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The Congress Vienna of

Derakhshan Qurban-Ali, Susan Wang CHY4U-02

April 5, 2011

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Overview

apoleon Bonaparte’s rise to power shook the status quo of Europe to its core.

The young upstart emerged as one of the most powerful people in the late 18th

century when his military campaigns steadily expanded the French empire.

Overnight, princes were felled for new ones at his instigation.

The Napoleonic Wars engaged every major European power who fought to prevent

the alarming growth of French dominance in continental Europe. By 1814, the coalition

against France emerged victorious. Napoleon abdicated on April 6, 1814 and the Napoleonic

Wars finally came to an end.

In light of Napoleon’s defeat, the allied countries came together at the Congress of

Vienna in 1814-1815 to redraw the framework for peace and stability in Europe. Weary

from 25 years of intermittent warfare, the European powers—dominated by the old regime

and the aristocracy—desired to establish a system of checks and balances that would prevent

the dominance of any one country and the potential of a continental war.

To ensure peace and stability, political changes had to be made such that each

territory was headed by a ruler capable of maintaining order. In some cases this meant the

restoration of a former ruler and in other cases, the assignment of territories as protectorates

under greater powers. The redistribution of territory that was at the heart of the Congress

was a complex issue involving many conflicting interests. Each empire wanted to expand its

power by the amassment of more land while at the same time preventing their rivals from

doing the same.

More complications arose from the nationalistic sentiments that had been gaining

momentum since the Napoleonic Wars. Many ethnic minority groups demanded, both

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peacefully and violently, the independent status of a representative nation. This meant that

whatever territorial decisions that the Congress makes will have lasting consequences on

European history.

Ultimately, the Congress was a diplomatic success in that it was able to achieve its

primary goal—that of maintaining peace within continental Europe. Not until 1914, on the

outset of World War I did a substantial, Europe-wide war break out. Through the mediation

of conflicting interests and tensions through peaceful negotiation, the Congress allowed

Europe to endure in a century of relative peace.

Delegates

FRANCE

France was represented by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord on behalf of

Louis XVIII. In the beginning of the negotiations, France played the role of observer;

however, due to the strategic negotiation on the part of Talleyrand, France gradually became

a full participant in the Congress, because he wanted France to be respected and treated as an

equal to the other Great Powers. France strongly believed in legitimacy and thus, supported

the independence of Saxony. Talleyrand used lesser powers to gain political sway until he

could reach the inner circle of power (the great powers).

AUSTRIAN EMPIRE

Austria was represented by Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, who at the time,

was of the most influential diplomats in Europe. He was Austria's foreign minister from

1809 to 1848 and was an arch-conservative and worked hard to create stability in Europe

and preserve the power of the old regime. Austria was extremely cautious when it came to

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Prussia’s expansion, because it was suspicious of Prussia’s intentions. The Austrians and

Prussians had competing interests as leaders of Germany; since Austria held this role, it

viewed Prussia as a very real threat to their power. Austria led many decisions in the Congress

and believed that Europe would find peace only if its legitimate monarchs were uncontested

by liberalism and nationalism. Metternich was deeply concerned about Russian expansionism

because he believed strongly that Europe’s stability depended on a balance of powers whereby

no one power could become too powerful.

UNITED KINGDOM

The United Kingdom was initially represented by the British foreign secretary Robert

Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh. Great Britain had a great amount of influence due to the fact

that its sea power had largely helped win the Napoleonic Wars. Britain had surfaced from the

Napoleonic Wars as Europe’s greatest power and they acted as the arbiter in the Congress.

The British government also vied for the elimination of French power, because it was a threat

to their country and economy. Britain opposed Russian expansionism as it would disturb the

balance of power. Most of Britain’s gains during negotiations were colonial, and it rose to

become the most dominant colonial power after the Congress of Vienna.

KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA

Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenburg, a prominent

Prussian statesman. Prussia and Austria were often at ends with one another due to historical

competition for control over Germany. Prussia was involved in the controversy of the Polish-

Saxon Crisis, as it strived to gain more German territory. Prussia had expansionist ambitions

and desired Saxony in order to expand their territory all over Europe.

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

The Czar and Emperor of Russia from 1801-1825, Alexander I, decided to present

himself to the Congress to make decisions, though the official Russian delegation to the

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Congress was led by Count Karl von Nesselrode. For a time, Alexander I allied with

Napoleon by the Treaty of Tilsit, but ultimately he was a member of the alliance that

defeated Napoleon. Russia’s expansionist ambitions were a threat to all of the other great

powers, and Russia’s bid for Poland created a lot of tension and controversy within the

Congress. The Russians supported the Prussians in their desire to acquire Saxony if it would

allow them power over Poland.

SIGNIFICANCE

Balance of Power

The Congress of Vienna was an extremely significant part of European history, and

the effects of the decisions made had resounding effects on the continent for decades

afterwards. The main goal of the congress was reached through implementation of “balance

of power” politics in Europe and the policing of smaller European states by the big powers.

The balance of power created a system whereby all of the big countries (Britain, Prussia,

France, Austria, and Russia) would ensure that none of them became a hegemon, or overly

dominant.

Furthermore, in order to ensure stability, the big powers needed to find a way to

quell any situations similar to that of France during the French Revolution. This is because

domestic revolutions can destabilize a country as well as the entirety of Europe. Thus, the big

powers took it upon themselves to police smaller countries and suppress any revolutions that

may present themselves. These policies created conditions which led to the Pax Britannica, a

period of relative peace in Europe dating from the Congress of Vienna until the First World

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War. During this time, there were minor revolutions and the Crimean War (1854-1856);

however, there were no wars that involved all of Europe.

Although it is disputed to have caused a lot of conflict and harm, the principle of

legitimacy did contribute to maintaining stability in Europe. The great powers strongly

believed in the principle of legitimacy, which condoned restoring the rulers of Europe that

were in power before the French Revolution. They believed that the return of the former

monarchs would stabilize political relations among the nations. Unfortunately, many

restored leaders were despotic and autocratic, but this principle did create a sense of stability;

in the short term, autocratic governments tend to be more stable than revolutionary

democratic ones. Many rulers in Europe worried that the ideals of liberty and equality during

the French Revolution might encourage other revolutions around Europe. In 1815, Czar

Alexander I, Emperor Francis I of Austria, and King Frederick William III of Prussia signed

an agreement called the Holy Alliance. In this agreement, they vowed to base their relations

with other nations on Christian principles in order to combat the forces of revolution. In

addition, a series of alliances developed by Metternich (called the Concert of Europe)

ensured that nations support each other if any revolutions broke out.

Milestone in International Diplomacy

The Congress of Vienna was a milestone in the history of international diplomacy; it

was seen as the first of a series of Congresses which have been called a "Congress System"

even though it technically was never a system. Despite being rough around the edges, the

Congress of Vienna successfully prevented numerous conflicts through international

diplomacy and cooperation. Article VI of the Quadruple Alliance started a tradition of

international cooperation by periodic congresses and the implications of this can still be seen

today and in the recent past. The goal of Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe was

to maintain global stability and prevent war. The comparable contemporary equivalent of

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these agreements is the United Nations (U.N.), an international organization established in

1945 whose purpose is to maintain and promote global peace and stability. There are various

parallels between the Congress of Vienna and the United Nations; they were both formed by

major powers after a war (Napoleonic Wars and World War II) and these powers agreed to

cooperate to reduce conflict and promote global cooperation and negotiation within

international relations. Diplomacy has been used by both the Congress of Vienna and the

United Nations to keep peace and stabilize potential conflicts.

Condemnation of the slave trade

Though often overshadowed by other pressing matters at the Congress of Vienna,

key decision made during the Congress was the condemnation of the slave trade as

inconsistent with civilization and human rights. The Congress of Vienna outlawed the

Atlantic slave trade. All of the major powers conferred on this issue, but Britain was the sole

country that took any actions to actually stop the trade by setting up an anti-slaving naval

squadron. Slavery had been a part of human life as early as 2,600 B.C.E. in Egypt and it

became an extremely profitable European trade in the late fifteenth century; these are just a

few of the reasons as to why this decision is particularly astounding, shocking and important

to comprehend. In 1807 the slave trade in the British colonies was abolished and it became

illegal to carry slaves in British ships; the slow ascent to the global abolition of slavery

commenced. While most of the countries failed to take any action to stop slavery, the public

declaration that it is deplorable is a huge milestone because it establishes the values of a

society. If the great powers agreed that slavery was inconsistent with civilization and human

rights, then most other countries influenced by them will follow suit. This decision may not

have had huge immediate effects, but it laid the groundwork for future acts, such as the

Slavery Abolition Act 1833, which was an 1833 Act of the Parliament of the United

Kingdom abolishing slavery throughout most of the British Empire.

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Political Effects

There were an abundance of political effects that occurred as a result of the Congress

of Vienna, and these would have an impact on the rest of European and even global history.

The unified efforts to diminish the size and power of France and to maintain a balance of

power meant redrawing the map of Europe; many of the territorial decisions made during

the Congress still stand today. Concurrently, the power of Prussia and Britain increased

greatly, with Britain becoming the dominant colonial power. European colonies were greatly

affected by the power shift that occurred; Spanish colonies took advantage of the events in

Europe to declare their independence and break away from Spain.

France was dispossessed of all territory conquered by Napoleon, Austria was given

back territory it had lost, as well as additional gains in Germany and Italy (Lombardia and

Venice). Norway and Sweden were joined under a single ruler, a Germanic Confederation of

39 states (including Prussia) was created (from the previous 300) under Austrian rule, the

neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed, Hanover was enlarged and made a kingdom,

Britain was given Cape Colony, South Africa, and various other colonies in Africa and Asia,

and Sardinia was given Piedmont, Nice, Savoy, and Genoa. Another important decision was

the guarantee of freedom of navigation for many rivers, such as the Rhine and the Danube.

The Dutch Republic was united with the Austrian Netherlands to form a single kingdom of

the Netherlands under the House of Orange, Prussia was given much of Saxony and

important parts of Westphalia and the Rhine Province, France was restored under the rule of

Louis XVIII, Spain was restored under Ferdinand VII, Russia attained Finland and control

over the new kingdom of Poland, and Britain attained several strategic colonial territories

and also gained control of the seas.

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Criticism

hile the Congress of Vienna did preserve relative peace in Europe for a

hundred years, it was not without faults. Criticism of the congress point

towards its disregard for nationalistic sentiments, which, by the time of the

Congress were already well-established. Instead of unifying territories and their people by

shared language and culture, the Congress established boundaries with only maintaining a

balance of power in mind. The consequences of this oversight were soon felt in the ripples of

revolution in the years following.

Another criticism of the Congress was its acceptance and encouragement of a

Conservative Order which promoted stability and peace at the price of progress in liberty and

civil rights. As such, criticism of the Congress maintains that it helped keep reactionary

regimes in power and subsequently stifled social progress.

Some go as far as to claim that the Congress held a total disregard for the positive

impact of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, namely the advances in

constitutional rights for ordinary people. So while the Congress may have made significant

progress in diplomacy and the stability of Europe, it was rarely done with the common

people in mind and often at the sacrifice of their rights.

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ITEM 1

The Grand Duchy of Warsaw

he Grand Duchy of Warsaw is a Polish state established by Napoleon in

1807 that lasted until 1815. The land was a part of the greater Polish-

Lithuanian Commonwealth until the late 18th century when a number of

partitions by Russia, Prussia and Austria dissolved the commonwealth into

extensions of the three empires. The Duchy of Warsaw rested on land that had been

partitioned to Prussia in the late 18th century (1793, 1795). It remained under Prussian

control until 1806, when an uprising over conscription rose into a liberation movement.

Following this, a new government was instated and one of its first tasks was to support

Napoleon Bonaparte’s efforts against Russia in East Prussia. The Duchy was not established

until some months later when Napoleon led a number of successful campaigns against

Prusso-Russian forces. With the defeats, the Russian Tsar Alexander I was forced to seek

peace terms and even an alliance with France. This resulted in the Treaty of Tilsit (1807)

which granted Russia control over Białystok, a province once a part of Prussian Poland and

consolidated Prussia’s remaining Polish states into The Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

The creation of the Duchy was welcomed by republicans in partitioned Poland and

Poles in France who held high hopes that Napoleon would restore the Polish state to its

former glory. The new state was allied to France and in a personal union with the Kingdom

of Saxony (previously a part of the Holy Roman Empire). The King of Saxony, Frederick

Augustus I served as Duke of Warsaw but emplaced a constitutional monarchy with a

parliament there at the behest of Napoleon. However, while the state was technically

independent, in reality, it was under French control. It was garrisoned by French forces and

served as a satellite of France – the Duchy was treated largely as a source of resources and

subject to French national interests; in addition, its government was based on the French

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model and was subject to the Napoleonic Code. On the other hand, the constitution

respected Polish traditions and customs and while the ruler was absolute, his power was used

with discretion and often delegated to ministers.

The Duchy doubled its size in 1809 following a successful war against Austria. Despite

this success, French occupation would lead to eventual economic ruin as a result of the

Continental System and a disproportionately large army that was maintained in its borders.

The new Duchy of Warsaw was seen as a form of constant irritation for the Russian

Tsar Alexander I who desired the land for Russia. The resulting enmity was a factor to the

tension that culminated in Napoleon’s Russian campaign in 1812.

For the Poles, Napoleon’s invasion of Russia was a cause for renewed hope of restored

Polish glory. Napoleon encouraged this nationalism, terming his efforts in Russia his “second

Polish war”. With great effort, the Duchy put onto the field an army corps of some 98 000

men (~2.5% of the population). Napoleon’s later loss in Russia was also a loss for the Duchy

as in the following year (in 1813) Russians assumed control.

THE FOURTH PARTITION AND THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA

With the victory of the anti-Napoleonic forces and the need to redefine borders in

Europe, the Duchy of Warsaw became a hotly contested issue at the Congress of Vienna

(1814-15). Lip service was paid to the Polish by the Congress who encouraged the powers to

respect the rights of its Polish subjects (as long as their rights were compatible with state

interests). Furthermore, the Congress decided that free trade and communications will be

provided for within the borders of the old Commonwealth. The latter never materialized.

Despite the presence of a number of European states and past rulers, decision making

at the Congress were laid in the hands of the major powers. Given its history, it may have

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been inevitable that the Duchy of Warsaw was divided between Prussia and Russia, with

Austria to retain its gains from the First Partition (1772). In the congress, Russia made

demands for the entire territory of the Duchy. This motion was denied by other European

powers in what later became the Polish-Saxon Crisis. However, the majority of the Duchy

(around 128 000 km²) was eventually put under the jurisdiction of Tsar Alexander of Russia

who was to rule the Duchy under the name of the Kingdom—or Congress Kingdom—of

Poland. In effect, the new kingdom became a Russian puppet-state: while it had its own

constitution and army, it was seen as an extension of the Russian Empire and its foreign

policy was decided by the Tsar. In fact, sixteen years following the congress (1831), it lost its

status and became fully annexed to the Russian Empire.

In addition to the partitions to Russia, part of the Duchy was partitioned to Prussia.

This land included some of the land it gave up following French victory in 1807 (but had

acquired in the First and Second Partitions). A piece of the land the Prussians newly acquired

came as the Grand Duchy of Posen (or the Province of Poznań)—an area around 29 000

km² in size.

The third division was the establishment of a free territory that included the city of

Kraków and the surrounding area which was previously part of the Duchy of Warsaw. It was

1164 km2 in size and had a population of 88 000. This partition was consolidated to become

the Free City of Kraków whose protection was provided for by Prussia, Austria and Russia.

Thirty one years following the Congress, the free city was annexed to Austria.

As a result of the Congress, the original Poland-Lithuanian Commonwealth was

partitioned into three territories among Prussia, Russia and Austria: the Free City of Kraków,

the Grand Duchy of Posen and the Kingdom of Poland. Of the original commonwealth,

Russia now controlled two-thirds.

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EARLY RUSSIAN RULE AND THE FUTURE OF THE KINGDOM

OF POLAND

The Polish desired the Kindom of Poland to be united with the eastern “lost lands”

of its commonwealth and become a partner of—rather than an extension of—the Russian

Empire. While Tsar Alexander considered the idea, it was abandoned under the pressure of

Russian elites who were not willing to surrender any of the annexed lands.

What followed were decades of conspiracies against the empire: liberal opposition in

the Polish parliament (which was seen as ingratitude by the Russian Tsar) grew to become

more radical. The secret Polish Patriotic Society was one of the first opposition groups.

Russo-Polish relations grew tense following the Decembrist uprising in Russia in

1825. Outbreaks of revolution in France and Belgium in 1830 further intensified the

situation. Unrest conflated in the form of the November Insurrection (November, 1830)—

an act of conspiracy at the cadet school in Warsaw that developed into a national revolt. The

uprising dethroned the Romanovs in Poland and began a Russo-Polish war. Hostilities

continued until September of 1831 when the Russians emerged victorious.

What followed the Russian victory were harsh reprisals, confiscations, arrests and

deportations. The liberal constitution that was emplaced by Napoleon more than two

decades earlier was suspended: this meant that the Polish parliament, government and army

were now completely under the jurisdiction of Russia. Cultural Russification took place and

liquified the Uniate Church and removed the Lithuanian code of law.

Poles emigrated in the thousands. The Polish struggle for self-sovereignty was seen by

many as a paragon of the fight for liberty for much of the first half of the 19th century.

Uprisals continued to occur centuries after the Congress of Vienna as Poles fought for a

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independent Polish state. Poland finally regained independence in 1918, as the Second

Polish Republic.

Kingdom of Saxony

he Kingdom of Saxony was a state in Germany from 1806 to 1918. Saxony’s

capital was Dresden and it was a part of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806.

After the defeat of Emperor Francis II by Napoleon at the Battle of

Austerlitz, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved and the Electorate of

Saxony became an independent kingdom with the support of France; Elector Frederick

Augustus III became King Frederick Augustus I.

Following the defeat of Prussia (Saxony’s ally) at the Battle of Jena in 1806, Saxony

joined and remained within the Confederation of the Rhine until Napoleon’s defeat at the

Battle of Leipzig; the Confederation dissolved as a result. Unlike the vast majority of German

states, Saxony had fought alongside the French; King Frederick Augustus I remained loyal to

Napoleon for too long and suffered the consequences. He was taken prisoner and his

territories declared forfeit by the allies in 1813, with Prussia intending to annex them. In the

end, the opposition of Austria, France, and the United Kingdom resulted in Frederick

Augustus being restored to his throne at the Congress of Vienna, but Saxony was forced to

give up the northern part of the kingdom to Prussia. This land became the Prussian province

of Saxony.

The negotiation of Poland and Saxony’s fate was one of the most contentious issues

at the Congress of Vienna and it developed into the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia had already

occupied much of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but Tsar Alexander I also demanded the

Prussian parts of Poland. In return, he was prepared to support the Prussian annexation of

the Kingdom of Saxony. These plans were opposed by Austria, Britain and France because it

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would give Russia a disproportionate amount of territory and it would upset the balance of

power in favor of Russia and Prussia. The main goal of the conference was to create a balance

of power that would preserve the peace, and Russia’s proposal contravened this goal. Thus,

Britain, Austria and France signed a secret treaty on January 3, 1815; the intent of the treaty

was to prevent the realization of Russia and Prussia’s plan and they agreed to go to war if

necessary.

Luckily, a peaceful settlement was reached on October 24, 1814. Prussia received 40%

of Saxony (later known as the Province of Saxony) with the remainder returned to King

Frederick Augustus I as the Kingdom of Saxony. Prussia’s share of land included a third of

Saxony’s population and the city of Wittenberg, which was the home of the Protestant

Reformation. In addition, the Kingdom of Saxony joined the German Confederation, which

was the new organization of the German states to replace the Holy Roman Empire.

ITEM 2

EMDEN, OSNABRUCK,

MINDEN AND BRUNSWICK

EMDEN

mden is a city in northwestern Germany. It became a trading port with Baltic

countries following its founding in the 800s. It became northwest Europe’s most

important port for trade following the Dutch wars of independence in the 16th

century when Emden received much of Holland’s trade. The region was a center of

Calvinism.

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In 1744, Emden was annexed to Prussia. Following the Seven Years’ War, the region

came under French rule. By 1758, Emden was recaptured by Anglo-Germans. During the

conflict, the region was used as a supply base by the British and supported their war in

Westphalia.

During Napoleon’s conquests, the area and its surroundings (termed East Frisia)

were put under the Kingdom of Holland. The kingdom was a short-lived one as it lasted

only 4 years from 1806 to 1810. Strategically, the kingdom’s location gave Napoleon better

access to the Netherlands. It was ruled by his brother Louis Bonaparte.

The Congress of Vienna ceded most of the land to Prussia, along with Osnabruck,

and Minden.

OSNABRUCK

Osnabruck lies south of Emden. It developed as a marketplace in the 8th century. In

the late 16th and early half of the 17th century, during the Protestant Reformation and

Europe’s wars of religion, the city was a bed of civil unrest. Economically, the city depended

on its linen and tobacco industries.

Prussian troops entered the city in 1795 following the French Revolutionary Wars.

French troops followed in 1803. Eventually, Osnabruck was passed under the Electorate of

Hanover in 1803, then to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1806. Following Napoleon’s conquests,

it became a part of the Kingdom of Westphalia from 1807 to 1810, governed by Napoleon’s

brother Jerome Bonaparte. From there, it was ceded to the First French Empire. Then, at

the behest of the Congress of Vienna, the city came under the jurisdiction of the Kingdom of

Hanover in 1815.

In 1866, following the Austro-Prussian war, Osnabruck again passed hands into the

boundaries of Prussia.

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MINDEN

Minden is a city in northern Germany that spreads over both sides of the Weser

River. It lies to the west of Osnabruck. Like Osnabruck, Minden developed as a marketplace.

Charlemagne—Emperor of Rome from 800-814—established a bishopric (a region run by a

bishop of the Roman Empire) there. The city developed after given the rights to open a

marketplace, mint its own coins and collect duties.

Conflict arose in the city as a result of the Protestant Reformation: most notably, a

series of witch hunts took place in the 17th century and resulted in 128 prosecutions.

Following the Peace of Westphalia (1648) which ended the Thirty Years War,

Minden was ceded to Prussia. It remained under Prussian sovereignty until its dissolution in

1947.

BRUNSWICK

Brunswick or Braunschweig as it is known in German, is a city in northern

Germany, west of Minden. The name is derived from a combination of the name Bruno and

the German term wik which refers to a place where merchants rest and store their goods. The

circumstances of the city’s founding are unknown, but most believe that the city resulted

from the union of two smaller cities at the turn of the first millennium.

From the 13th to the 17th century, Brunswick was a member of the Hanseatic League

(an alliance of Northern European trading cities and guilds). By the 18th century, Brunswick

was a political and cultural centre: for instance, Goethe’s Faust was first performed in the

city.

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Brunswick has not played a large role in German politics. While many counties were

added to its domain it weakened in time with constant divisions of territory. The

Reformation distorted the unity of the region as some princes took one side, while some the

other. By the time of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, little impact had been made on its

influence, but this was not to be the case in subsequent years as its position came to be

greatly influenced by Prussia’s growth. As Brunswick supported Frederick the Great of

Prussia during the Seven Year’s War, it was devastated by the French. The duke of

Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, led Prussian troops against Napoleon and died in

1806 from battle wounds. Following this, Napoleon disposed of the ducal family and

included Brunswick in the formation of the Kingdom of Westphalia. Following the Congress

of Vienna, the territory became the independent Duchy of Brunswick. Brunswick served as

its capital with Charles II, Duke of Brunswick, serving as duke. In 1866, the duchy joined

the North German Confederation. It later became a state of the German empire in 1871,

following German unification.

North and West Germany

he decisions surrounding Germany during the Congress of Vienna often found

middle ground between contentious issues. Decisions avoided both extreme

centralization and extreme fragmentation in order to balance power in Europe.

The Holy Empire was not restored and the Confederation of the Rhine was not maintained

either. Reforms made during the French Revolution within German states were not entirely

retracted and enlightened despotism was not wholly re-established. The new political order

created from Germany lasted for over fifty years.

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Prussia played a very important role in Germany. It was decided during the Congress

of Vienna that Prussia would be the defender of Germany’s western boundary, for fear of

aggression from France. The Rhineland and Westphalia (including the Ruhr district, which

developed into a hugely successful industrial centre) became Prussian provinces.

Furthermore, the king agreed to relinquish the majority of his Polish property to Russia in

return for a substantial part of Saxony. Prussia was given a very strategic position and was

propelled back into Germany. On the other hand, Austria shifted eastward in the direction

of Eastern Europe and Italy for geographical, military and political reasons; overall, the

Habsburg Empire became less associated with Germany. The possessions in southern and

western Germany were surrendered along with the Austrian Netherlands in return for

Venetian territory on the Adriatic.

Created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the German Confederation was the

association of Central European states that aimed to coordinate the economies of separate

German-speaking countries; it acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and

Prussia. Most sovereignty rights remained in the hands of the member governments and

there was no central executive or judiciary, except for a federal Diet meeting in Frankfurt am

Main to consider common legislation. Britain believed that it was useful as a stable, peaceful

power in Central Europe that could discourage aggression from France or Russia.

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ITEM 3

Genoa

enoa is a seaport in northern Italy. Historically, Genoa has been a very

wealthy city being well situated for Mediterranean trade. The crusades of

the early 13th century brought immense wealth to the city and with the

development of a powerful banking system Genoa remained wealthy for

the first half of the millennium.

Genoa’s power declined with the internal struggle between Genoa’s noble families in

the feuds between Guelphs and Gibellines (supporters of the Pope and supporters of the

Emperor respectively). From the 14th to the 16th centuries, power over Genoa passed hands

between France and Milan, another wealthy city-state—although independence in name was

preserved.

In 1522, a republic was established. In 1528, seaman and statesman Andrea Doria

overtook Genoa and put the city under the jurisdiction of Spain. The thirty year dictatorship

of Doria was a prosperous period in which art and economy flourished.

Invasions were rife and power did not remain in one hand for long. Following Doria’s

rule, the city again passed hands, from Spanish to French, then to Austrian control during

the War of Austrian Succession. Later on, a popular uprising in 1746 would uproot Austrian

control of Genoa.

By this time, Genoa’s power was declining. The shift in trade from the Mediterranean

to the New World meant that Genoa was no longer the powerful seaport it once was. Along

with economic decline, came political decline. 1797 saw the end of aristocratic rule in Genoa

as pressure from Napoleon’s French military drove Genoa to form the Ligurian Republic

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along with its surrounding territories. The new Republic was under French control: its

government was modelled after the French’s, it was allied to France and Napoleon appointed

its chief of state. By 1805, the Ligurian Republic, along with Genoa, was absorbed into the

French Empire.

When Napoleon was defeated by the coalition of anti-Napoleonic forces, the question

of who was to rule Genoa again became a point of contention. The Congress decided to

annex Genoa and the Liguria Republic under the rule of the Piedmont king.

Sentiment for Italian unification began to surface following the Congress. Nationalistic

sentiments for a unified Italy (waged largely against the Austrian Empire) would preoccupy

Genoa for much of the 19th century. Modern Italy arose in 1861, when the Italian Peninsula

and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies were united under King Victor Emmanuel II, King of

Sardinia.

Mainland Venice and the States of Milan

nder the Austrian rule of Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II, the reform of

1786 divided the State of Milan into nine provinces. Each state was governed

by Imperial Delegates: Milano, Pavia, Lodi, Cremona, Casalmaggiore, Como,

Valle Intelvi, Mantova and Terre. This created Milan’s first separate administrative structure.

After the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, the state’s administration

was divided into districts. After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna gave the States of

Milan back to the Austro-Hungarian Empire under the new Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia,

where the city of Milan became one of the two capitals, along with Venice.

With the conquer of Venice on May 12th, 1797, Napoleon shut down the

monasteries, looted the churches, uprooted citizens and turned many of the islands into

fortified garrisons. Venice had lost independence. After the Congress of Vienna, the

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Austrians took over from the French and added barracks. It initially became Austrian

territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria. However, it

changed possession many times over the following eight years. Ultimately, the Congress of

Vienna determined that Venice would be given back to Austria.

The Ionian Islands

he Ionian Islands is a group of 7 Greek islands: Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante,

Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cythera (Cerigo) and Paxo. The islands have no

geographical unity, have differing histories, and existed as a separate state for

only 7 years in history from 1800 – 1807. The term Ionian possibly refers to

ancient settlements of Ionian colonists on the islands or Io, the virgin priestess of Hera.

Prior to the conquests of Napoleon Bonaparte in the late 18th century, the Ionian

Islands were part of the Republic of Venice. Venetian rule lasted from the 14th and 15th

centuries to 1797, when the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)—that ended a five year long

war between Austria and France following the French revolutions— dissolved the Republic

of Venice (despite its attempts at neutrality) and ceded the islands to France.

For many of the people of the Ionian Islands Napoleon was a liberator. During

Venetian rule, the social system in most of the Ionian Islands was a feudal one: being divided

into classes of nobles, the bourgeoisie and the commoners. The exploitation of the majority

by the nobles resulted in uprisings that were severely repressed. When Napoleon conquered

the islands he publicly burned the Libro D’oro (the Golden Book) which outlined the

privileges of the nobles. (In contrast, the island of Ithaca had always been in a liberal, class

free democracy— illustrating that the islands differed in significant aspects.)

Two years later (in 1799), the islands became a republic under Russian protection

after a Russo-Turkish fleet seized the islands. In Corfu, the new government returned the

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privileges of the nobles destroyed by Napoleon some years prior. When Russia was later

forced into negotiating peace terms in 1807 following the War of the Third Coalition, the

islands were returned to France under the Treaty of Tilsit. They remained a part of the

French Provinces of Illyria until the decline of French power, whence Britain took an interest

in the islands and proceeded to overtake them one by one (Corfu remained a French outpost

until 1813).

The islands largely prospered under French and British rule. During French rule,

agricultural and social improvements were made, schools were built, public services were

reorganized and the Ionian Academy was established. During British rule, roads were built,

water systems were improved and the first Greek university was founded.

The Congress of Vienna gave control over the islands to Britain. Changes were made

with the Treaty of Paris on November 9, 1815. Under this treaty, the islands became the

United States of the Ionian Islands, with Corfu as its capital. Britain was granted exclusive

protection of the island while Austria was given rights to equal commercial advantage there.

In 1821, the Ionian Islands supported the Greek Revolution against the Ottoman

Empire. Forty three years later, the British donated the islands to the new King of Greece

whence it became a part of the Kingdom of Greece.

Dalmatian Province of Venice

apoleon annexed the Venetian Dalmatia from Istria to Kotor in 1805 and

created the Kingdom of Italy; however, the Dalmatian Province of Venice was

removed from the Kingdom of Italy in 1809 by Napoleon. The people of

Dalmatia were opposed to the French rule under Napoleon and thus, they declared war on

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France in 1813. The Habsburgs formed a temporary Kingdom of Illyria and restored control

over Dalmatia in 1814. However, at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Dalmatia was granted

as a province to the Emperor of Austria; it was officially known as the Kingdom of Dalmatia.

The Kingdom of Two Sicilies

he Kingdom of the Two Sicilies consist of southern Italy and the island of

Sicily. Until the 11th century when Normans conquered the island of Sicily

and the Italian peninsula up to the south of Rome, the area was ruled

successively by Romans, Byzantines, Lombards, and Saracens. Power

eventually split between the French and Spanish (in the 1300s), one ruled the continental

kingdom and the other, the island of Sicily. When the two areas were reunited under the rule

of the Spanish King of Aragon (in 1443), the title of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies came to be

known. However, until the Congress of Vienna (1815), the kingdom was commonly referred

to as the Kingdom of Naples.

In 1713, with the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, Naples was ceded to

Austria. It would later acquire Sicily as well (by trading it with Sardinia). Austrian rule was

displaced in the 1730’s (following the War of Polish Succession) when the Bourbons (who

descended from Spain) restored Spanish control of the kingdom. Naples became the

kingdom’s capital: it remained as Western Europe’s third largest city well into the nineteenth

century.

Prosperous regions of the kingdom (Aquila, Foggia, Bari, Lecce, Taranto, Reggio

di Calabria, and Salerno) had economies that were connected with Tuscan, Venetian and

Genoese trade. In the early 1500s, a trade imbalance of 10:1 favoured exports of agricultural

raw materials. By the later half of the 18th century, imports overpowered exports with a ratio

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of 6:5—the kingdom’s agricultural prosperity could not compensate for the introduction of

(higher priced) industrial goods.

The Kingdom suffered a disastrous famine from 1763-1764 resulting in the death of

200 000 people—or 5% of the population.

Napoleon Bonaparte conquered the continental kingdom in 1805 which at that

time, were in the hands of the Bourbons. The Bourbons did manage to maintain control

over the island of Sicily with the protection of the British Royal Navy. The King of the

kingdom at the time—Ferdinand IV (or Ferdinand I as he is also known) was exiled to Sicily

until his restoration in 1815. The throne was replaced with Napoleon’s brother—Joseph

Bonaparte.

After Napoleon’s return from exile in Elba (during the 100 Days Campaign),

Joachim Murat, a French Marshal who succeeded Joseph Bonaparte, raised a revolt towards

the north of the kingdom. He rules Rome for a short period. When Napoleon eventually

falls, Murat is executed by the rightful Bourbon king of Naples and Sicily. Following this

short stint, Austria regains control of northern Italy and the Papal States which were once

under French control are returned to Rome.

The Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were united by the Congress of Vienna into the

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Ferdinand IV King of Naples was restored to power. By a

secret treaty with Austria, Ferdinand was retrained from making any constitutional

advancement without the approval of Austria. This was in keeping with Metternich’s desire

to preserve the status quo in Europe. Ferdinand was heavily influenced by Austria in other

ways as well: at one point, Count Nugent—an Austrian—was made commander of the

army; in addition, his Austrian wife, Maria Carolina, had great control over him.

In 1820, a revolution in Spain inspired a similar revolution in the Kingdom of the

Two Sicilies. The liberals—former members of Murat’s army—captured Naples with the

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support of the bourgeoisie and the army. Ferdinand was forced into instating the Spanish

constitution of 1812 that centralized bureaucracy. The success of the liberals alarmed those

of the Holy Alliance (Austria, Prussia and Russia) who feared that the conflict would spread

to the rest of Europe. Austria had been given leave to protect the Bourbon monarchy if

necessary at the Congress of Vienna. In light of this, an Austrian army marched on Naples

and reestablished absolute government to Ferdinand. He would rule until his death in 1825.

Efforts for Italian unification began with a series of revolts in 1848 following the fall

of Klemens Wenzel von Metternich. In 1859, the King Victor Emmanuel became the first

king of Italy, bringing an end to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

Parma, Modena, Lucca and Tuscany

ustria is given Parma, Modena, Lucca and Tuscany; they are ruled by an

Austrian Hapsburg. Under the treaty of Fontainebleau it had been argued that

the Duchy of Parma should be given to Marie Louise with the remainder going

to her son. This settlement was contested and elaborate scheme was designed by members of

the Congress, under which Parma, Guastalla and Piacenza should go to Don Louis or his

mother, the Queen of Etruria. It was also agreed that Lucca and part of Elba should go the

Grand Duke of Tuscany and that Marie Louise should be compensated. In the end it was

agreed that the Queen of Etruria should be given the Duchy of Lucca and that Parma should

go to Marie Louise; however, her son (the king of Rome) should be excluded from

succession. Everyone, particularly Metternich, was pleased by this arrangement, which

ensured the predominance of Austrian influence in the Italian Peninsula.

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The German Confederation

he German Confederation was a union of 39 German sates, 35 monarchies

and 4 free cities that was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and

lasted until 1866. The Confederation succeeded Napoleon’s Confederation

of the Rhine (established in 1806 as a buffer against Austria and Prussia),

which in turn followed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire ordered by Napoleon

during the Napoleonic Wars. The new Confederation had similar boundaries as the Holy

Roman Empire had during the French Revolution, but it greatly simplified the number of

member states: from 300 to 39.

The problems the Germanic states faced prior to the Congress of Vienna included an

economic one: trade passing through the states could (if travelling from Prussia to Cologne)

be taxed 18 times. Some called for the removal of domestic tolls and a German tariff on

imports. However, trade was not addressed at the Congress of Vienna save a suggestion that

trade and transportation be discussed at a later date. It was not until the 1820s that the issue

of customs was addressed significantly. At the behest of Prussia, the Zollverein (Customs

Union) formed and included most German states by the 1830s. However, Austria—being

Prussia’s chief rival--was purposely exempted from the union.

The states had loose political association, had no central executive or judiciary. The

main purpose of the union was strengthened defence for its members and the maintenance of

independence. If attacked, members were to assure mutual defence (with the exceptions of

the King of Hanover (England), Duke of Luxembourg (Netherlands) and the Duke of

Holstein and Lauenburg (Denmark)). The confederation also served as a buffer against the

power of Austria and Prussia and supported the Congress’ goals of creating a balance of

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power in Europe. In fact, Britain supported the Confederation during the Congress because

it believed in a need for a peaceful power in Europe that could deter French or Russian

aggressions.

Power in the Confederation was to be exercised in a general assembly. The Reichstag

(an assembly of the Imperial Estates) of the Holy Roman Empire was reinvented to become

the Frankfurt Diet. Delegates of the confederation met at a central diet in Frankfurt where

an Austrian always served as president. The diet served as a diplomatic conference but was

ineffective because it required the unanimity of 2/3 of the vote and delegates were bound to

their governments. Prince Clemens von Metternich, director of Austria’s foreign policy at the

time (1809-1848), dominated the Confederation with Prussia’s support. He sought to quell

liberalism in the Confederation (as he did elsewhere) with his passing of the Carlsbad

Decrees in 1819. Under its terms, a system of press censorship and university regulation was

set up to diminish liberal thought.

Despite Metternich’s efforts, liberalism had already taken root in the German states,

sparked by the writings of figures such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) and the

achievements of France followings its revolution. In addition, the easy French victories in the

German states made German unification a practical solution.

The idea of German unification was disdainful for many members of the German

aristocracy who feared the liberation of the small states under their control. Metternich

opposed the unification of Germany because he saw that the Habsburg Empire would not fit

easily into a united Germany. Instead, he desired a loose association of German states in

which none could challenge the power of Austria. Prussia’s stance was similar as they too saw

German unification as a threat to their power.

While opposition against a unified Germany was strong, the sentiment for the

alternative was even stronger. In 1848, liberal revolutions spread across Germany, resulting

in the establishment of the Frankfurt Parliament. With the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, in

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which Prussia challenged Austria for the right to rule the German Confederation, the

confederation was ultimately dissolved to form the North German Confederation under

Prussian rule. In 1871, the Confederation was became the German Empire.