n
atur
al g
as
Long
exp
erie
nce
with
NG
Vs.
Expo
rt op
portu
nitie
s fo
r liq
uid
fuel
s.
Avai
labi
lity
of O
EMs
Com
mitm
ent i
n bu
ildin
g up
CN
G in
frast
ruct
ure
by g
as a
nd/o
roi
l com
pani
es
Sta
ndar
ds a
nd le
gal b
ackg
roun
d av
aila
ble
Larg
e ga
s re
sour
ces
wor
ldw
ide
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y m
anuf
actu
rers
act
ive
on d
omes
tic m
arke
t
Dev
elop
ed (a
nd/o
r gro
win
g) d
istri
butio
n ne
twor
k
Gov
ernm
ent a
nd/o
r mun
icip
ality
sup
port
Subs
idie
s or
favo
rabl
e ta
x re
gim
e
Larg
e do
mes
tic g
as re
sour
ces
Air
qual
ity (e
nviro
nmen
taly
frie
ndly
fue
l)
Favo
urab
le p
rice
diffe
renc
e
5%
Picture 63 – NGV market SWOC Analysis Strengths
94
Table 10 – SWOC Analysis – STRENGTHS – Country by country overview
Africa Asia Pacific Europe South America
STRENGTHSTotal Al
geria
Egyp
t
Iran
Mal
aysi
a
Aust
ria
Belg
ium
Croa
tia
Den
mar
k
Ger
man
y
Finl
and
Fran
ce
Italy
Mac
edon
ia
Net
herla
nds
Pola
nd
Rus
sia
Spa
in
Swed
en
Switz
erla
nd
Arge
ntin
a
Braz
il
Chile
Subsidies, pricing and/ or customer friendly financing 20Favourable price difference 14Subsidies or favourable tax regime 5Customerfriendly financial patterns 1Experience with NGV and/or developed / mature (gas/NGV) market 15Developed (and/or growing) distribution network 5Many manufacturers active on domestic market 3Long experience with NGVs 2Availability of OEMs 2Standards and legal background available 2Large NGV park or infrastructure (filling stations) developed 1Ecology 15Air quality (environmentally friendly fuel) 12Integrating biogas is possible 3Pricing and security of supply 12Large domestic gas resources 6Large gas resources worldwide 2High gasoline and/or diesel prices 1Contributes to improve energy security 1Contributes to improve the balance of the liquid fuels supply 1Natural gas pricing and availability is not directly affected by OPECdecisions
1Governmental support or (strategic) national policy 8Government and/or municipality support 5NGV as a strategic project 1EU Green paper goals for year 2010 and 2020 2Nongovernmental support 4General acceptance for natural gas 2Commitment in building up CNG infrastructure by gas and/or oil companies 2Business opportunities 4Export opportunities for liquid fuels. 2Creates investment feasibility to expand the gas distribution network forother sectors
1NG filling stations higher profits than gasoline on stations 1
95
SWOC WEAKNESSES
1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1%
2,2% 2,2% 2,2% 2,2% 2,2%
3,3% 3,3% 3,3% 3,3% 3,3% 3,3%
4,4% 4,4% 4,4% 4,4%
5,6% 5,6%
6,7%
8,9%
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
Mar
ket l
imite
d to
ligh
t an
d m
ediu
m v
ehic
les
Not
app
licab
le to
die
sels
Tax
redu
ctio
n ne
cess
ary
for c
ompe
titio
n po
ssib
ility
Stro
ng o
il lo
bby
Stro
ng e
than
ol p
oliti
cal l
obbi
es
Stro
ng h
ydro
elec
tric
polit
ical
lobb
ies
No
dom
estic
man
ufac
turin
g of
ligh
t ste
el c
ylin
ders
or
CN
G fi
lling
sta
tions
No
serv
ice
stat
ion
prov
idin
g co
nver
sion
s to
nat
ural
gas
Old
mar
ket (
old
stan
dard
s).
Fluc
tuat
ing
exch
ange
rate
.
Scar
city
of
land
.
Rel
ativ
e bi
g co
mpr
esso
r di
men
sion
in p
oten
tial t
radi
ng a
reas
.
Lack
of g
over
nmen
tal d
ecla
ratio
ns c
once
rnin
g C
NG
pric
e st
abilit
y in
the
long
run
Low
er ta
xatio
n on
LPG
Few
sal
es c
tiviti
es b
y lo
cal c
ar d
eale
rs
Publ
ic p
erce
ptio
n of
dis
adva
ntag
es o
f NG
Vs
som
etim
es to
o pe
sim
istic
Hig
h op
erat
ing
cost
s fo
r mot
herd
augh
ter s
tatio
ns
Gov
ernm
ent m
ore
favo
rabl
e to
bio
fue
ls
NG
V fil
ling
stat
ions
ow
ned
by o
il co
mpa
nies
Inte
rnat
iona
l dep
ende
ncy
of n
atur
al g
as s
uppl
y
LDVs
are
alo
wed
to
conv
ert t
o C
NG
onl
y if
they
are
mos
t 5
year
s ol
d
Lack
of s
mal
l com
pres
sor f
or s
mal
ler
appl
icat
ions
Hea
vier
sto
rage
requ
ired
Wea
k m
arke
ting
activ
ities
No
lead
ersh
ip b
y ex
ampl
e.
Stro
ng L
PG c
ompe
titio
n
Few
refu
elin
g st
atio
ns o
n m
otor
way
s an
d tra
nsit
rout
es
Hig
h le
vel o
f com
petit
ion
from
die
sel
Gas
olin
e an
d di
esel
hav
e a
stab
le p
ositi
on
Pub
lic tr
ansp
ort c
ompa
nies
faile
d to
rec
ogni
ze n
atur
al g
as a
s a
tran
spor
t fue
l
Com
plic
ated
regu
latio
n or
Gov
ernm
enta
l con
trol
Poo
r pub
lic a
war
enes
s
Gov
ernm
ent a
nd/o
r mun
icip
ality
fai
led
to re
cogn
ize
natu
ral g
as a
s a
trans
port
fuel
Low
er ta
xatio
n or
sub
sidi
es o
n di
esel
Lack
of s
uppo
rt by
nat
iona
l pol
icy
so fa
r
Lack
of p
ipel
ine
infra
stru
ctur
e
Lack
of f
inan
cial
sup
port
(sub
sidi
es o
r tax
redu
ctio
ns)
Scar
city
of C
NG
fuel
ling
stat
ions
Hig
h in
itial
cos
t of v
ehic
les
No
OE
Ms
or li
mite
d of
fer o
f OEM
s
Hig
h co
st o
f fue
lling
stat
ion
5%
Picture 64 – NGV market SWOC Analysis Weaknesses
96
Table 11 SWOC Analysis – WEAKNESESS – Country by country overviewAfrica Asia Pacific Europe South America
WEAKNESESS Tota
Alge
ria
Egyp
t
Iran
Mal
aysi
a
Aust
ria
Belg
ium
Croa
tia
Den
mar
k
Ger
man
y
Finl
and
Fran
ce
Italy
Mac
edon
ia
Pola
nd
Rus
sia
Spa
in
Swed
en
Sw
itzer
lan
d
Arge
ntin
a
Braz
il
Chile
Stakeholders perception (unfavourite) 23Lack of support by national policy so far 4Poor public awareness 4Government and/or municipality failed to recognize natural gas as a transport fuel 3Public transport companies failed to recognize natural gas as a transport fuel 3Complicated regulation or Governmental control 3No leadership by example. 2Weak marketing activities 2Public perception of disadvantages of NGVs sometimes too pessimistic 1LDVs are allowed to convert to CNG only if they are most 5 years old 1Lack of infrastructure and equipment (and/or vehicles) supply 22No OEMs or limited offer of OEMs 8Scarcity of CNG fuelling stations 5Lack of pipeline infrastructure 4Few refuelling stations on motorways and transit routes 2Few sales activities by local car dealers 1No domestic manufacturing of light steel cylinders or CNG filling stations 1No service station providing conversions to natural gas 1Costs 17High cost of fuelling station 10High initial cost of vehicles 6High operating costs for motherdaughter stations 1Competition of other fuels 13High level of competition from diesel 3Gasoline and diesel have a stable position 3Strong LPG competition 2Strong oil lobby 1Strong ethanol political lobbies 1Strong hydroelectric political lobbies 1Government more favourable to biofuels 1NGV filling stations owned by oil companies 1Fiscal policy and financing (unfavourable) 13Lower taxation or subsidies on diesel 4Lack of financial support (subsidies or tax reductions) 4Lower taxation on LPG 1Tax reduction necessary for competition possibility 1Lack of governmental declarations concerning CNG price stability in the long run 2Fluctuating exchange rate. 1Technical drawbacks 10Heavier storage required 2Market limited to light and medium vehicles 1Not applicable to diesels 1Relative big compressor dimension in potential trading areas. 1Lack of small compressor for smaller applications 1Old market (old standards). 1Scarcity of land. 1Technical system different in Europe (NGV1 not in Italy) 1Integrating NGdispenser in the fuelling station is difficult especially IT technology 1Security of supply International dependency of natural gas supply & natural gas is a fossil fuel 2
97
This conclusion is backed up with the fact that global and/or local environmental concerns areby far one of the most important OPPORTUNITIES followed by another strategic issue like long termincrease of petroleum prices.
Situation is not very different if answers are grouped into suitable groups. Then long term priceincrease and security of supply comes on the first place (as stakeholders are more sensitive on thatquestion) followed by environmental concerns.
As regards CHALLENGES answers provided by experts are more dispersed. If sole answersare observed, a major challenge is to improve availability of OEMs products followed by theimportance of convincing administration and converting their political attitudes towards NGVs (on theother hand, OEMs are seeking for more stable regulatory and fiscal environment).
As a challenge, respondents recognized also the need of broad public marketing and technicaldevelopment (improvements) of diesel engines with emission advantage diminishing and share ofdiesel cars increasing. Also, traditional orientation of customers towards petrol and diesel (and theirprices still affordable) is considered to be the challenge (instead of weakness), meaning that technicaland marketing tools are available, or will be available, to cope with such challenge.
Respondents generally do not consider use of LPG in transport sector as a large challenge.Also, high weight of cylinders or expected difficulties with vehicle conversions in the future due to newvehicle technologies (like OBD) is not considered to be the major challenge. This is probably due tothe fact that on large emerging markets (like Iran) or in countries of South America, there is a largefleet of vehicles suitable for conversion.
If answers are placed into suitable groups, the picture is somewhat similar with developmentof infrastructure and equipment (vehicles) supply in first place, followed by policy and competition withother fuels. Using this approach, role of competing fuels is somewhat higher, but again, technologyand safety are not considered to be a major challenge, meaning probably that to change politicalattitudes towards NGVs represents much bigger challenge then to improve technology. On the otherhand, a question is, if marketing is not considered to be a challenge, and it represents a tool toinfluence on public opinion, why such a tool is not more widely used.
98
SWOC OPPORTUNITIES
1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9%
3,8% 3,8%
5,8% 5,8% 5,8%
7,7% 7,7%
9,6%
17,3%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
18%
20%
Poss
ibilt
y of
a jo
int
vent
ure
with
pet
role
um s
tatio
ns
Dua
l Die
sel /
CN
G e
ngin
es
Incr
ease
in in
dust
ry d
eman
d fo
r liq
uid
fuel
s
Appl
icat
ion
of a
bund
ant
natu
ral g
as re
serv
es
Hig
h po
tent
ial i
nves
tmen
t en
gage
d
LPG
pre
pare
d m
arke
t fo
r C
NG
Larg
e nu
mbe
r of
serv
ice
shop
s fo
r car
con
vers
ions
Supp
ort
of th
e N
GV
offe
r fro
m t
he m
arke
t lea
ders
has
als
o m
eant
gre
atop
portu
nitie
s fo
r ot
her
bran
ds
Pos
sibl
e go
vern
men
t le
gisl
atio
n fo
r pub
lic s
ervi
ces
vehi
cles
in m
ajor
citie
s to
use
CN
G
Dev
elop
men
t of m
arke
t in
priv
ate
hand
s
Tre
men
dous
opp
ortu
nity
to d
evel
op a
stro
ng C
NG
indu
stry
Dev
elop
men
t of
NG
V m
arke
t / i
nfra
stru
ctur
e in
sur
roun
ding
cou
ntrie
s
Lim
ited
oil r
efin
ing
capa
city
Eth
anol
pric
es f
luct
uatio
n as
a fu
nctio
n of
sea
sona
l har
vest
er a
nd s
ugar
inte
rnat
iona
l pric
es
Lim
ited
etha
nol s
tora
ge c
apac
ity
Dom
estic
app
licat
ion
oppo
rtun
ity w
ith V
RA
s
Envi
ronm
enta
l leg
isla
tion
C
NG
and
LPG
veh
icle
s ar
e ex
empt
fro
m "
Eco
test
ing"
Fre
e fr
om w
him
sica
l oil
pric
e
Secu
rity
of e
nerg
y su
pply
New
veh
icle
s se
gmen
ts e
.g.
fleet
s, p
rivat
e ca
rs, g
over
nmen
tal v
ehic
les
Stra
tegy
of s
ubst
itutio
n of
pet
role
um p
rodu
cts
by C
NG
(Ta
rget
202
0 et
c.)
Mile
ston
e on
the
road
to th
e H
2 so
ciet
y
Com
bine
d us
e of
nat
ural
gas
and
bio
gas
Gov
ernm
enta
l sup
port
Long
ter
m p
etro
leum
pric
es in
crea
se
Glo
bal /
loca
l env
ironm
enta
l con
cern
s
5%
Picture 65 – NGV market SWOC Analysis Opportunities
99
Table 12 SWOC Analysis – OPPORTUNITIES – Country by country overview
Africa Asia Pacific Europe South
America
OPPORTUNITIES
Total Al
geria
Egyp
t
Iran
Mal
aysi
a
Aust
ria
Croa
tia
Den
mar
k
Ger
man
y
Finl
and
Fran
ce
Italy
Mac
edon
ia
Pola
nd
Swed
en
Switz
erla
nd
Arge
ntin
a
Braz
il
Chile
(long term) Pricing and security of supply 19Long term petroleum prices increase 5Strategy of substitution of petroleum products by CNG (Target 2020 etc.) 3Milestone on the road to the H2 society 3Security of energy supply 3Free from whimsical oil price 2Increase in industry demand for liquid fuels 1Application of abundant natural gas reserves 1Limited oil refining capacity 1Ecology 14Global / local environmental concerns 9Combined use of natural gas and biogas 4Environmental legislation CNG and LPG vehicles are exempt from "Ecotesting" 1Governmental (and stakeholders) support 8New vehicles segments e.g. fleets, private cars, governmental vehicles 3Possible government legislation for public services vehicles in major cities to useCNG
1Governmental support 4Business opportunities 8Development of market in private hands 1Tremendous opportunity to develop a strong CNG industry 2Support of the NGV offer from the market leaders has also meant greatopportunities for other brands
1Possibility of a joint venture with petroleum stations 1Domestic application opportunity with VRAs 1High potential investment engaged 1As biogas: potential for the farmers 1Utilization of existing infrastructure 4Large number of service shops for car conversions 1Development of NGV market / infrastructure in surrounding countries 1LPG prepared market for CNG 1Dual Diesel / CNG engines 1Relations with other fuels 2Ethanol prices fluctuation as a function of seasonal harvester and sugarinternational prices
1Limited ethanol storage capacity 1
100
SWOC CHALLENGES
1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4% 1,4%
2,9% 2,9% 2,9% 2,9% 2,9% 2,9% 2,9% 2,9% 2,9%
4,3% 4,3%
5,7% 5,7% 5,7% 5,7%
7,1% 7,1%
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
OE
M a
nd o
il co
mpa
nies
do
not
coop
erat
e
App
licat
ion
of R
&D
fun
ds t
o no
n tra
ditio
nal p
rodu
cts
Intr
oduc
e ne
w d
iese
l con
vers
ion
tech
nolo
gy
Hig
h w
eigh
t of
cyl
inde
r
Ful
l ser
vice
(mul
tifu
el:
CN
G +
LP
G +
gas
olin
e +
dies
el +
car
was
h +
NG
V m
aint
enan
ce/c
onve
rsio
n sh
op)
stat
ions
are
nee
ded
Ret
rofit
veh
icle
s (s
till n
eces
sary
) m
ore
and
mor
e di
fficu
lt to
do
beca
use
of
tech
nolo
gy a
nd n
orm
ativ
e dr
awba
cks
(e.g
.: O
BD
)
Att
ract
new
bus
ines
s se
gmen
ts t
o C
NG
(e.
g. p
rivat
e, d
iese
l...)
To
deve
lop
gas
netw
ork
Con
sist
ent
fuel
pric
ing
all o
ver
the
coun
try
Dev
elop
men
t of
cus
tom
erf
riend
ly f
inan
cial
pat
tern
s
OE
Ms
to p
rodu
ce b
ifue
l veh
icle
s
To
redu
ce d
ista
nces
on
refu
ellin
g st
atio
ns
Ado
ptio
n of
nat
iona
l NG
V le
gisl
atio
n
Util
isat
ion
of b
iom
ass
reso
urce
s
Con
stan
t di
spla
y of
tec
hnol
ogic
al a
dvan
cem
ents
of
clea
n C
NG
tech
nolo
gies
Obt
ain
Gov
ernm
ent
ince
ntiv
es f
or N
GV
s eq
ual t
o th
ose
give
n to
bio
fu
els
To
mak
e sa
fe c
onve
rsio
ns
To
fulfi
ll fu
ture
env
ironm
enta
l sta
ndar
ds E
UR
O I
V an
d E
UR
O V
Cre
ate
econ
omic
al c
ondi
tions
for
pub
lic f
uelli
ng s
tatio
ns
Bel
ief
in H
2 /
fuel
cel
l det
ract
s fr
om N
GV
ben
efits
(co
mm
unic
atio
n,pu
blic
rel
atio
ns a
nd m
arke
ting
effo
rt)
Opt
imiz
e ec
onom
ics
of C
NG
fue
lling
sta
tion
Fav
orab
le C
NG
pric
e co
mpa
red
to p
etro
l and
die
sel
Ens
urin
g a
cons
tant
CN
G p
rice
in lo
ngt
erm
per
iod
Lack
of
afte
r sa
le s
uppo
rts
and
serv
ices
for
CN
G v
ehic
les
and
stat
ions
Loca
l man
ufac
ture
of
com
pone
nts
( kits
, co
mpr
esso
rs .
....)
Glo
bal n
atio
nal g
as in
dust
ry s
uppo
rt la
ckin
g (lo
w r
etur
n on
inve
stm
ents
)
Stro
ng L
PG
net
wor
k an
d m
arke
ting
Fut
ure
deve
lopm
ent o
f co
des,
sta
ndar
ds a
nd f
isca
l sch
emes
will
thu
sco
ntin
ue t
o ha
ve a
larg
e im
pact
on
resp
ectiv
e ve
hicl
e de
man
ds
Obt
ain
Gov
ernm
ent
ince
ntiv
es t
o st
imul
ate
dies
el d
ispl
acem
ent w
ithna
tura
l gas
Pub
lic t
rans
port
com
pani
es lo
ve a
ffai
r with
die
sel
Reg
iona
l dis
trib
utio
n of
the
CN
G r
efue
lling
stat
ion
netw
ork
(plu
sco
rrid
ors,
hig
hway
s…)
Die
sel e
ngin
es m
oder
nize
s, e
mis
sion
adv
anta
ge d
imin
ishe
s, s
hare
of
dies
el c
ars
incr
easi
ng
Con
stru
ctio
ns o
f ne
w C
NG
sta
tions
Cus
tom
ers
tradi
tiona
lly c
omfo
rtab
le w
ith p
etro
l and
die
sel (
pric
e st
illaf
ford
able
)
Bro
ad p
ublic
mar
ketin
g
To
impr
ove
avai
labi
lity
of O
EM
s pr
oduc
ts
Con
vinc
ing
adm
inis
trat
ion
and
conv
ertin
g th
eir
polit
ical
att
itude
s to
war
dsN
GVs
5%
Picture 66 – NGV market SWOC Analysis Challenges
101
Table 13 SWOC Analysis – CHALLENGES – Country by country overviewAfrica Asia Pacific Europe South America
CHALENGES Total
Alge
ria
Egyp
t
Iran
Mal
aysi
a
Aust
ria
Croa
tia
Den
mar
k
Ger
man
y
Finl
and
Fran
ce
Italy
Mac
edon
ia
Pola
nd
Rus
sia
Swed
en
Switz
erla
nd
Arge
ntin
a
Braz
il
Chile
Development of infrastructure and equipment (vehicles) supply 19To improve availability of OEMs products 5Constructions of new CNG stations 4Regional distribution of the CNG refuelling station network (plus corridors, highways… ) 3Local manufacture of components (kits, compressors .....) 2Lack of after sale supports and services for CNG vehicles and stations 2OEMs to produce bifuel vehicles 1To develop gas network 1Full service (CNG+LPG+gasoline+diesel+car wash+NGV maintenance/conversion shop) 1Policy 15Convincing administration and converting their political attitudes towards NGVs 6Ensuring a constant CNG price in longterm period 3Obtain Government incentives to stimulate diesel displacement with natural gas 2Consistent fuel pricing all over the country 1Adoption of national NGV legislation 1Obtain Government incentives for NGVs equal to those given to biofuels 1Competition of other fuels 13Customers traditionally comfortable with petrol and diesel (price still affordable) 4Diesel engines modernizes, emission advantage diminishes, share of diesel carsincreasing
4Public transport companies love affair with diesel 3Strong LPG network and marketing 2Business opportunities 7Global national gas industry support lacking (low return on investments) 2Future development of codes, standards and fiscal schemes will continue to impactvehicle demands
2OEM and oil companies do not cooperate 1Application of R&D funds to non traditional products 1Attract new business segments to CNG (e.g. private, diesel...) 1Technology and safety 7To reduce distances on refuelling stations 1Introduce new diesel conversion technology 1High weight of cylinder 1Application of R&D funds to non traditional products 1To make safe conversions 1Retrofit vehicles (still necessary) conversion more technology and normativedrawbacks (e.g.: OBD)
1Unify the fuelling system (NGV1) all over Europe (or even better: the world) 1Marketing 7Broad public marketing 5Constant display of technological advancements of clean CNG technologies 1Belief in H2 / fuel cell detracts from NGV benefits (communication, public relations andmarketing effort)
1Costs 3Optimize economics of CNG fuelling station 2Create economical conditions for public fuelling stations 1Pricing and financing 3Favourable CNG price compared to petrol and diesel 2Development of customerfriendly financial patterns 1Ecology 2To fulfil future environmental standards EURO IV and EURO V 1Utilization of biomass resources 1
102
4. SCENARIO MATRIX FOR FURTHER “METHANE FOR VEHICLES”MARKET DEVELOPMENT
Based on studied cases, trends and SWOC analysis, and results from established Technicaldata base about state of the art technologies used in each specific market worldwide, IGU S.G 5.3members and experts and ENGVA/IANGV experts and consultants discussed and developed scenariomatrix for expected market development and commercialization.
Developed scenarios are covering worldwide development separately for CNG, LNG, biomethane and hydrogen produced from natural gas.
Produced spreadsheets include expected market development, technology developments(equipment supply), fuelling infrastructure development and Government activities (legislation andregulation) in 3 phases: market development phase (2005 – 2015), mainstreaming phase (20152025)and market sustainability phase (2025 … ).
As regards geographical distribution of observed NGV markets, the Middle East region isanalysed separately (and not as part of AsiaPacific region in this case) and includes oil producingcountries in Persian Gulf region. In other cases, geographical distribution used here corresponds todistribution used in Chapter describing results of Trend Analysis.
103
Table 14 – Scenario matrix – CNG: Market development and commercialization
PHASE MARKET DEVELOPMENT EQUIPMENT SUPPLY(TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT)
FUELLING INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELOPMENT GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES (LEG/REG)
MARKETDEVELOPMENTPHASE
(2005 – 2015)
• Rising price of world oil. Question of security of supply and negative influence of increasingoil prices on national economy.
EUROPE
• Western Europe: Several WE strong markets surge forward (Italy, Germany, France,Sweden, Austria, Switzerland, etc.) establishing NGV 'leadership' with commuter vehiclesand fleets including: vans, buses, taxis, garbage trucks etc. • Majority of other WesternEurope markets establish NGV foundation conditions, especially fleets (5 + vehicles,municipal buses).
• Eastern European and SE markets develop basic NGV programs (progress suffers fromlack of financial capital).
• Offroad applications reach 12% of NGV markets.
RUSSIA and the C.I.S.
• Strong development, increase in volumes of gas sold, higher utilization (load factor) ofexisting infrastructure and development of new filling infrastructure.
• Start of pilot Blue corridors (routes: Helsinki – St. Petersburg – Moscow, Moscow – Minsk –Warsaw – Berlin, Berlin – Rome) and other links (extensions) within the countries in theregion.
SOUTH AMERICA
• Strong market leaders are Argentina and Brazil. Other South American countriesestablished NGV foundation conditions and started CNG projects targeting primary privatecars owners and taxi drivers (problem with subsidized diesel fuel).
• Friendly financing schemes introduced.
• Start of pilot Blue corridor: Santiago de Chile – Rio de Janeiro.
NORTH AMERICA
• United States: strong markets are California and Texas. Positive trends due to increasingconsiderations about oil prices and security of supply but gasoline hybrids and hydrogenhave captured media and policy focus. Federal NGV incentives and rising oil prices motivatefleet market but the commuter market is constrained by the lack of OEM NGVs. Rigorousnew environmental standards regarding ozone, particulates, sulphur in diesel and HD NOxincreased the market (hybrids not seen as the long term solution to the problem).
MIDDLE EAST
• Strong commitment to CNG and market expansion in Iran as a market leader (problemswith huge consumption of fuel products, export of crude oil but import of petroleum productsdue to lack of refining capacities, reduction of gas flaring, saving crude oil for export).
ASIAPACIFIC REGION
• Majority of established NGV foundation conditions with the important role of Governmentsand relevant ministries aiming to increase security of supply and reduce negative influence ofincreasing oil prices on GDP and to reduce pollution in metropolitan areas.
AFRICA
• Egypt as a leader in the region with abundant gas supply and established friendly financingschemes. No NGV programs in other countries except slow progress in Algeria.
• Light Duty cars and commercial NGVsproduction in selected strong markets.
• Retrofit market very strong in SE Europe,Russia and the CIS and dominatingmarket in South America and Africa(Egypt). In Asia Pacific Region penetrationof OEMs is occurring: Japan mostly OEM,HD engines leads OEMs (China, Korea).USA – the most OEM engine and vehiclechoices of any alternative fuel.
• OBD II certification influencingaftermarket NGV conversions in NorthAmerica and EOBD issues affectingaftermarket conversions in Europe.Problems solved in time.
• OEMsupported aftermarket retrofittingLDHD vehicles
• Dualfuel concept more widely used(Latin America, Middle East etc.)
• Heavy duty natural gas engine efficiencynears diesel levels.
• Cost gap closes between diesel andnatural gas engines due to high cost ofemissions reduction in diesel and gasolinevehicles
• Qualified Vehicle Modifier (QVM)philosophy supports OEM technicaldevelopment
• OEM R&D (engines, gas fuelled hybrids,storage)
• Still main challenge to displace diesel.
• Blue corridor concepts with variousstrategies (pipelines, motherdaughter,LCNG).
• Home fuelling (commuter vehicles) entryand growth phase.
EUROPE
• Urban centers in strong Western Europeanmarkets achieved CNG penetration in 3% 7% of petrol stations. Eastern Europeanmarkets achieve limited urban penetration.
• "Blue Corridor" concept begins to take hold.
• Gas and oil industry partnerships at fuelstations develop in Western Europe andbegin in Eastern Europe. Various approachesemerge based on Italian, German and U.S.experience. 3rd party access sales throughother networks.
SOUTH AMERICA
• Continuing development of fuellinginfrastructure in South America as aconsequence of rising oil prices andexpansion of natural gas transport system(from Bolivia to Brazil, Argentina to Brazil andUruguay, new gas discoveries in Peru andBrazil).
• "Blue Corridor" concept begins to take holdin all regions
• Development of the project of integratingSouthern Cone (from Santiago de Chileacross Montevideo and Porto Alegre to SaoPaulo, Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte).
MIDDLE EAST
• Middle East – development of fillinginfrastructure in Iran as a part of NGV Masterplan.
ASIAPACIFIC REGION
• Specific country strategies will emerge
• Bus fleet station costs remain relatively high(compared to petroldiesel stations) butengineering strategies result in leveling ofcosts.
AFRICA
• Fuelling infrastructure development mostlyin Egypt.
• International collaboration on harmonization of standards.
EUROPE
• Europe: West European incentive and mandate policiesdevelop to support environmental goals (fiscal incentives;traffic exclusion policies; etc.)
• EU transport policy spreads to Eastern Europe
• Emissions regulations tighten & expand to Green HouseGases (GHG).
• Emissions trading and credit program options considered.
• Russia and the CIS – Russian lawmakers returned to oncereject federal law encouraging the use of natural gas forvehicles.
• In CIS – price difference is the main key driver.
SOUTH AMERICA
• South America – Governmental support of CNG on the sideof establishment the specifications and regulatory standards,favorable price differential is key driver.
NORTH AMERICA
• U.S.: Federal NGV incentive legislation passed in 2005.Rigorous new environmental standards regarding ozone andparticulates sulphur in diesel and HD NOx.
• California continues to lead in strict air pollution controls.
MIDDLE EAST
• Middle East – NGV Master plan for Iran.
ASIAPACIFIC REGION
• AsiaPacific region: NGV development supported byGovernment and relevant ministries (i.e. Government policiesabout promotion of NGVs in Pakistan, Policy Package for theestablishment of CNG activities in Bangladesh, Hon´ble HighCourt in Mumbai and Supreme Court in New Delhi – Indiamandating conversion to clean fuels, NGV program governedby the Government and National Energy Policy Committee inThailand, Natural Gas Vehicle Program for Public Transportissued by Government on Philippines, “Countrywide CleanVehicle Action” and 5year plans issued by Government ofChina, market penetration target of 1 million NGVs in 2010 setby Japanese government etc.)
• Concern about air pollution in cities
AFRICA
• Egypt – Petroleum Ministry catalyst of the CNGcommercialization process (also, set up safety standards forconversions and filling stations). No improvements in Africaexcept Egypt.
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Scenario matrix – CNG: Market development and commercialization continue
PHASE MARKET DEVELOPMENT EQUIPMENT SUPPLY(TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT)
FUELLING INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELOPMENT
GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES(LEG/REG)
MAINSTREAMINGPHASE
(2015 – 2025)
• Rising price of world oil, question of security of supply.
• Complete vehicle diversification, all applications (like offroadapplications).
• Regional saturation of fuelling infrastructure.
EUROPE
• Natural gas bus market grows to 3050% of bus market (new buses).
• Established main "Blue Corridors" – routes: Helsinki – St. Petersburg –Moscow, Moscow – Minsk – Warsaw – Berlin, Berlin – Rome).
• Additional “Blue Corridors” developing (i.e. route ParisZurichViennaBudapestPlovdiv IstambulAnkara).
• Western Europe: Strong markets achieve 10% targets for most vehicles:commuter and fleet vehicles. Other Western European markets advancetoward targets.
• Eastern European markets surge due to price differential in fuel supplies.(petrol/ diesel/natural gas). Focus on all vehicles.
•RUSSIA and the C.I.S. – further market expansion to medium and heavyduty sector and offroad applications.
SOUTH AMERICA
• Further expansion of LDVs, further market extension from LD (personalcars and taxis) to HD sector (trucks and buses) and partial displacement ofdiesel.
• Finished integration of Southern Cone “Blue Corridor” from Santiago deChile across Montevideo and Porto Alegre to Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiroand Belo Horizonte.
• South American market becoming interesting for OEMs.
NORTH AMERICA
•United States – development of the sector of commuter vehicles (due toexpansion of home fuelling units) and HD sector (new fuel/engineregulations increased costs of using diesel.).
•MIDDLE EAST – NGV development in Iran spreading to neighboring (oilproducing) countries.
•ASIAPACIFIC REGION – further market development governed by thehigh oil prices. Further expansion to HD sector (trucks, garbage trucks andbuses).
•AFRICA – positive experiences from NGV programs in Egypt gainedmomentum for NGV projects in North Africa.
• Western and Eastern European light duty andheavy duty OEMs incorporate NGV production tomeet demand growth. Cost gap with petroldeclines to similar levels in some cases.
• Conversion technologies advance but servenonEuropean markets.
• If hybrid vehicles take hold (expand), increasedproduction of NGVhybrids.
• Advances in petrol and diesel technologies(electronic control technologies, combustiontechnologies, variable compression ratios etc.)benefit NGVs.
• OEM entrydedicated vehicles.
• Offroad vehicles more widely adopted (boats,trains etc.).
• Large volume production reduces costs ofsome components making NGVs cheaper.
• Improved storage system designs and engineimprovements
• Technologies like ANG – Adsorbed • NaturalGas for onboard natural gas storage in pilotphase.
• In Western Europe CNG stations expand to widerurban metro areas in strong markets; 1015% saturation.East European CNG fuelling strong in urban centres (57%); H.D. fuelling facilities grow in corridors. Createchart on number of fuelling stations and capacity offuelling stations in time.
• Established main "Blue Corridors" – routes: Helsinki –St. Petersburg – Moscow, Moscow – Minsk – Warsaw –Berlin, Berlin – Rome).
• Additional “Blue Corridors” developing (i.e. route ParisZurichViennaBudapestPlovdivIstambulAnkara).
• Finished integration of Southern Cone “Blue Corridor”in South America.
• LNG stations & LCNG follows CNG success, especiallywhere gas infrastructure is not developed.
• Motherdaughter concept (virtual pipelines) still widelyused
• Technologies like ANG – Adsorbed Natural Gas for offboard natural gas storage in pilot phase.
• Improved storage system concepts.
• R&D on storage system components.
• Home fuelling (commuter vehicles) is increasing.
• Complete standards development.
• Continued international collaboration onharmonization of standards.
• Mandatory fleet conversions.
• Fiscal incentives gradually reduce asmarket growth strengthens. Focus movesfrom CNG to biomethane and H2
• Emissions regulation of nanoparticulates & other previouslyunregulated pollutants; emissions tradingsystems develop.
• Strategic transport policy planning nowpopular.
105
Scenario matrix – CNG: Market development and commercialization –continue
PHASE MARKET DEVELOPMENT EQUIPMENT SUPPLY(TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT)
FUELLING INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELOPMENT GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES (LEG/REG)
MARKETSUSTAINABILITY(2025 ...
• European national or subregional marketsapproach and/or achieve fleet and commutertargets.• Strong resale market fully developed.• OEM vehicles introduced widely in South America.• Further market development in Middle East andNorth Africa with Iran and Egypt as market leaders.• U.S. (North America) and AsiaPacific region further development of HD market and commutermarket.• Further expansion of commuter vehicles marketincluding accepted concept of home fuelling.• Marine and rail heavy duty engines option andanother offroad applications spreading widely.• Filling stations network forming around established“Blue corridors”.
• Advanced storage systems in commercialphase.• Achieved mainstream production levels ofLDVs and HDVs by OEMs.• Marine and rail heavy duty engines andother offroad options widely available.
• Europe: Strong country markets active with 1525% CNGsaturation; others achieve 1015% but growth is rapid.• Improved storage system concepts in commercial stage.• Filling stations network forming around established “Bluecorridors”.• Home fuelling concept widely accepted and standardsdeveloped.
• Standards and regulatory structures in place.• Fuel taxing mechanisms.• Fiscal incentives shift to H2
•Broad, fuelneutral clean vehicle policies &strategies widespread, to achieve multifuelbalance.• Use of alternative fuels in (public) transportincreases steadily.
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Table 15 – Scenario matrix – LNG: Market development and commercialization
PHASE MARKET DEVELOPMENT EQUIPMENT SUPPLY(TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT)
FUELLING INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELOPMENT
GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES(LEG/REG)
MARKET DEVELOPMENTPHASE(2005 – 2015)
• LNG trading is growing rapidly.• Japan and U.S. major importers of LNG.• Number of LNG terminals still rather limited.• Planning of a high number of smaller LNGterminals• LNG used in HD sector primarily in U.S. andU.K. with development progressing in Russia(including offroad sector). Offroad applicationsalso in Norway and start in South America• Establishment of pilot “Blue corridor” in Europeusing LNG/LCNG stations (route: Helsinki – St.Petersburg – Moscow).• Alternative liquefaction technologies indevelopment stage (medium (20 000 – 100 000tonsyear) and small scale (up to 20 000tons/year)). Landfill gas liquefaction as aprocess of biogas upgrading and purification.
• Only a limited number of LNG vehicles (mainlytrucks) in service.• HD CNG vehicles have reached a high degreeof sophistication.• LD LNG vehicles have not yet reached fulltechnical maturity.
• LNG stations & LCNG exists but not widelyused.• LNG used in HD sector primarily in USA andUK, but: establishment of pilot “Blue corridor” inEurope using LNG/LCNG stations (route: Helsinki– St. Petersburg – Moscow).
• Incentives for natural gas on some markets(i.e. U.S), but few policies favor LNG instead ofCNG.• Japanese and U.S LNG vehicle standards areunder development. Attempts in Europe toduplicate those efforts.
MAINSTREAMING PHASE(2015 – 2025)
• Europe, Russia and the CIS, USA: LNG,marine and rail (and other offroad) applicationsexpand significantly.• LNG growth continues.• New large LNG terminals are being built.• Alternative liquefaction technologies in pilotstage
• Technologies like ANG – Adsorbed NaturalGas for onboard natural gas storage in pilotphase (possible reduction of market share forLNG).• HD LNG vehicles become increasinglycompetitive with diesel• Limited potential for light LNG vehicles – usemainly for HD vehicles.
• LNG stations & LCNG follows CNG success,especially where gas infrastructure is notdeveloped.• Technologies like ANG – Adsorbed Natural Gasfor offboard natural gas storage in pilot phase.• GastoLiquids (GTL technologies) mightcompete with LNG in utilization of remote gasfields and stranded (associated) gas – in pilotphase.
• Countries pressured to adopt Kyotoliketargets.• Development of standards for automotive LNGpartially within the process of creating unifiedgaseous fuels standards.
MARKET SUSTAINABILITY(2025 ...
• LNG growth continues alternative liquefactiontechnologies become increasingly competitive.• LNG becomes increasingly important for theenergy supply.• Europe, Russia and the CIS, USA: LNG,marine and rail (and other offroad) applicationsexpand significantly.
• LNG still dominant in HD sector, loweringshare of diesel esp. in U.S. (new fuel/engineregulation increased costs of using diesel.).New “Blue corridors” introduced mainly for HDvehicles.
• Technologies like ANG – Adsorbed NaturalGas for onboard natural gas storage possiblereduction of market share for LNG.
• Europe: LNG up to 10% of NGV market share.• New “Blue corridors” introduced mainly for HDvehicles.• LCNG stations supporting “virtual pipelines”.• Technologies like ANG – Adsorbed Natural Gasfor offboard natural gas storage in pilot phase(possible reduction of market share for LNG).• GTL technologies competing LNG in utilizationof remote gas fields and stranded (associated)gas.
• Development of standards for automotive LNGpartially within the process of creating unifiedgaseous fuels standards.
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Table 16 – Scenario matrix – BIOMETHANE: Market development and commercialization
PHASE MARKET DEVELOPMENT EQUIPMENT SUPPLY(TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT)
FUELLING INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELOPMENT GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES (LEG/REG)
MARKET DEVELOPMENT PHASE(2005 – 2015)
At the beginning of the period• Europe: biomethane supplements supplies inSweden, Switzerland, and begins in otherselected Western European markets (France,Germany, and Iceland).• Priority for cogeneration. In majority ofEuropean countries is biogas used for directcombustion or in cogeneration (CHP) units(traditionally perceived as fuel for powergeneration). Perception gradually changes.• Injection of biomethane to the gas gridsallowed in some countries.
Later on:• Role of biomethane as motor fuel growth.• Closer cooperation between biogas producers,gas industry and end users.
• Generally, technology development (engines,cylinders … ) is the same as “methane”development.
• Filling stations are in the areas of biogas plants.• In the "Mixed cities" (Europe) in some casesbiomethane and natural gas can be obtainedfrom the same dispenser, in some cases thereare separate filling stations and in some casesbiomethane is injected into the natural gas gridand sold at a filling station connected to the grid.
• Cooperation between the natural gasdistributors and the biogas producers.
• Landfill gas use only with appropriate cleanuptechnologies to meet pipeline quality (“gridcode”).
• New cost effective technologies for cleaning andupgrading biogas to biomethane beinginvestigated.
• Priority for cogeneration. In majority ofEuropean countries is biogas used for directcombustion or in cogeneration (CHP) units(traditionally perceived as fuel for powergeneration).• In Europe: No tax on biogas in Sweden andSwitzerland.• Development of standards for biomethaneused in vehicles, defining composition.• Biogas recognized as important contributor toreduced greenhouse gas effect.
MAINSTREAMING PHASE (2015– 2025)
• Europe: Biomethane dominates some markets;begins as urban and agricultural wastemanagement strategy in Western Europe.• Role of biomethane as motor fuel growth.• Growth of crude oil and petroleum productsprices reducing the gap between prices ofpetroleum products / natural gas and biomethane.
• Generally, technology development (engines,cylinders … .), is the same as “methane”development.
• Europe: “Green” biomethane integration intofuelling infrastructure growing.• New cost effective technologies for cleaning andupgrading biogas to biomethane beingdeveloped.
• Biogas recognized as important contributor toreduced greenhouse gas effect.• Countries pressured to adopt Kyotoliketargets.• Renewable energy, energy efficiency but alsosecurity of supply become increasingly important
MARKET SUSTAINABILITY(2025 ...
• Europe (and other parts of the world): Biomethane achieves fuel status in integrated urbanand rural markets.
• Generally, technology development (engines,cylinders … .) is the same as “methane”development.
• Biogas waste/water strategies see stronggrowth as legitimized part of NGV station supply.• Biomethane integrated into many fuelling grids.
• Gradual stabilization of RES growth andgradual withdrawal of policy support.
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Table 17 – Scenario matrix – HYDROGEN (PRODUCED FROM NATURAL GAS): Market development and commercialization
PHASE MARKET DEVELOPMENT EQUIPMENT SUPPLY(TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT)
FUELLING INFRASTRUCTUREDEVELOPMENT GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES (LEG/REG)
MARKET DEVELOPMENTPHASE(2005 – 2015)
• Europe, Japan: H2 vehicles, prototypes and earlyentry markets begin to develop.• Experimental fleet vehicles in specialty sites (i.e.airport; H2 distributor; bus facility).• U.S.: Hydrogen and fuel cells touted as the“answer” to oil dependence and urban emissions, butincreased recognition that NGVs are the pathway tohydrogen among critical path issues are:– Onsite hydrogen reforming of natural gas at NGVstations.– Hydrogen ready garages and other facilities.– Mechanics, inspectors, etc. experienced withgaseous fuels.– Customer experience and acceptance of gaseousfuels.• HCNG vehicles also may play a role... but U.S.National Academy of Sciences study concludes thathydrogen vehicles will not make a significant impacton petroleum use until 2050.• Most common use: blends of natural gas withhydrogen (up to 20%).
At the beginning of the period:• Early prototypes for light & heavy duty vehicles.• Reformer technologies under development;some prototypes for vehicle applications.• H2 storage systems (CH2 & LH2) developingfrom NGV systems.• Onboard CNG cylinder advances for H2 alsobenefit NGVs.
Later on:
• Specialty OEM vehicle including hybrid fuel cellvehicles in development stage.• Some light duty vehicles offered by OEMs forexperimentation/field testing• OEM RD&D continues.• Reforming technologies for multiple fuels underdevelopment; multiple technical problems stillexist.• H2 storage systems adapted & beingmanufactured in small quantities.• Most common use: blends of natural gas withhydrogen (up to 20%).
At the beginning of the period:
• Experimental, specialty stations.• Uncertainty about fuel providers as hydrogencarrier (natural gas; methanol; gasoline).• Hydrogen ‘industry’ not clearly identified.
Later on:• Fleet operations and public fuelling entry phase• Oil industry moves toward H2.
• Most common use: blends of natural gas withhydrogen (up to 20%).
At the beginning of the period:
• Developed economy countries standards inearly formative stages (U.S, Japan; Europe).• Standards frameworks created (ISO, UN, etc.) .• Strategic path to full standards forhydrogen/fuel cell vehicles.• Major funding of fundamental RD&D.
Later on:
• Equipment & Systems Standards in progress;some finalized.• Stringent emissions standards phasing in.• Regulations for zero emissions vehiclesadopted.• Incentives such as tax policies & subsidiescreated.• Funding of RD&D continues.
MAINSTREAMING PHASE(2015 – 2025)
• Europe, USA, Japan: some (low) percentages of H2vehicles in some bus, van and taxi fleets.• All fleets (light/medium/heavy duty) are candidates.• Entry commuter vehicles (urban areas).• Blends of natural gas with hydrogen considered formore wide scale application.
• Technologies like ANG – Adsorbed Natural Gasfor onboard methane storage in pilot phase –possible solution to increase range of hydrogenpowered vehicles.• Hydrogen buses in (limited) serial production.• Limited models of OEM LD vehicles in smallvolume production• Natural gas & methanol reformationtechnologies continue developing.• High pressure (600 bar) storage & LH2development & production.
• Gas reformingtoH2 systems support H2 growth.Size reduction occurs but price still high.• Public fuelling growth phase.• Home fuelling (commuter vehicle, especially aspenetration of residential fuel cells begins).• Oil & natural gas industry interests diversify intoH2.• Technologies like ANG – Adsorbed Natural Gasfor onboard methane storage in pilot phase –possible solution for stationary storage andtransport of hydrogen.
• Complete standards development.• Vehicle homologation barriers still exist.• Reduced subsidies as demonstration phasecomes to an end (toward 2025)
MARKET SUSTAINABILITY(2025 ...
• NGtoH2 achieves 12% in strong Europeanmarkets.• Fleets and commuter vehicles.• Petrol & diesel vehicles remain dominant (~75%+market share).• Blends of natural gas with hydrogen considered formore wide scale application.
• H2 technologies (light duty and heavy duty) costgap narrows but remains wide.• Multiple OEM H2 buses produced.
• Expanded public fuelling.• Expanded home fuelling for commutervehicles.• Central fuelling option remains popular for largescale fleets of buses, refuse trucks & othermunicipal vehicles.
• Industry continues to seek financial incentivesfor H2 vehicles. .
• Standards and regulatory structures in placeand in revision for new technologies (esp. fuelstations & storage technologies).• Vehicle homologation issues solved.• Fuel and vehicle taxing mechanisms in placebased upon environmental quality.
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5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSIONS:
Three principal market drivers for NGV development emerge as most important:
Economics, based upon the price differential between natural gas and petroleum fuels (petrol anddiesel) appears to be the single most important NGV market driver. NGV development is morerapid in markets where the price differential between natural gas and petroleum fuels is thegreatest (i.e. approaching 75% of the price of petrol). This seems to hold true whether the fuelprice differential is due to existing market forces or if it is due to government supported financialincentives.
Cooperation between the various stakeholders – government, vehicle and equipmentmanufacturers, the gas industry, and customers seems to strongly influence the more rapidadoption rate of NGVs.
Government involvement through a variety of policies including incentives in order topromote market penetration and development is a common requirement for NGV commercialgrowth, acceptance and sustainability. In some countries mandates to use NGVs also havecontributed to more rapid market expansion, but these seem best used when other incentives alsoare provided. Government policy makers also seem to be motivated to develop favourable policiesfor NGV due to their contribution to improving air quality, including reducing the impacts of globalwarming influences.
Based on the results of established Technical Data Base, Trend Analysis and SWOCAnalysis, coupled with expectations expressed through developed Scenario Matrix, Study Grouprepresentatives and experts concluded after discussions that following actions are necessary forsustainable market growth:
Internationalization (globalization) is one ultimate goal of NGV market development butit occurs in phases
Development of a national fuelling infrastructure (often through municipallevel fuel station growth)to foster/motivate NGV market growth.
Regionalisation and (overcoming barriers to) linking national fuel infrastructure networks.
National harmonisation of vehicle, fuelling station and related standards must occur to the highestlevels:
o United Nations regulations.
o International Standards Organisation (ISO) standards.
Vehicle technology must be of the highest possible quality to equal performance andcost of petroleum fuelled vehicles (LDVs & HDVs). For developed economy countries factorybuilt vehicles lead the market. In emerging and developing economy countries retrofit vehicleslead the market.
The ultimate aim is to be mainstreamed into the original equipment manufactured vehicletechnologies; this would include development of downstream distribution and servicing networks.
OEMs tend to focus on specific target markets/countries were there is adequate critical mass ofvehicle demand (be it demand from the commercial sector or commuter vehicle sector). Criticalmass for vehicle demand normally follows fuelling station growth patterns, which most often – butnot always – tends to be slow and transitional. Hence OEM availability tends to be slow andtransitional.
Bifuel vehicles – OEM and retrofit – continue as a necessary option to dedicated, naturalgasonlyvehicles.
110
Transition to dedicated vehicles can include optimised natural gas bifuel technologies.
Retrofit vehicles remain a necessity in many countries but quality control to maintain (and enforce)safety, performance, and emissions integrity remain as a major challenge and issue. (Adherenceto the highest international level of vehicle and fuelling station standards is essential). Fordeveloped countries, the growth of conversions is challenged by the OBD regulations and the costof certification.
Potential for the technical development of natural gas engines than for petrol and diesel engines isstill much higher due to the fact that petrol and diesel had more long term development.
Maximizing vehicle performance and range remains an issue while the market andfuelling infrastructure develops.
Lack of a widespread (national/regional) fuelling infrastructure requires bifuel methane/petrolvehicles which, as such, are not optimized for ultimate performance, emissions or range.
A consistent fuelling pressure to 200 bar (settled pressure) is required to optimize vehicle range(and satisfy consumer expectations).
Variable gas composition in some areas reduces vehicle range.
111
Based on above mentioned conclusions, recommendations to stakeholders are:
RECOMMENDATIONS:
1. Support worldwide harmonization efforts for regulations, codes and standards for NGVs (retrofitand OEM) including:
ISO standards and UN regulations ...
Fuel connectors and filling
Vehicle type approval
Regular vehicle inspections (within Europe after 4 years, thence every two years, gas systemcomponents inspected in line with ISO 19078).
Fuel measurement units and accuracy should be harmonized (and to do so, measurementunits should be in kilograms and displayed to the public in comparable fuel units i.e. GLE –gasoline litre equivalent.
Promote adoption of highest level international standards and regulations for retrofits, inparticular.
Actively promote at national and regional levels the adoption of international regulations,codes and standards because of the potential for increased safety and costs reductions.
Training also will be required to help ensure quality control and enforcement.
2. Support strategic approach to regionalization / internationalisation of fuelling infrastructure strategy(and vehicle homologation):
Grouping (Strategic Alliances) of national NGV Associations to form and promote regionalNGV Associations (and International Association for NGVs) to achieve critical mass andworldwide standardisation.
Support interlinking “Blue Corridor” concept (Europe, Russia & C.I.S., Latin America – BiOceanic Blue Corridor, Switzerland – Green corridor (support), Austria – TransAustriacorridor (support) etc).
3. Seek stakeholders’ involvement and synergy between them and develop a process to engage andinvolve all stakeholders)
4. Lobby for consistency in long term policies:
Consistent fiscal and policy instruments.
Consistent financing schemes.
Consistent non technical measures (exemptions from cordon pricing etc.).
Mandates.
5. Support awareness and growth of other ‘methane’ options including renewable biogas strategiesand use of LNG in specific niche markets and specialty applications where: 1) vehicle range is afactor and; 2) where vehicle size is compatible with large fuel storage capacities (i.e. overtheroadhaulage, marine and rail applications).
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To summarize,
In the light of constant rise of oil prices, downward trends in oil reserves and upward trends ingas reserves (hydrates?) natural gas (methane) has a tremendous opportunity to become real solution(security of supply, utilization of renewable energy sources and pathway to hydrogen) and to becometruly global (worldwide) project.
In each successful mode KEYWORDS ARE:
→ CONSISTENCY OVER TIME
→ SYNERGY BETWEEN STAKEHOLDERS
→ NATIONALIZATION / REGIONALIZATION → INTERNATIONALIZATION / GLOBALIZATION
CONCLUSIONS ANDRECOMMENDATIONS
STAKEHOLDER INVOVEMENT
SYNERGIESBETWEEN
THEM
COUNTRY MODELS(different modelssuitable for the
economy)
SOPHISTICATED(ESTABLISHED)
ECONOMIES
GROWINGECONOMIES
EMERGINGECONOMIES
POLICY ANDCOMMERCIALIZATION
PROCESS
CONSISTENCY OVER TIME
Germany vs. UK
Reduced mineraloil tax fixed up to
2020
Powershift grants– low fuel duties in
4 years window
Switzerland(Sweden)
Complete tax deductionon a (limited) production
of biogas
Egypt
Fiveyear taxholiday to eachapproved CNG
company
NorthAmerica
Other ...
MANDATES
Japan India «Iran» U.S. FleetProgram
Other ...
Financial incentives
Nonfinancial incentivesHARMONIZATION OF
STANDARDS
Fiscal instruments
NATIONAL /REGIONAL
INTEGRATION
RETROFIT
INTERNATIONAL
OEM
FUELLINGSYSTEMS
REGIONALIZATION INTERNATIONALIZATION
INTEGRATION (STRATEGIC ALLIANCES) → NATIONAL →REGIONAL → INTERNATIONAL NGV ASSOCIATIONS
FUEL INFRASTRUCTUREINTEGRATION «NATIONAL AND
REGIONAL»
Europe, Russia& C.I .S – Blue
CorridorLatin America –
BiOceanicBlue Corridor
Switzerland –Green corridor
(support)
Austria – TransAustria corridor
(support)
VEHICLES
Picture 67 – Conclusions and Recommendations Overview
During the 2006 – 2009 period the NGV Study Group shall continue its global NGV analysisand develop an Integrated Global NGV Strategy comprising some of the following elements : NGVmarket/vehicle matchup ; broadbased gap analysis of regulations, standards and codes (RCS) ;identification and/or development of decision tools and models to aid commercialisation ; identificationof fuelling station models; etc.
Also, during this next study period the NGV group shall evaluate the feasibility ofestablishing global partnerships to take advantage of the positive impacts on the transportationsector through the use of environmentally friendly fuels including natural gas, biomethane andhydrogen.
113
ABBREVIATIONSAD – Anaerobic Digestion
ADB – Asian Development Bank
AFV – Alternative Fuel Vehicle
ALGNV – Latin American Natural Gas Vehicle Association
ANG – Adsorbed Natural Gas
ANGVA – AsiaPacific Natural Gas Vehicle Association
BTL – Biomass to Liquid
C.I.S. – Commonwealth of Independent States
CH2 – Compressed Hydrogen
CLEVER – Compact Low Emission Vehicle for Urban Transport
CNG – Compressed Natural Gas
CRT – Continuously Regenerating Trap
CVT – Continuously Variable Transmission
DISC – Direct Injection Stratified Charge
DME – Dimethyl Ether
DOE – Department of Energy
DOT – Department of Transportation
EGR – Exhaust Gas Recirculation
ENGVA – European Natural Gas Vehicle Association
EPA – Environmental Protection Agency
EU – European Union
FAME – Fatty Acid Methyl Ester
FSU – Former Soviet Union
GdF – Gaz de France
GDI – Gasoline Direct Injection
GHG – green house gas
GLE – Gasoline Litre Equivalent
GTL – GastoLiquid
HDV – Heavy Duty Vehicle
HPDI – HighPressure Direct Injection
Hythane – Mixture of Hydrogen with Methane
IANGV – International Natural Gas Vehicle Association
ICE – Internal Combustion Engine
IGU – International Gas Union
ISO – International Standards Organisation
JGA – Japanese Gas Association
LCNG – LiquefiedtoCompressed Natural Gas
114
LDV – Light Duty Vehicle
LH2 – Liquefied Hydrogen
LNG – Liquefied Natural Gas
LNGV – Liquefied Natural Gas Vehicle
LPG – Liquefied Petroleum Gas
MPI – MultiPointInjection
MSR – Methane Steam Reforming
NGO – NonGovernment Organization
NGV – Natural Gas Vehicle
NGVRUS – Russian National Gas Vehicle Association
NMHC – NonMethane Hydrocarbons
OBD – OnBoardDiagnostics
OEM – Original Equipment Manufacturer
PEM – Proton Exchange Membrane
PM – Particulate Matter
PSA – Pressure Swing Adsorption
SMR – SteamMethaneReforming
SULEV – Super UltraLow Emission Vehicle
SWINGV – Swiss Initiative for Natural Gas Vehicles
SWOC – Strengths – Weaknesses – Opportunities – Challenges analysis
THC – Total Hydrocarbons
ULEV – UltraLowEmission Vehicle
VAT – Value Added Tax
VRA – Vehicle Refuelling Appliance
VVLT – Variable Valve Lift & Timing
WOC – Working Committee
115
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51. Colombo Filho, O. (November 2004). Evolution of the Brazilian program natural gas vehicular.Gas Vehicles Report, Volume 3, Number 34, Page 28
52. Maranca, F. (February 2002). Argentina is expanding its CNG bound activity in Latin America. GasVehicles Report, Volume 1, Number 1, Page 33
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59. El Ridi, Y., (February 2004). Fuel price is a key to success in Egypt. NGV Worldwide, Page 4
60. Chapel, F.,( November 2001). Egypt's clean fuel success story. NGV Worldwide, Page 8
61. Verbeek, H., (October 2004). New developments in the Netherlands. Gas Vehicles Report,Volume 3, Number 33, Page 21
62. Pronin, E., (October 2004). Russian NGV market is steadily growing. Gas Vehicles Report,Volume 3, Number 33, Page 19
63. Finch, J. (September 2004). Vision for Canadian NGV industry. Gas Vehicles Report, Volume 3,Number 32, Pa,ge 28
64. Young Qiao, W. (February 2004). NGV in China. Gas Vehicles Report, Volume 3, Number 25,Page 24,
65. Abedin, S., (September 2003). Bangladesh: A fast growing market in CNG. Gas Vehicles Report,Volume 2, Number 20, Page 28
66. Baeu, D., (August 2003). Letter with news and comments from Bulgaria. Gas Vehicles Report,Volume 2, Number 19, Page 27
67. Velchev, P., (June 2003). Bulgarian Market Opportunities. Gas Vehicles Report, Volume 2,Number 17, Page 20
68. Sohail, M., (June 2003). An approach to Pakistan NGV market. Gas Vehicles Report, Volume 2,Number 17, Page 21
69. MoonSoo, A., (January 2003). CNG Bus Promotion Policy in Korea. Gas Vehicles Report,Volume 1, Number 12, Page 17
70. Bankok Post, (December 2002). Thai Committee launches effort to promote NGVs. Gas VehiclesReport, Volume 1, Number 11
71. Bunsumpun. P, (January 2005). PTT Champions NGV: Asia hails Thailand´s energy managementmodel. Gas Vehicles Report, Volume 3, Number 36, Page 22
72. (OctoberNovember 2004). Philippines to start first gas fleet. NGW Worldwide, Page 13
73. (August 2004 ). New generation refueling in the Ukraine. NGW Worldwide, Page 11
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74. Stevanovic, A. (April 2003). The Compressed Natural Gas in Serbia. Gas Vehicles Report,Volume 2, Number 3, Page 32
75. (December 2004). Autopuniliste za komprimovani prirodni gas u Novom Sadu. Bilten Udruzenja zagas u BiH, Page 30
76. M. van Pol. (August 2003). Iran: A new CNG market starting up. Gas Vehicles Report, Number19, Page 28
77. Fielino G. de Figueiredo, J. (March 2002). NGVs in Portugal. Gas Vehicles Report, Volume 1,Number 2, Page 30
78. Gonzales Bashwitz, J. (February 2002). The situation of NGV in Spain. Gas Vehicles Report,Volume 1, Number 1, Page 24
79. Zanetta, P. (November 2003). Gaz de France & Fuel Maker to develop Natural Gas vehicle homefuelling for France. Gas Vehicles Report, Number 22, Page 20
80. (February 2001). Italy. NGV Worldwide, Page 1
81. Gas Vehicles Report – Volume 1 Number 1 February 2002
82. Heidinger, H. (November 2003). Austria: first Tyrolean natural gas refuelling station with newtechnology. Gas Vehicles Report, Number 22
83. Momeni, A., Rostamnezhad, M., Ale Ebrahim, N. (October 2004). IN THE NAME OF GOD Thebiggest experience to reduce environmental pollutants by substitute fuel CNG in the Middle East &the Middle Asia. Tousee Khodrocar Company, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
84. Houshang, A., Khaki, M.A. (October 2004). IRAN – ONE OF THE WORLD LARGEST NGVMARKET. NIOCIFCO, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
85. Purwaha, A.K., (October 2004). CNG Developments – An Indian Experience. MD, MGL, IV ExpoGNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
86. ChaiAnun, W.T., Boonchanta, P. (October 2004). Thailand NGV Updates: Technology, Marketingand Government Policy. IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
87. MunozChacon, G. (October 2004). Current state and perspectives of NGV in SantiagoChile,MetrogasChile, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
88. (October 2004). Country report – Colombia. IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
89. (July 2003). Marketing Plan for CNG Development. Uruguayan Chamber of Compressed NaturalGas, Montevideo
90. Fernandes, R. (October 2004). NGV Market Challenges in Brazil. IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires,Buenos Aires
91. Leite de Oliveira Barros Junior, F., Pereira de Gouvêa, C., (October 2004). Brazil – 25 years ofexperience in Natural Gas for Vehicles. Companhia Brasileira de Petróleo Ipiranga, IV Expo GNCin Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
92. Pronin E. (June 2005). Natural Gas Vehicles in the Commonwealth of Independent States.Gazprom, ENGVA 11th Annual European NGV Conference – Bolzano / Italy
93. Kolodziej, R. (October 2004). Status of the NGV Market in the Status of the NGV Market in theUnited States. IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
94. Stepanov, K., Andreevsky, A., (October 2004). THE BLUE CORRIDOR PROJECT Establishingin Europe NGVs transportation corridors and gas refuelling stations network. IV Expo GNC inBuenos Aires, Buenos Aires
95. Rood, M., Kolodziej, R., (October 2004). Clean Cities International: Partnerships that StrengthenNGV Markets. IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
96. Kwa niewski, K., Prugar, W., Sas, J. (October 2004). Development strategy of Polish NGVmarket. University of Science and Technology, Cracow , Poland, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires,Buenos Aires
119
97. Matic, D. (June 2005). South East Europe Strategies for NGV Success. Energy Institute HrvojePozar, ENGVA 11th Annual European NGV Conference – Bolzano / Italy
98. Crowe, P., (October 2004). A Perspective on the UK CNG Market. Gardner Denver, IV Expo GNCin Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
99. Gozzi, G., Gaudio, R. (October 2004). Italy: Pioneers and Leaders The Italian strategy towardalternative fuels. Consorzio NGV System Italy, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
100. Ignacio de Urraza, J. (October 2004). Use of NGV motors in Public Transport. MetroGAS SA,IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
101. Seifert, M., Lanfranchi, S., SWINGV – Swiss Initiative for Natural Gas Vehicles. Swiss Gasand Water Industry Association, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
102. Klein, G., (October 2004). Natural Gas in Marine Applications – LNG Tankers. ENGVA, IVExpo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
103. Okada, M., Sugii, H., Wakao, T., Cryer, J., Dickson, R., Ursu, B. (October 2004). Developmentof CNG Direct Injection DieselCycle Engine. Isuzu Motors limited, Westport Innovations Inc., IVExpo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
104. Mukaibo, N. (October 2004). Development of Lightweight Fuel Container for Adsorbed NaturalGas Vehicle. Honda R&D Co., Ltd., Tochigi R&D Center , Japan, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires,Buenos Aires
105. Country overview for Netherlands provided by Mr. Henk Verbeek, NGV – Holland
106. Schreyer, C., Schneider, C., Mailbach, M., Rothengatter W., Doll, C., Schmedding, D., (2004)External Costs of Transport – Update Study, IWW / INFRAS, Zurich / Karlsruhe
107. Plassat, G., Joubert, E., (October 2004). Pollutants Emissions Global warming PotentialEffect First Comparison using External Costs on Urban Buses. ADEME French Agency ForEnvironment and Energy Management, AAQIUS & AAQIUS, IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires,Buenos Aires
108. Hodgins, K.B. (June 2005). Westport HighPerformance NG Development and HeavyDutyMarket Review. Westport Innovations Inc., ENGVA 11th Annual European NGV Conference –Bolzano / Italy
109. Ridell, B. (September 2004). MalmöHydrogen and H2/CNG Filling Station and Bus project.Carl Bro Energikonsult AB, Sydkraft Gas ABLTH, Lund University, Sweden, Toronto
110. Kolodziej, R., Lawson, A., Quellette, P., Kerr, C. (2005). HCNG – A Key Strategy for theDevelopment of a Hydrogen Fuelling Infrastructure. IANGV Technical Committee
111. TissotFavre, V., (October 2004). France: Course of action to carry out "NGV future. AFGNV,IV Expo GNC in Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
112. Gettman, C. (July 2005). NGVs as a Solution to Energy Security Concerns in China andBeyond. Cummins Westport Inc., Proceedings CD „Natural gas for vehicles – The fuel of choice“,ANGVA 2005, 1st Conference and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
113. (July 2005). CNG Programme for Commercial Vehicles in India, Presentation, ProceedingsCD „Natural gas for vehicles – The fuel of choice. ANGVA 2005, 1st Conference and Exhibition,Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
114. Middleton, A., Neumann, B., (July 2005). CNG engine technology for fleets – performance,emissions and cost effectiveness. Advanced Engine Components, Ltd, Australia, ANGVA 2005, 1st
Conference and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
115. Kwangsukstith C. (July 2005). Challenges and Way Forward in Implementing NGVProgramme in Thailand. Gas Business Group, PTT Public Company Ltd., Thailand, ANGVA 2005,1st Conference and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
116. V. Mañalac, E. (July 2005). The Natural Gas Vehicle Program for Public Transport (NGVPPT):The Philippines’ CNG Bus Project. Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC) Philippines, ANGVA2005, 1st Conference and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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117. Islam, S. (July 2005). Development of cng infrastructure in Bangladesh. RPGCL Bhaban,Bangladesh, ANGVA 2005, 1st Conference and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
118. Ashraf, M. (July 2005). Pakistan CNG Industry. CNG Ops, Hydrocarbon Development Instituteof Pakistan, ANGVA 2005, 1st Conference and Exhibition, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
119. Abdul Rahim Hashim, D. (June 2005). NGV in Asia Pacific. AsiaPacific NGV AssociationVicePresident, Gas Business PETRONAS, ENGVA 11th Annual European NGV Conference – Bolzano/ Italy
120. Fernades, R., (June 2005). Dynamic Growth for Latin American NGVs. ALGNV, ENGVA 11th
Annual European NGV Conference – Bolzano / Italy
121. (June 2005). IANGV Technical Committee Report to Council Meeting
122. Seisler, J., EUROPEAN & WORLDWIDE STATEOFTHEUNION, ENGVA NGV Workshop,European Gaseous Fuel Training Institute
123. Horne D., Kolodziej, R., (October 2005), A National Strategy for the New U.S. NGV Industry,CVEF, NGVC
121
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 – CNG cylinder capacity .......................................................................................................14
Table 2 Cylinders Costs and Weights..............................................................................................15
Table 3 Share of various cylinder types on largest NGV markets ((in alphabetical order).................15
Table 4 – Tank weight comparison....................................................................................................23
Table 5 Average composition of biogas and landfill gas compared to average composition of naturalgas ...................................................................................................................................................27
Table 6 – Overview by country Dual fuel engine technology (gasdiesel) with pilot injection.............39
Table 7 – Overview by country – Diesel engines that use gas only ....................................................39
Table 8 – Overview by country – Spark ignition – converted carburetted .........................................40
Table 9 – Overview by country – Spark ignition – OEM carburetted.................................................40
Table 10 – SWOC Analysis – STRENGTHS – Country by country overview......................................94
Table 11 SWOC Analysis – WEAKNESESS – Country by country overview....................................96
Table 12 SWOC Analysis – OPPORTUNITIES – Country by country overview................................99
Table 13 SWOC Analysis – CHALLENGES – Country by country overview...................................101
Table 14 – Scenario matrix – CNG: Market development and commercialization.............................103
Table 15 – Scenario matrix – LNG: Market development and commercialization .............................106
Table 16 – Scenario matrix – BIOMETHANE: Market development and commercialization.............107
Table 17 – Scenario matrix – HYDROGEN (PRODUCED FROM NATURAL GAS): Marketdevelopment and commercialization................................................................................................108
122
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Picture 1 – Most common ways of methane utilisation in transport sector............................................6
Picture 2 Different types and functions of hybrid vehicles ..................................................................8
Picture 3 – Potential consumption reduction of hybrid vehicles ............................................................9
Picture 4 – CNG systems in Light Duty Vehicles................................................................................10
Picture 5 – Standard DualFuel principle for Heavy Duty Vehicles and Cummings – Westport DualFuel System......................................................................................................................................11
Picture 6 – Appearance of Completed Vehicle, IsuzuWestport project..............................................12
Picture 7 – CNG storage cylinders – volume versus weight comparison ............................................14
Picture 8 – Various concepts of cylinder placements in the vehicle – OEMs (Original EquipmentManufacturers) products ...................................................................................................................15
Picture 9 – Storage methods for natural gas and comparison with ANG ............................................17
Picture 10 – ANG storage principle ...................................................................................................17
Picture 11 – Slow fill Overnight fleet filling with a direct supply from the compressor station.............18
Picture 12 – Fastfill CNG station ......................................................................................................18
Picture 13 – Fast fill piston compressor and 3 bank storage concept ...............................................19
Picture 14 – Fast fill piston compressor plus booster and 1 bank storage concept ...........................19
Picture 15 – Fast fill piston compressor plus booster and 1 bank storage concept ...........................19
Picture 16 CNG transporting trailer – motherdaughter filling concept..............................................20
Picture 17 – Home fuelling concept ...................................................................................................21
Picture 18 – LNG filling station ..........................................................................................................22
Picture 19 – Structure of a cryotank (Linde) for LNG or liquefied hydrogen (LH2) and LNG tank fitted inLNG truck .........................................................................................................................................24
Picture 20 Schematic diagram of the microbiological anaerobic breakdown of complex organicmaterial to form biogas and a simple scheme of biogas production process in Linköping...................25
Picture 21 – Biogas plant in Linköping...............................................................................................26
Picture 22 – Unloading slaughterhouse waste from Sweden´s first biogas driven industrial vacuumtruck .................................................................................................................................................26
Picture 23 – Full biogas cycle – from garbage collection (using biogas garbage trucks) to utilisation inLinköping ..........................................................................................................................................26
Picture 24 – Comparison of the fraction breakdown of oil refining and GTL........................................27
Picture 25 Overall process scheme – Fischer Tropsch....................................................................28
Picture 26 Overview of process chains for the use of remote gas a fuel...........................................29
Picture 27 Hydrogen generation process (from natural gas) – example hydrogen refuelling stationfor fuelcell buses in Madrid ..............................................................................................................31
Picture 28 Function of a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell and fuel cell stack used inDaimlerChrysler Necar II model .......................................................................................................32
Picture 29 Fuel cell drive train in personal cars DaimlerChrysler NECAR 4 – concept and vehicleefficiency ..........................................................................................................................................33
Picture 30 Fuel cell drive train in public transport DaimlerChrysler NEBUS (Fuel cell engine fits inthe normal diesel engine compartment).............................................................................................33
Picture 31 – Dispenser, hydrogen and H2/CNG and „Hythane“ city bus in Malmö (Sweden) ..............34
123
Picture 32 – Examples of CNG use in marine applications ................................................................35
Picture 33 The K700 heavy duty agricultural tractor (Source: NGVRUS) ........................................36
Picture 34 – Experimental LNG / LH2 plane – Tupolev 155................................................................36
Picture 35 – Geographical overview – distribution by cylinder type ....................................................42
Picture 36 – Geographical overview – type of filling connector used..................................................42
Picture 37 – Geographical overview – measuring units used .............................................................43
Picture 38 Geographical overview – temperature correction (Y/N)...................................................43
Picture 39 Geographical overview – Wobbe index of gas used for vehicles in respective countries(MJ/m3) .............................................................................................................................................44
Picture 40 Trend analysis New Zealand case (source: ENGVA) ....................................................46
Picture 41 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Sweden.....................................................................................................47
Picture 42 Planned Swiss Green Corridor (support to „Blue Corridor“ concept)................................48
Picture 43 Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key drivers behindthat trend – case: Finland..................................................................................................................49
Picture 44 – Trend in number of vehicles and volume of gas sold and key drivers behind that trend –case: France.....................................................................................................................................50
Picture 45 – Trend in number of vehicles and key drivers behind that trend – case: Italy....................52
Picture 46 – Trend in number of vehicles and key drivers behind that trend – case: Germany............52
Picture 47 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Spain.........................................................................................................54
Picture 48 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Austria.......................................................................................................55
Picture 49 – Trend in number of vehicles and volume of gas sold and key drivers behind that trend –case: Poland.....................................................................................................................................56
Picture 50 Trend in number of vehicles and volume of gas sold and key drivers behind that trend –case: Croatia ....................................................................................................................................57
Picture 51 – Trend in number of vehicles and key drivers behind that trend – case: Macedonia........58
Picture 52 – Trend in number of vehicles, number of filling stations and volume of gas sold and keydrivers behind that trend – case: Russia............................................................................................61
Picture 53 – Trend in number of vehicles, number of filling stations and volume of gas sold and keydrivers behind that trend – case: Iran ................................................................................................65
Picture 54 – Trend in number of vehicles, number of filling stations and volume of gas sold and keydrivers behind that trend – case: Malaysia.........................................................................................68
Picture 55 Trend in number of vehicles, number of filling stations and volume of gas sold and keydrivers behind that trend – case: Thailand (Desk research – data source [115]) ................................70
Picture 56 – Trend in number of vehicles and filling stations and key drivers behind that trend – case:Japan ...............................................................................................................................................73
Picture 57 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Argentina...................................................................................................76
Picture 58 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Brazil .........................................................................................................78
Picture 59 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Chile..........................................................................................................80
124
Picture 60 – Project of integration of Southern Cone .........................................................................83
Picture 61 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Algeria .......................................................................................................88
Picture 62 – Trend in number of vehicles, filling stations and volume of gas sold and key driversbehind that trend – case: Egypt.........................................................................................................89
Picture 63 – NGV market SWOC Analysis Strengths.......................................................................93
Picture 64 – NGV market SWOC Analysis Weaknesses..................................................................95
Picture 65 – NGV market SWOC Analysis Opportunities.................................................................98
Picture 66 – NGV market SWOC Analysis Challenges ..................................................................100
Picture 67 – Conclusions and Recommendations Overview ..........................................................112
125
APPENDIX – TREND ANALYSIS CHARTS
126
Case study: ALGERIA
1 1
50
75
125 125
1 1 2
131,8
2
3 31,11,1
52,5
78,8
105,0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 20040
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 m3)vehicles number of filling staitonsvolume of gas sold
NGV Governmentpolicy announced
Some governmentincentives announced
Unfavourable legislationfor import of OEM
products
127
Case study:ARGENTINA
630500
756000
1165000
879000
5145001007
1091
1270
14121508
1681
1860
2650
771
1050983
872
104
1100
2041
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1400000
19851990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)number of f illing stations
volume of gas sold
1) A clear understanding of the adv antages of liquid f uel replacement. It has to do with the exportof crude oil and subproducts since Argentina , not an “oil country ” though, is self suf f icient andpref erred to export instead of burning its oil.2) A conscious posit ion of the Gov ernment promoting the use of natural gas not only f or domesticuse but also f or industrial application i.e.: electric power generation3) A v ery proactiv e position of the Authorit ies which managed the project by means of a v erysimple scheme and took upon themselv es the init iativ e to construct f uelling stations and makeav ailable conv ersion kits to car driv ers.4) The adv antage of hav ing a v ery updated State Owned Gas Entity which could establish thespecif ications and regulatory standards of the GNV equipment and serv ice right f rom thebeginning thus av oiding teething problems and poor control perf ormance5) A growing interest in the improv ement of the air quality and the general f eeling that care ofenv ironment is a committment of gov ernment and people.
number ofvehicles
NGV, as a project, was launched on December, 1984 as a Government Plan aimed at replacement of liquid fuels from the abundant domestic natural gas reserves.The economical conditions of the time made it impossible to think on a policy of subsidies to make the project fly in Argentina.Way to promote and impulse the NGV project was based on the significative price di fferential between liquid fuels and natural gas.The sales price of CNG to the car driver was established at a 45% of the price of premium gasoline. The gross margin granted to the fuelling stations was about 13 cents per cubic meter The launching of the projectrequired the fi rst investments. They were made by the Government. Two Public Service Entities, YPF the State Owned Oil Company and Gas del Estado, the Gas Transportation and Distribution Company, initiated thecontruction of a fuel ling station each of them.At the end of 1985 the first private fuelling stations were fully operative. These investors demonstrated their confidence in the official project and, what is more important, in the product itsel f.. The total private NGVs wereabove 2.000 units. The first conversion kit manufacture was born also in 1985. It was the starting point of a new industry.
The crisis of Argentine economy was responsibleof the notorious increase of the rate ofconversion of vehicles in the period 20022003.This caused a singular increase of CNG sales.The relationship between January and December2003 showed a total GNC sales increase of 27%.
128
Case study: AUSTRIA
400550
700
4000
240180120503717
1000
2000
17 18 20
49
6875
80
95
0,07 1,00 1,50 2,00 3,00 4,00
105
2937
43
0,550,320,190,110,090,01
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 20080
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling s tations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)
1st OEMcars on themarket
The German car marketdevelops very well >influences Austriaintensively
num
ber o
f veh
icle
s
num
ber o
f filli
ng s
tatio
ns, v
olum
e of
gas
sol
d
129
Case study: BRAZIL
4800 1865857693
9258
969359
835959
643507
144917
292871
449435
11 18 25
119
281
513
953
1094
6246
723
41 37 42
0
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
vehi
cles
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
fillin
g st
atio
ns
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations
Licence to install the first NGV stationhas been given in 1991. In 1992;authorization has been given to usenatural gas in buses, taxi cabs, fleetsand trucks.
Denatran* Act 775 establishes thelicence to run a NGV through acertificate issued by Inmetro.
ABNT* NBR Std 12236 giverequirements to design, buildand operate NG refueling sta.at a max.pressure of 250 bar.
Conama* Act 15establishes vehicleemission controls to startbeing applied in 1996.
Inmetro Act 32 establishesminimum requirements to bemet by mass metering devicesin NG dispensers.
Clear perception offavourable natural gasprice relatively to gasolineand ethanol (50%savings); NGVs markets wereconcentrated in Rio andS.Paulo; Expansion toNortheast has beeninitiated.
Reduced Annual NGV Licence in the State of Rio de JaneiroANP* Act 20 establishes safety and environmental practices to build NGrefueling stations; Inmetro* Act 71 g ive requirements to inspect vehicle changes by qualifiedagents; Federal Law gives permission to utilize natural gas as a fuel, in any kindof vehicle.
ANP Act 116 regulates refueling sta. Activities; ANPAct 243 regulates the commercialization of CNG; NGVs new components manufacturing plants havebeen built.
Conama Act 273 establishesenvironmental conditions to be met by NGrefuelling sta. operation; ABNT Std. NBR ISO 4705 specifiesrequirements applied to the design,manufacturing, and tests of HP cylinderswith 1 to 150 litres capacity; ABNT Std. NBR ISO 11439 specifiesrequirements to the design and fabricationof NGV cylinders Conama Act 291 establish environmentalrequirements to NGV system components; Inmetro Act 150 gives the technical qualityregulations to inspect NGVs Inmetro Act 132 establishes qualityrequirements to qualify conversion serviceshops.
ABNT Std. 113531 establishesminimum requirements to NGVcomponents and installation.
Inmetro Act 170 establishminimum requirements tofabricate and commercializeNGV conversion kits; Reduced NGV AnnualLicence Costs in the States ofS.Paulo and Parana; Petrobras announced anatural gas massificationprogram.
Stronginvestment inexpanding thedistribution andfueling.infrastructure.
Continued investment inexpanding the infrastructure.
It is forecasted to have an NGV fleet superior to 1million vehicles still this year; Government announces concerns on importednatural gas availability and prices; Discussion on a new Natural Gas Law and EnergyBill generates concerns.
2005 = July
130
C a se stu d y: BR A ZIL
4 8 0 0 1 8 6 585 7 6 9 3
4 4 94 3 5
2 9 2 8 711 4 4 9 1 7
6 4 3 50 7
8 3 5 9 5 9 9 69 3 5 9
92 580,03
0,70
1,75
2,69
4,23
5 ,19
0,130,12
2,4 6
0,220,36
0,07 0,1 3
0
2 0 0 0 00
4 0 0 0 00
6 0 0 0 00
8 0 0 0 00
1 0 0 0 0 00
1 2 0 0 0 00
1 9 9 2 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 1 9 9 5 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8 19 9 9 2 00 0 2 00 1 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 4 2 0 0 5
veh
icle
s
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
V o lume o f g as s oldN u m b e r o f n a tu ra l g a s ve h ic le s Vo lu m e o f g a s s o ld (x 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 m 3 /d a y)
Lic enc e to instal l the fir s t N G V stationhas been g iven in 1991. In 1992;author ization has been g iven to usenatur al g as in bus es , taxi cabs, fleetsand trucks .
D enatran* Ac t 775 establ is hes thelic enc e to run a N G V throug h acertificate iss ued by Inmetr o.
ABN T * N BR Std 12236 g iver eq ui rements to desig n, bui ldand oper ate N G refuel ing s ta.at a max.pr ess ur e of 250 bar .
C onama* Ac t 15establ ishes vehicleemis sion c ontr ols to s tartbeing appl ied in 1996.
Inmetr o Ac t 32 estab lishesminimum req ui r ements to bemet by m ass metering devicesin N G dispenser s.
C lear perc eption offavourable natur al g asprice r elative ly to g asol ineand ethanol ( 50%s aving s) ; N G Vs mar kets werec onc entr ated in R io andS .Paulo; Expans ion toN ortheas t has beenini tia ted.
R educed Annual N GV Lic ence in the State of R io de Janei ro AN P* Act 20 es tabl is hes s afety and envi ronmental practic es to bu ild N Gr efueling s ta tions; Inmetro* Act 71 g ive r eq ui rements to inspect vehicle chang es by q ual i fiedag ents ; F edera l Law g ives per mis sion to uti lize natur al g as as a fuel , in any kindof vehicle.
AN P Act 116 reg ulates re fuel ing s ta. Activi ties; AN P A ct 243r eg ulates the c ommer cial iz ation of C N G ; N G Vs new components manufacturing plants have been bui l t.
C onama Act 273 establ ishesenvi r onmental condi tions to be met by N Gr efuel l ing sta. operation; AB N T Std. N BR ISO 4705 speci fiesr eq uir ements appl ied to the desig n,manufac turing , and tests of H P c yl inderswi th 1 to 150 l i tr es c apaci ty; AB N T Std. N BR ISO 11439 s pec i fiesr eq uir ements to the desig n and fabricationof N G V cylinder s C onama Act 291 establ ish envi ronmentalr eq uir ements to N GV s ystem c omponents; Inmetr o Act 150 g ives the tec hnic al q ual i tyr eg ula tions to ins pect N G V s Inmetr o Act 132 establishes q ual i tyr eq uir ements to q ual i fy c onver sion ser vices hops.
AB N T Std. 113531 estab lishesminimum req ui rements to N G Vcomponents and insta llation.
Inmetro Ac t 170 es tab l is h min im umr eq uir ements to fabricate andcommercial ize N G V conver sion kits; R educed N G V Annual L ic enc e C os ts inthe States of S.Paulo and Par ana; P etrobras announced a natural g asmassi fication pr og r am.
Str onginves tment inexpanding thedistr ibution andfueling .in fr as tr uctur e.
Continued inves tment inexpanding the infr astr ucture.
It is forec as ted to have an N GV fleet superior to 1mil l ion vehicles s ti ll this year; G over nment announc es conc erns on importednatural g as avai labi l i ty and pr ices ; D iscussion on a new N atura l G as Law and Energ yBil l g enerates concerns .
2005 = July
131
Case study:CHILE
5540
6281
14000
7000
4606
2000
2700260025003342
13
28
10
10
6
1113
42 4
68,0
31,626,2
22,816,7
12,210,810,3
7,910,0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
1987 1997 199899 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2010*vehicles
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
f illing stationsvolume of gas sold
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling s tations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)
Start of the Natural Gas f or Vehicles CommercialProgramme (NGVCP) in Punta Arenas, the southeastregion in Chile. Ref uelling stations and v ehicle conv ersionworkshop under construct ions. NG landf ills av ailable inthe region.
NG arriv ed to Santiago (capitalcity ) in 1997 f rom Argentinathrough the Internat ional pipeline“Gas Andes”. Two new stationswere built and started theiroperations in 1997. They wereowned by Oil Companies. 100%were oriented to LDV.
The env ironmental authoritystarted the f irst Pilot Programf or NG buses in Sant iagoChile. The experience testedthe perf ormance andemissions of dedicated NGbuses, bif uel NGdieselbuses and diesel buses.
New conv ersions are allowed by thegov ernment. Bef ore this y ear, theywere f orbidden by a gov ernmentdecree. New emission standard f ornonmethane hydrocarbons wasimplemented in this year f or naturalgas LDV. Metrogas (the largest NGdistributor in Chile) promoted thecreat ion of the NGV network, usingcollaboration business model, toexpand the number of workshops andf illing stations. One more f illing stationwas built in the twelv e regions (PuntaArenasChile). Two new Mercedesdedicated CNG buses startedoperat ion, sponsored by a largemunicipality of Sant iago.
Marketing and promotion works continue for new conversions. Two new filling stations were built inSantiago. As well, NGV start in the fifth region of Chile, building two new filling stations. The firstcommercial fleet of 6 dedicated NG Volvo buses started to run in Santiago Chile. Metrogascontinued supporting the NGV network.
Marketing and promotionworks continue f or newconv ersions,implementing clean airprograms.
Marketing andpromotion workscontinue f or newconv ersions. Anew NG f illingstation was built inthe twelve regionof Chile (PuertoNatales).
Marketing andpromotion workscontinue f or newconv ersions. Twonew f illingstations were builtin Chile. One wasin Santiago, andthe other was inthe second regionof Chile.
Customers were discouragedby long queues thus use lessCNG. Due to the NG crisis, nonew investors continuedev aluat ing new NGV projects.New regulat ions and taxpolicies promote LPG uses f orv ehicles. Right now is underconstruction a large LNGproject to bring gas f rom Asiaor somewhere else, to solveChilean energy crisis. Thisproject has been sponsored bythe Chilean gov ernment andsev eral private companies(gas, electricity ). New sourcesof energy are under study(Biogas, solar, wind).
(*) Due to the high volatility of NG supply, right now it is not possible yet to forecast NGV development. If the supply problems are solved it is possible to expect growth.
132
Case study: CROATIA
3337
4844
78
16
75
48
75
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,07
0,10 0,10
0,070,06
0,06
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030,00
0,01
0,02
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,06
0,07
0,08
0,09
0,10
Number of natural gas vehicles Volum e of gas s old (x 1 000 000 m3)
• Start of the project. New f illing station opened in December 1994 on thepremises of GPZ (Zagreb Gas Distribution Company) in the centre of thetow n.• Favourable CNG price compared to the price of petrol or diesel.• Taxi drivers and driving schools converted also (besides GPZvehicles).
• Existing converted bus is out of order. Public transportcompany (ow ned by the Municipality of Zagreb (GPZ isow ned by the Zagreb municipality also)) notrecognized natural gas as a transport fuel. No new busconversions. All new buses are diesel buses.• No leadership by example, no subsidies forconversions.• Favourable CNG price compared to petrol or diesel.State control over petrol and diesel prices.
• Strong marketing campaignof w ider use for LPG forautomotive purposes.
• Liberalization of petrol and diesel prices – (rapidincrease in prices) boosting LPG but not CNG market.• Act about necessary conditions for appliances andequipment for gas vehicles (issued in National Gazette).
• INA, main petroleum company,established daughter (LPG) company.Even stronger marketing campaign ofLPG for automotive purposes.
• Strong market ing campaign of LPG f or automotive purposes(TV commercials, W EB sites, audits etc. by LPG company ).• Import of diesel cars is increasing.• New Ac t on technical inspection of v ehicles – af ter 1st
October 2003 all v ehic les should pass Ecotesting (exhaus tgases should be bellow prescribed limit depending on the ty peof v ehicle), except CNG and LPG v ehic les, to pass regularcar inspection.• Minis try of Env ironment s tarted new project f or use ofbiodiesel in public t ransport in the municipality of Zagreb. LPG company f inished project of small compact containerty pe LPG f illing station that should boos t the number of LPGf illing stations in Croat ia. LPG company got approv al f rom Minis try of Interior toreduce saf ety dis tance f or LPG f illing s tations which mighthelp to introduce more widely LPG on petrol stations .
number of vehicles volume of gas sold
133
Case study: EGYPT
34236
50000
180 180 180 813
570211900
18946
25105
41416
81000
69000
59000
66
84
75
104
128
23
94
54
3932
555
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
1992
/1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
0
50
100
150
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling s tations
Second company incorporated (E.I.G. TEC = IEOC(ENI), Petrojet , Ministry of Petroleum, Ministry ofInsurance, Egypt Gas). NGVC and E. I.G. TEC areof f ering customers f inancing programs with a smalldown payment with montly payments av ailable f orup to 3 years.
Joint venture company NGVCincorporated. NGVC is of f eringcus tomers f inancing programswith a small down pay ment withmontly payments av ailable f orup to 3 years.
All f inancial incent iv es st ill av ailable. NGVCand E.I.G. TEC are of f ering customersf inancing programs with a small downpay ment with montly payments available f orup to 3 y ears. General Authority f orInv estment (GAFI) grants a f iveyear taxholiday to each approv ed CNG company . TheUSAID commodity import program (CIP)grant the CNG companies a 36monthsinteres t f ree loan f rom the date of theshipping the stat ion f rom the U.S. with nodev aluation risks. Price of natural gasf avourable compared to petrol and diesel.
Third company aproved in 2002 (Shell Egy ptCNG Company = Shell Egy pt, Egy ptianNatural Gas H olding Company , Egyptianprivate sector partners). Four new companiesare approved and expected to be operationalby 2004.
Egypt´s CNG indus try implemented"Gas Card" sy stem All cus tomers whohave outstanding conv ersion loanbalances, and all new f inancedconvers ion customers, will begin pay ingthe gasoline price each time they fuelwith the dif ference being creditedagainst their receiv ables’ balance.1 new private company entered the market.
• 2 new priv ate companies entered themarket.• Diesel retail prices increased by 50%. Retailprices of other fuels should be increased until
• Expect ing 2 companies to enter the market.• Expect ing reduc tion in customs and tax on CNGequipment.
Memorandum of understandingbetween BP Egypt, Egy pt Gas andENPPI to f orm a joint company .
Two pilot projects init iated by Egypt'sPetroleum Minis try and realized byGUPC O, BP Egypt, EGPC partnershipand Petrobel (ENI and EGPCPartnership). Petroleum Ministryissued a decree to ensure the saf etyand perf ormance of the CNG fuelingstat ions and the customers' vehicleconversions . This includes strictadherence to "Egypt' s VehicularNatural Gas Standards andSpecif ications". General Authority f orInv estment (GAFI ) grants a f iv ey eartax holiday to each approv ed CNGcompany . The USAID commodityimport program (CIP) grant the CNGcompanies a 36months interest f reeloan f rom the date of the shipping thestat ion f rom the U.S. with nodev aluation risks.
number of vehicles number of filling stations
134
Case study: FINLAND
24
17
24
7274
80
76
38
0,4
0,9
1,4
1,7
222 2222
11
2,96
3,6
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040
1
2
3
4
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)
Permission to useCNG without tax, iftotal weight is morethan 3,5 tons
Permission to use all Euro IVCNG cars without extra fuel tax(10 000€/year)
Planned:2005: First public CNG station2006/2007: Goal is to open one CNG stationper year in Helsinki area
Special permissionto use CNG buseswithout tax
number of vehicles number of filling stations,volume of gas sold
135
Case study: FRANCE
0 7120
350 540 660 1200
17300
1710
47800
93300
1800
2600
0 2,848
480
680
1100
140216
264
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 2008 20100
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
GW
h
Number of natural gas vehicles Gas sold (GWh)
19921997:building NGVbackground
(7 HDV) Start of thepromotion of NGV for HDVaimed at cities. Birth ofGNVert, service subsidiaryof Gaz de France for thedelivery of NGV
All HDV
All HDV. Start of the promotion of NGV forgarbage trucks
All HDV
2800 HDV, 45000 LDV150 private + 200 public stations
2300 HDV, 15000 LDV. 2005 : commercialisation of theHome refuelling appliance (HRA)2006 : development of public filling stations.140 private + 100 public stations
All HDV. in 2004: +300garbage trucks. 130 private
stations
3300 HDV, 90000 LDV160 private + 300 public stations
number of vehicles gas sold (energy)
136
Case study: GERMANY28000
19400
11000
15000
7500
55004200
30002000
1000400
120100
80
250
190
140
655035
530
390
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations
o Reduced mineral oil tax (up to 2000)o Political fundingo First OEM NGVs (BMW)
o Foundation of Erdgas mobil by majorGerman gas companies in cooperation w ithmineral oil companies (aim 1.000 CNGstations in Germany)o Reduced mineral oil tax fixed(up to 2020)o More types of dedicated NGVs available
o Fuel prices f or gasoline and diesel keep risingo Sales incentives by OEMs together w ith gasindustry
o Increased number of OEM NGVs at themarket availableo First NGvs w ith under floor gas tankinstallation (Fiat Multipla)o German w ide NGV campaign on naturalgas as fuel for vehicles (gas industry, carmanufacturers, government)
number of vehicles number of filling stations
137
Case: Italy
260000275000
295000315000
340000 335000350000
420000450000 440000 440000 440000
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
450000
500000
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Number of natural gas vehicles
Diesel competition (lowtax, good performances,wide model range)
Incentives fromGovernment; AgreementOEM Environmentministry Oil unionIncreased environmental
concerns. New modelsOEM NGV LD and HD
138
Case study:IRAN (updated)
3962
764000
202000
507864558420858
960624001200
2 4 14
72
400
450
2434 70
40,211,6
3,12
112,3
237,7
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
900000
1975 1983 2004 (March) 2004 (July) 2004(December)
2005 (June) 2005 (August) 2006 (March) 2007 (March)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling stations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)
all retrof it all retrof it
2 788 Retrof it519 OEM655 Bus
6 623 Retrof it1 776 OEM1 207 Bus
16 764 Retrof it2 922 OEM1 207 Bus
38 607 Retrof it5 433 OEM1 544 Bus +minibus
43 186 Retrof it6 056 OEM1 544 Bus +minibus
100 000 Retrof it100 000 OEM2 000 Bus,…
200,000 Retrof it554 000 OEM7 000 OEM Nativ e3 000 Bus,…
vehicles
Gov ernment policy towards NGVsTax exemption on CNG kit componentsTrend of gasoline/diesel to high pricesHigh subsides must be paid by gov ernment f or petrol/Diesel fuelsHigh f uel consumption in transportat ion sector because of old nav igationWidespread gas distribution network entire countryGov ernment policy to reducing air pollutionGrants f or ref uelling stat ionsGov ernment Incentiv esGov ernment subsidies on CNG Retrof it and OEM’s conv ersion
number of f illing stations, volumeof gas sold
139
Case study: JAPAN
3640
12012
7811
5252
20931211759
20638
16561
34
82
107
62
47
138
181
271
224
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Small cars 618 956 1554 2462 3375 4539 6123 7661 9123
Buses 39 86 153 239 332 410 529 770 937
Garbage trucks 21 46 83 151 237 456 872 1433 1951
Trucks 81 123 303 788 1308 2406 4488 6697 8627
Number of vehicles total 759 1211 2093 3640 5252 7811 12012 16561 20638
Refuelling stations 34 47 62 82 107 138 181 224 271
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
In 1990. Ministry of International Trade andIndustry granted the Japanese GasAssociation a subsidy and began a f easibilitystudy on NGVs.The JGA established within its ownorganisation the Natural Gas Vehicle ProjectDepartment in 1992.
Large number of trucksowned by transport operatorsdue to: strengthening ofv ehicle emission standardand the subsidies f ortransport operators f romtrucking association inadittion to national and localgov ernments.Route buses: Some publictransport operators suchToky o MetropolitanGovernment, Yokohamacity , Osaka city introducedNGV buses but only a f ewpriv ate bus operators hav eintroduced sizeable numbersof CNG buses.Diesel substitution: Numberof diesel substitutions isgrowing rapidly because ofthe reinf orcement of exhaustemission standard and theincrements of subsidies.
National standard of v ehicle emission will be substantially strengthened f rom the y ear 2005. Andsome local gov ernments are going to reinf orce the municipal by law about v ehicle emissionstandards stricter than the national standards. Truck operators can buy NGVs at nearly the sameprice as diesel v ehicles because national government, some local governments and truckingassociations subsidies. A lot of truck operators shif t diesel trucks to CNG trucks. Automanuf acturers are tackling to dev elop clean diesel vehicles to pass 2005 emission standards.
In December 1995, the saf ety standardsunder the Road Transport Vehicle Act wererev ised and the amended regulations made itpossible to treat the NGV as being equal togasoline and diesel f ueled v ehicles.
Through a consultation process with the competent authorities, a range ofconcessions were obtained that eased the regulations in various respects,including a reduction of the safety distance required for refueling stationequipment (like compressors). National and local governments created subsidybased incentive schemes. Under these measures, part of the price differencebetween the NGV and the ordinary vehicle and/or part of the construction costsfor CNG refueling stations, were to be covered by subsidies.
In 1998, JapaneseGovernment upholds amarket penetration targetof one million NGVs f orthe y ear 2010.
number of vehicles
num
ber o
f ref
uellin
g st
atio
ns
140
Case study: MALAYSIA
13002670
3980
56000
293014801050
34000
14000
6710
5470
9309008607700
70
117,6
50
1176
151511660
90
20 2022
31
60,83
44,59
30,7820,5913,198,254,443,83,44
4,194,664,561,380
193,4
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2006 20090
50
100
150
200
250
Number of natural gas vehicles Number of filling s tations Volume of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m 3)number of filling stations,
volume of gas sold
Planned
Planned
vehicles
Start of the N atural Gasf or Vehicles CommercialProgramme (NGVCP) inthe Malay sian capital ofKuala Lumpur (usingmother – daughterconcept as there was nogas pipelines in KualaLumpur). Ref uellingstations and v ehicleconv ersion workshopunder constructions.
Stations start sellingCNG in Feb 1992. 1mother station, 5daughter stations startedoperation in KualaLumpur an 1conv entional (online)station started operationin Sarawak, EastMalay sia.
Marketing andpromotion workscontinued.
Ref uelling stationshad reached itsmaximum capacit ies.Long queues at moststations. Waiting f orcompletion of gaspipeline sy stem inKuala Lumpur to buildaddit ional stations.
Customers was discouraged by longqueues thus use less CNG. Oneaddit ional conv entional station wasbuilt at the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur.On Feb 14th, 1995, PETRONASincorporated a wholly subsidiary ,PETRONAS NGV Sdn Bhd (PNGV),to streamline and spearhead thedev elopment, marketing andpromotion of CNG/NGV in Malay sia.
Customer still not increasing theirusage of CNG. Gas pipelineswere av ailable in certain areas ofKuala Lumpur. PNGV rev iewed themarket situation and build 4additional conv entional stations inKuala Lumpur – these stationsstarted operations towards the endof 1996.
Marketing andpromotion workscontinued.
PNGV continued to build addit ionalstations and during the October1998 Commonwealth Game inKuala Lumpur, introduced theEnv iro 2000 taxis. This is af actory designed and productionmonof uel CNG taxis. 1000 unitswas produced by PETRONAS andMatra (France).
In conjunction with the f irstFormula 1 race in Sepang Circuitin Malay sia, PETRONAS prov idedf ree CNG conv ersion to 1000taxis in return f or adv ert isementon F1 / PETRONAS on the taxibodies.
In conjunction with the f irstFormula 1 race in Sepang Circuitin Malay sia, PETRONAS prov idedf ree CNG conv ersion to 1000taxis in return f or adv ert isementon F1 / PETRON AS on the taxibodies.
Owners continued toconv ert their taxisunder the NCPS.
PNGV continued to build addi tional stationsincluding daughter stations as certain strategicareas in Kuala Lumpur did not have gaspipelines. PNGV continued the marketing andpromotional efforts by introducing the NaturalGas for Vehicles Conversion PromotionScheme (NCPS) for taxis in Kuala Lumpur.Under this scheme, rebate of MalaysianRinggit RM1500.00 was provided for 3000conversion of taxis (the taxi conversion cost wasRM2500.00).
Conv ersion under theNCPS continued andPNGV continued tobuild additionalstation.
PNGV continued to buildadditional stations andplanning to move intoheavyduty vehiclesmarket esp. city buses.
PNGV continued to build additional stations and thisincluded 1 mother station, 3 daughter stat ions and 1conventional s tations in the ci ty of Johore Baru (~ 500km s outh of Kuala Lumpur, near Singapore), and 1
conventional s tation in Penang (~ 400 km north of KualaLumpur). PNGV also cont inued the NCPS withadditional 1000 taxis in Kuala Lumpur and 750 taxis
141
Case study: POLAND
60
400
70
1000,12
0,26
0,45
0,50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
1989 1993 1999 20040,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
Number of natural gas vehicles Volum e of gas sold (x 1 000 000 m3)
Light duty NGVsonly. National CNGprogram wasfinanced by thecentral Government
6 buses in Cracow,about 75 Gas Worksservices cars and10 private cars
17 buses inPrzemy l, in Krakówthe end of NGVProject
47 buses inPrzemy l,Inowroc aw,Warszawa,Rzeszów
number of vehicles volume of gas sold
142
Case study: RUSSIA
140000
38300
28200
1790012700 11900 12600 14400
54400
74800
107000
17800
23700
33100
44100
207207207207207207
182 184 185
199207 207
190 191 196
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040
50
100
150
200
250
NGVs NGV Filling stations
USSR: No private light duty NGVs. Only state ownedheav y duty NGVs: t rucks and buses. National CNGprogram is f inanced and implemented by the centralgov ernment. ½ Bcm of NG sold to NGVs – the recordtrade s ince 1984, when f irst f illing stations werecommissioned. ZIL, GAZ and KAMAZ produce and sellOEM NGV trucks.
Russia. OEMs discontinue production and sales of NGVs (trucks). First priv ate autotransportat ion companies emerge. In 1990 – 1998 due to the economic recession, inf lat ion, poormanagement, lack of disc ipline and salary pay ment cris is driv ers of stateowned f leets deconv ert NGVs back to gasoline/diesel and "appropriate" f uelf rom the tanks and resell it with discount. In 1993 Russian Government adopts the upper limit of NG price f or NGVs.The price of 1 ncm of NG shall not exceed 50% of the price of the cheapestgasoline. Priv ate f leets have no enough f unds to buy CNG equipment. In 1996 – 1997 Gazprom dev elops and adopts corporate NGV program.
Fuel prices keep rising. CNG becomes more and more popular among priv atevehicle/ f leet owners. Sales of NG grow some 15 – 20% annually . In 2004 KAMAZ and UAZ restore OEM NGV programs.
number of vehicles number of f illing stations
143
Case study: RUSSIA
1440012600119001270017900
28200
38300
140000
54400
74800
107000
1780023700
33100
44100
160,0140,6
116,097,4
81,464,2
511,6
435,6
364,5
89,375,2
60,2
253,7
151,8
114,2
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 20040
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
NGVs Natural gas sales (x 1 000 000 m3)
USSR: No priv ate light duty NGVs. Only state ownedheav y duty NGVs: t rucks and buses. National CNGprogram is f inanced and implemented by the centralgovernment. ½ Bcm of NG sold to NGVs – the recordtrade since 1984, when f irst f illing s tat ions werecommissioned. ZIL, GAZ and KAMAZ produce and sellOEM NGV trucks.
Russia. OEMs discontinue production and sales of NGVs (trucks). First priv ate autotransportat ion companies emerge. In 1990 – 1998 due to the economic recession, inf lat ion, poormanagement, lack of disc ipline and salary pay ment cris is driv ers of stateowned f leets deconv ert NGVs back to gasoline/diesel and "appropriate" f uelf rom the tanks and resell it with discount. In 1993 Russian Gov ernment adopts the upper limit of NG price f or NGVs.The price of 1 ncm of NG shall not exceed 50% of the price of the cheapestgasoline. Priv ate f leets hav e no enough f unds to buy CNG equipment. In 1996 – 1997 Gazprom dev elops and adopts corporate NGV program.
Fuel prices keep rising. CNG becomes more and more popular among priv atevehicle/f leet owners. Sales of NG grow some 15 – 20% annually . In 2004 KAMAZ and UAZ restore OEM NGV programs.
number of vehicles volume of gas sold
144
Case study: SPAIN
638
737
2
120
3124
328
189
0,45 0,75 1,302,50 3,00
12
7
2123
14
16
21
0,120,100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030
10
20
30
40
50
NGVs (without garbage trucks) Filling stations NG Sales, (x 1 000 000 m3)
2 buses. Starting project in Madrid Fuel Makers NGV only f or public serv ice Reduced tax for LPG and NG v ehicles All project t ill present are only pushed byGas natural SDG with participat ion in f illingstat ion building or of fering a good price f ornatural gas . No collaboration f rom authorities
24 buses in Madrid andBarcelona
31 bus. Demonstrationprojec ts in sev eralcities.
119 Buses + garbage t rucks+ 1 LNG t ruck. CNGgarbage t rucks in Madrid, 1LNGV demonstration projectin Barcelona (13 CNGstat ions + 1 LNG station).
300 Buses + garbage t rucks+ 28 LNG t rucks. 19 CNG +2 LNG stat ions. 18 LNGgarbage t rucks and 10lorries .
188 Buses + garbage t rucks+ 1 LNG truck, 15 CNG + 1LNG station. CNG garbagetrucks in Madrid.
602 Buses + garbage trucks+ 36 LNG trucks. 19 CNG +2 LNG stations .
701 Buses + garbage trucks+ 36 LNG trucks. 21 CNG +2 LNG s tations.
Future development depending on: EU regulation Spanish administration collaboration OEMs Standards
number of f illing stations,volume of gas sold
NGVs (w ithout garbage trucks)
145
Case study: SWEDEN
817
1052
1360
268405
1593
4238
3309
44
9,711,2
13,7
16,4
20,1
25,2
2
7
12
27
39
47
15
18
22
1,0
4,3
7,0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Number of natural gas (and biogas) vehicles Number of fil ling stations Volume of natural gas and biogas sold (x 1000 000 m3)
The City ofGöteborgtogether w ithVolvo initiatedSw edishdevelopments
CBG = compressed biogas
The Cities of Malmö, Uppsala, andTrollhättan made a commitment togo for CNG buses (Uppsala andTrollhättan relying only on CBG –biogas)
The City of Linköping started large scale biogasoperations. Volvo Car Corporation startedfactory production of CNG cars.
The City of Helsingborgstarted up CNG/CBGoperations. FordonsgasVäst w as set up inGöteborg w ith the purposeof building an adequateCNG/CBG refuelling infrastructure in West Sw eden.
The City of Kalmar startedup CBG operations.
The City ofJönköping startedup CBGoperations.
Volvo introducedits secondgeneration of BiFuel cars.
The cities ofStockholm andSkövde started upCBG operations.
The cities ofKristianstad andBorås started upCBG operations.
num
ber o
f veh
icle
s
num
ber o
f filli
ng s
tatio
ns a
nd v
olum
e of
gas
sol
d
146
Case study: SWITZERLAND
590
840
750
680
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
2001 2002 2003 2004
Number of natural gas vehicles
The quantitative target of the Sw iss gas Industry look like follow s: 100 public refuelling stations by the end of 2006 30 000 NGV’s on the street by 2010 1% market share of natural gas in the segment motor fuels300 000 NGV’s by the year 2020
There is a voluntary measure in place from the Sw iss Automobile importers toreduce the averaged consumption of new cars from 8.4 l / 100 km (year 2000)to 6.4. l/ 100 km (year 2008)
Revision of mineral oil tax in 2007. There is a Sw iss law in place to tax f ossilf uels. Several models for the modes of taxation are in discussion four of themare in evaluation. Diesel and petrol w ill be taxed up to 6 – 10 Eurocents perlitre. CO2tax comes probably end 2004/ 2005
Canton detaxation of clean vehicles (no vehicle tax (2003 ongoing). A gasmotion foresees a budget neutral tax reduction of natural gas, biogas and LPG.Diesel and petrol w ill be at the same time higher taxed to the same amount.
Situation: mid 2004 840 NGV’s, 40 public refuelling stations, 50 NG buses, 6 NGtrucks Biogas market: Very f lourishing. Strong competition f rom biogas topow er market. Tax law allow s only limited production of biogas f or vehicle fuel (5Mio liters diesel equivalent) f or complete tax deduction
147
THAILAND
1628225103
2 35 1240 12 100
1000
3000
5097
1
10 12
34
4
11
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1992 1993 1994 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 (July)0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
HD NGVs LD NGVs Filling stationsnumber of vehicles number of filling stations
NGV dedicated conversion of 5 city busesusing New Zealand technology. Time fill,on line station for use in bus fleetexperiment.
Repeating the conversion technologyof the previous year.
Same as in 1985 but moreoriented to commercialapplications.
Dedicated NGV conversionof small 4wheelers fornormal road use.
Dedicated NGV conversionof 2stroke 3wheelers (TukTuk) in an attempt to reduceexhaust emissions and fuelcost.
NGV Diesel Dual Fueltrucks using electronicfuel control devices.
As a result of poor performance of the inuseconverted buses, the ThaiGovernment decided to give a grant to BMTAfor the purchase of 82 OEM dedicated CNGbuses (44 MAN & 38 Mercedes Benz) whilePTT invested in a CNG fast fill refuelingstation to service these buses at their depot.
NGV Diesel Dual Fuel trucks using gasinjectors and electronic controls for both NGVand diesel. Not much success due to itscomplication and inadequate robustness.
Economic crisis in Thailand, the Thai Baht was devalued, but the crude oil price was still relatively high. TheThai government has gradually removed its oil price subsidy for both diesel and gasoline. The NGV projectwas reestablished to promote natural gas as an alternative vehicle fuel to alleviate the impact of the high oilprice as well as addressing the environmental problems in the greater Bangkok area. PTT, as a state ownedagency, turned to focus on inuse vehicle conversion again in 1999. NGV Diesel Dual Fuel system installed in13 city buses and 3 garbage trucks with improved control system and parts to withstand the local severerequirements. Some success with respect to exhaust emission improvement but not accepted due to poor fuelconsumption and power loss when compared to original diesel mode. Dedicated NGV conversions ofpassenger cars (company’s utility cars). Six cars with timed port gas injection system and the rest withconventional gas mixers.
Conventional gas mixer type NGVgasoline bifuel conversion in taxis. Off line, fast fill stationsincorporated into existing gasoline service stations. NGV transportation is done via storage cylinder trailers.
Gas multipoint port injectiontype NGVgasoline bifuel conversion of taxis. 1 Mother station 3 Daughter stations. Thestations ware built taxis. Beginning of the commercial stage.
Gas Multi point port sequential injection type NGV gasoline bi fuel conversion to taxis. First 2 conventional stations 8 daughterstations. To expand NGV to areas and serve more greater Bangkok.
1 Mother station 1 Conventionalstation 10 Daughter stations.
OEM NGV Dedicated Garbage collectiontrucks. The tender document for bidding 65trucks was sold up to May 25th ,2005. Thebid submission deadline is Oct 25th, 2005