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Page 1: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Renaissance Europe

Page 2: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Regiomontanus

• Born near Königsberg in Lower Franconia in 1436.

• Johann Müller• Johannes Germanus• Johannes Francus• Johann von Kunsperk• Regio Monte (“royal 

mountain”)• Regiomontanus• Johannes de Monte Regio

Page 3: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Regiomontanus

• Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s Almagest.When Peurbach died young, Johann took over this task.  

• Became friends with Cretan, George of Trebizond, a Ptolemaic scholar, whom he later criticized for errors in interpretation, as “the most impudently perverse blabber‐mouth.”  

Page 4: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Regiomontanus

• Traveled extensively.• Was asked in 1467 to be librarian to the Royal Library of Hungary (the king had just returned triumphant from a war with the Turks, brought back a number of rare books).  

• Cast the horoscope of the King, predicting that he would not die, and when it turned out that way, was lavishly bestowed with gifts.  

Page 5: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Regiomontanus

• Returned home in 1471.  He settled in Nürnberg, which had a printing press.  

• First publisher of mathematical and astronomical books for commercial use.  Also published some very popular calendars.

• Was asked by Pope Sixtus IV to come to Rome and help revise the old Julian calendar, which was out of tune with the seasons.  

• He died there on July 6, 1476.  

Page 6: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Regiomontanus

• We don’t know cause of death, but one tradition is  that he was poisoned by the sons of Trebizond, the “most impudently perverse blabber‐mouth.” 

• Another tradition is that it was a passing comet.  Or a plague.  Take your pick. 

Page 7: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Regiomontanus

• Wrote De trangulusomnimodis, or On triangles of every kind.  It had five parts or books, and was modeled, of course, on the Elements.  

• Finished in 1464, but not published until 1533.  

Page 8: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

On Triangles of Every Kind

• Book 1:  Basic definitions of quantity, ratio, equality, circle, arc, chord.  

• “When the arc and its chord are bisected, we call that half‐chord the right sine of the half‐arc.”  

• A list of axioms, followed by 56 theorems, most geometrical, solving plane triangles.  Theorem 20 uses the sine to solve a right triangle.  

Page 9: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

On Triangles of Every Kind

• Book 2:  The Law of Sines, stated literally rather than with symbols.  Used to solve SAA and SSA cases (thus dealing with the “ambiguous” case).  

• Area of triangle in terms of two sides and included angle:  

• Used sines, cosines (= sine of complement), and versines (1 – cosine).

Page 10: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

On Triangles of Every Kind

• Sines and cosines were still defined not in terms of right angles, but in terms of line segments associated with a given arc in a circle of fixed radius.  

• The fixed radius was usually a power of 10, or 6 times a power of 10, with the powers getting larger in later books so as to avoid decimal fractions.  

Page 11: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

On Triangles of Every Kind

• Books 3‐5 deal with spherical geometry and trigonometry, as a prerequisite to astronomy.

• “You, who wish to study great and wondrous things, who wonder about the movements of the stars, must read these theorems about triangles. . . . For no one can bypass the science of triangles and reach a satisfying knowledge of the stars. . . . A new student should neither be frightened nor despair. . . . And where a theorem may present some problem, he may always look down to the numerical examples for help.”

Page 12: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Ephemerides

• Regiomontanus published his Ephemerides in 1474.

• It contained tables listing the position of the sun, moon, and planets for each day from 1474 to 1506.  

• Columbus took it with him on his fourth voyage, and famously used it to predict the lunar eclipse of February 29, 1504, to the amazement of the hostile natives.  

Page 13: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Fra Luca Pacioli

• 1447‐1517• Local education, then became a Franciscan Friar.

• The “Father of Accounting.”  

• Introduced  for più and meno, or plus and minus.  

Page 14: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Fra Luca Pacioli

• Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita (1494)

• Shamelessly borrowed from earlier authors.  It laid out the boundaries of contemporary mathematical knowledge.  

• Ended with the prediction that the solution (by radicals) of the cubic equation was impossible (like the quadrature of the circle).

Page 15: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Which leads us to our transitional character, Scipione del Ferro.

• Born 1465, but did his important work with the cubic between 1500 and 1515.  

• Didn’t publish, but closely guarded his work.

Page 16: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Depressed Cubic

• By making the substitution  for an appropriate value of c, any cubic can be reduced to a cubic without a second degree term.  Thus it will be of the form:

• , with b and c  rational numbers.  

• But in 1500, we only liked positive rational numbers, so there were actually several forms of this “depressed” cubic.

Page 17: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Depressed Cubic

••••

• del Ferro solved this depressed cubic in at least one, possibly all, of its forms.  

Page 18: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Scipione del Ferro

• When he died, his papers containing this solution were left to his son‐in‐law Annibaledella Nave, and to one of del Ferro’s students, Antonio Maria Fiore.

• Fiore intended to use it.<cue ominous music>

Page 19: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

More on the Cubic Later

• But first, some other important mathematics.

Page 20: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

The Abacists vs Traditionalists

• Dear Professor: You keep on using that word.  I do not think it means what you think it means.

• Abacists were abacists in the sense of Liber Abaci, that is, they used the Islamic tradition of decimal numbers and algorithms, and eschewed counting boards in favor of pencil and paper.

Page 21: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

The Abacists vs Traditionalists

• The Abacists won, but it took a while.

• “But what if you were stranded on a desert island without paper?  Then you’d wish you’d studied how to use a counting board……”

Page 22: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Rafael Bombelli

• Rafael Bombelli (1526‐1572)

• His family had been out of favor with local leaders.

• Lived in Bologna and was tutored by an engineer/architect.

• Worked as a hydraulic engineer, draining wetlands.

Page 23: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Rafael Bombelli

• While waiting for a certain project to recommence, decided to write an algebra book. 

• Published in three volumes (two volumes of geometry that were to follow were not published)

Page 24: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Rafael Bombelli

• Wrote down rules for negative numbers:• Plus times plus makes plusMinus times minus makes plusPlus times minus makes minusMinus times plus makes minusPlus 8 times plus 8makes plus 64Minus 5 times minus 6makes plus 30Minus 4 times plus 5makes minus 20Plus 5 times minus 4makes minus 20 

Page 25: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Rafael Bombelli

• Wrote down rules for computing with complex numbers:

• Plus of minus times plus of minus makes minus [+√‐n . +√‐n = ‐n]

Plus of minus times minus of minus makes plus [+√‐n . ‐√‐n = +n]

Minus of minus times plus of minus makes plus [‐√‐n . +√‐n = +n]

Minus of minus times minus of minus makes minus  [‐√‐n . ‐√‐n = ‐n] 

Page 26: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Rafael Bombelli

• Notation:Modern notation

Bombelli Printed

5x

25x

4 6 Rq 4pRq6

3 2 0 121 Rc 2pRq 0m121

15

25

Page 27: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

François VièteFrançois Viète (1540 – 1603) was a French lawyer who worked for kings Henri III and Henri IV as a cryptanalyst (a breaker of secret codes). François was born a French Protestant (Huguenot), and when Henry of Navarre, also a Protestant, came to power, it alarmed Catholics both inside and outside of France. 

Page 28: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

François Viète

• Philip II of Spain rather fancied his own daughter as successor to Henry III (who, by the way, was flamboyantly gay and unlikely to produce a lawful heir) rather than Henry of Navarre.  Philip exchanged many letters with members of the French court in support of his daughter, even after Henry of Navarre assumed the throne as Henry IV.  

Page 29: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

François Viète

• These letters, written in code, were given to Viète to decode. He was so successful at this that Philip denounced him for being in league with the Devil.  

Page 30: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

François Viète

• During a period of exile from Henry III’s court (this was a very unsettled time in French history) he found the time to write several treatises that are collectively known as The Analytic Art, in which he effectively reformulated the study of algebra by replacing the search for solutions with a detailed study of the structure of equations. 

Page 31: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

François Viète

• Viète used upper case vowels (A, E, I, O, U, Y) to represent unknowns and upper case consonants to represent given constants. His symbolism was not complete, in the sense that he still used words to indicate powers –A2 is A quadratum, B3 would be B cubus, and C4 is C quadrato‐quadratum. He did at times use abbreviations such as A quad or C quad‐quad. His rules for combining powers had to be given verbally.

Page 32: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

François Viète

• Our equation  , in Viète’ssymbolism, would be:  

• B in A Quadratum, + D plano in A, aequari Z solido.  

• Here, he uses B, D and Z as known (but unspecified) numbers, and A as the unknown.  The word “in” represents multiplication.  The “+” sign was used for addition, as was “‐“ for subtraction. There was no “=” but instead some proper conjugation of the Latin verb aequare. 

Page 33: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

François Viète

• The words plano and solido demonstrate that Viète was strongly influenced by Greek concepts, since they are there to guarantee that the Z has “cubic” units, and the D has “square” units (resulting in “cubic” units when multiplied by A), thus guaranteeing that quantities of the same kind (cubic) are being added.  

Page 34: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Viète

• On the other hand, he accepted larger powers in equations; he even solved a whopper of a 45th degree equation posed by Adriaan van Roomen.

• Viète’s symbolism was to be further refined and superseded by that of René Descartes, who only a few years later gave us what amounts to our modern system of algebraic symbolism.

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Viète

• Provided an approximation of  correct to 10 decimals by using Archimedes’ method. 

• Wrote what seems to be the first infinite product  by noting that 

Page 36: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Viète

• What was his most important legacy?• Searching for Analysis• Systematizing algebra – “formulas, rather than rules.”  “Focus on the procedures of the solution rather than the solution itself.”  

• “Replacing the search for solutions to equations by the detailed study of the structure of these equations.”

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Some Astronomy

Page 38: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Mikołaj Kopernik, 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543

• Contributed to mathematics, medicine, astronomy, law, economics.  Spoke Latin, German, Polish, Greek, and Italian.

Page 39: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Refused to participate in reform of the Julian calendar because he knew the inaccuracies of the Ptolemaic system and figured it was impossible to patch up a calendar based on a geocentric model any longer.  

Page 40: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Nicolaus Copernicus

• Most important contribution was De revolutionibus orbiumcelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres)

• Heliocentric theory  

Page 41: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Nicolaus Copernicus

“If there should chance to be any mathematicians who, ignorant in mathematics yet pretending to skill in that science, should dare, upon the authority of some passage of Scripture wrested to their purpose, to condemn and censure my hypothesis, I value them not, and scorn their inconsiderate judgment.”‐‐ De Revolutionibus Coelestibus

Page 42: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Tycho Brahe• Tycho Brahe (1546 –

1601), son of Danish nobleman. 

• Mainly a very careful and astute observer of the heavens.

• Observed a supernova, and comets, and thus disproved the “unchanging celestial spheres” theory of Ptolemaic and Aristotelian philosophy. 

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Tycho Brahe

• Proposed a “geo‐heliocentric” model of the solar system, now known as the Tychonicsystem. In such a system, the Sun annually circles a central Earth (regarded as essentially different from the planets), while the five planets orbit the Sun.

Page 44: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

Tycho Brahe

• Became very famous and quite rich.

• It is said that at one time he owned about 1% of the total wealth of Denmark.

• “Married” a commoner and had 8 children.

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Tycho Brahe

• Pretty interesting story altogether.  

• Lost his nose in a duel in his early twenties.  Replaced it with a gold‐silver alloy nose, which he kept stuck on with paste from a snuff‐box.

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Tycho Brahe

• During a period of excess, kept a dwarf named Jepp (whom he thought to be clairvoyant) as a sort of court jester.

• Also had a live moose that drank too much beer at a party and fell down the stairs to his death. 

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Tycho Brahe

• At least one book claims, due to extremely toxic levels of mercury found in hairs from his moustache, that he was murdered by his apprentice, Johannes Kepler.  

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Johannes Kepler

• Other than being an accused murderer (400+ years after the fact), Johannes Keplerfinally unraveled the mathematical laws that governed the motion of the planets. 

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Johannes Kepler

• Kepler (1571‐1630) was born in Germany, the son of a mercenary soldier who didn’t return home after leaving for a war when Johannes was 5. 

• A profoundly religious man throughout  his life.

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Johannes Kepler

• Published AstronomiaNova in 1609.  

• Probably the most important scientific publication prior to Newton’s Principia MathematicaI.  

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Johannes Kepler• Kepler noticed that even 

with the Copernican heliocentric system, the predictions of planetary motions weren’t much better than with the old Ptolemaic system.

• This was because the planets orbited the center of the Earth’s orbit, and not the sun.

• Also because orbits were circular.  

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Johannes Kepler

• First two laws of planetary motion:1. The radius vector 

sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

2. The planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.

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Johannes Kepler

• Third Law appeared in Harmonice Mundi (1619):

• “It is absolutely certain and exact that the ratio which exists between the periodic times of any two planets is precisely the ratio of the 3/2‐th power of the mean distances [of the planet to the sun].”

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Johannes Kepler – Other Firsts

• 1604:– Inverse square law of photometry

– First correct explanation of how the human eye works.

• 1611:– Invention of the astronomical telescope with convex objective and eyepiece.

• 1620:– First textbook on heliocentric astronomy

• 1629:  – First predictions of transits in Mercury and Venus.  His prediction for Mercury was out by only 6 hours.  They occur about 13 – 14 times per century.

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Johannes Kepler

• Brahe’s observations combined with Kepler’slaws led to the Rudolphine Tables giving a factor 20 improvement in the prediction of planetary positions.

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And just for fun:

• After his first wife died, he remarried in order to have someone to look after his children. At the wedding celebrations he noticed that the volumes of wine barrels were estimated by means of a rod slipped in diagonally through the bung‐hole, and he began to wonder how that could work. The result was a study of the volumes of solids of revolution (New Stereometryof wine barrels, 1615) in which Kepler, based on the work of Archimedes, used a resolution into 'indivisibles'. 

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And just for not‐so‐much‐fun:

• “His mother was accused of witchcraft. He enlisted the help of the legal faculty at Tübingen. Katharina Kepler was eventually released, at least partly as a result of technical objections arising from the authorities' failure to follow the correct legal procedures in the use of torture. The surviving documents are chilling.”

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John Napier

• John Napier (1550 – 1617), born in Scotland, 8th Laird of Merchistoun.

• (Esquire < Laird < Baron)• Around the Edinburgh area, 

he became widely known as "Marvellous Merchistoun" for the many ingenious mechanisms he built to improve his crops and cattle. 

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John Napier

• His uncle Adam Bothwell wrote to John’s father: “I pray you, schir, to send your son Jhone to the schuyllis; oyer to France or Flandaris; for he can leyr na guid at hame, nor get na proffeitt in this maist perullous worlde...”

• Married twice, 12 children

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John Napier

• “[Napier] used frequently to walk out in his nightgown and cap. This, with some things which to the vulgar appear rather odd, fixed on him the character of a warlock. It was formerly believed and currently reported that he was in compact with the devil; and that the time he spent in study was spent in learning the black art and holding conversation with Old Nick.”

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John Napier

• Book, Mirifici Logarithmorum CanonisDescriptio,  (A Description of the Marvelous Canon of Logarithms) published in 1614.  

• Motivated by desire to reduce multiplication of sines in astronomical calculations to simple addition.

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John Napier

• Imagined two number lines, one with an increasing arithmetic sequence 0, b, 2b, 3b, …, and one with a decreasing geometric sequence from the right endpoint (r): 

r, …• He chose r to be 10000000 which was the radius of the sine tables (remember they got large so that the sines were whole numbers?)

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John Napier

• He chose a to be a number a very little less than 1.  

• He then imagined two points moving along these two lines, P on the “arithmetic line” and Q on the “geometric” line.  P covers each equal interval in the same amount of time.  Q covers each decreasing interval in the same amount of time.  Thus Q moves with a velocity proportional to its distance from the left end.

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John Napier

• Now if P begins to move from 0 at a constant velocity equal to that with which Q also began to move geometrically from 0, it forms an association with points y and x: y is the logarithm of x.

x

y

Q

P

0

0 r

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John Napier

• If we solve the differential equations that describe this motion, it turns out that Napierslogarithms are related to ours by:

• .  

• Notice that it’s value increases as x increases.

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John Napier

Page 67: Renaissance Europe - MathEdwilliams/Classes/300F2011/PDFs... · 2011. 10. 19. · Regiomontanus • Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s

John Napier• Napier was able to derive useful and important properties of logarithms that reduced multiplication to addition, and powers to multiplication, and thus introduced an extremely important computational tool.

• Construction of his table of logarithms took him 20 years.

• Near the end of his life he decided r = 1 would be better than r = 10000000, in part because simpler computational rules would hold. He didn’t live to redo the table.

• Henry Briggs finished the work, and his table became the basis for tables into the 20th century.

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John Napier

• Napier’s Bones• Published in a work called Rabdologiæ in 1617. 

• Based on lattice multiplication from Arabic culture; also found in Liber Abaci. 

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Napier’s Bones

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Napier’s Bones

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Napier’s Bones

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Napier’s Bones

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John Napier

• Could even do square roots with a “square root bone.”

• Also made extensive use of decimal points.• Napier’s Logarithms to a great extent enabled the work that Kepler did. 

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Now, Back to the Cubic Equation