remediation of former manufactured gas plants and other ...allen w. hatheway remediation of former...

ALLEN W. HATHEWAY

Remediation of FormerManufactured Gas Plants

andOther Coal-Tar Sites

CRC Press is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Boca Raton London New York

vii

ContentsForeword......................................................................................................................................... xiiiAcknowledgments.............................................................................................................................xvAuthor.............................................................................................................................................xviiIntroduction......................................................................................................................................xix

Chapter 1 History of Manufactured Gas and Coal-Tar Activities...........................................1

Today’s.Environmental.Concern...................................................................................1Estimated.Number.of.Former.Gas-Manufacturing.and.Related.Sites.in.the.United.States.and.the.British.Isles................................................................................2Frequency.of.Discovery.Today......................................................................................8Present-Day.Environmental.Concerns........................................................................ 10Origin.of.Manufactured.Gas....................................................................................... 12Gas.Plant.Architecture.and.Layout............................................................................. 15Locating.Former.Manufactured.Gas.Plants................................................................ 18Franchises.and.Other.Public.Certifications.of.the.Manufactured.Gas.Industry......... 21

Gas.Company.Rates.to.Consumers........................................................................22Competition.and.Consolidation..............................................................................23Varieties.of.Gas.Companies.and.Gas.Company.Names........................................24Municipal.Ownership.............................................................................................29

Economics.of.the.Manufactured.Gas.Industry........................................................... 31Capitalization.of.a.Gasworks.................................................................................. 31Fighting.Electricity................................................................................................. 32

Streetlights......................................................................................................... 33Gaslights............................................................................................................ 33

Residential.Hot.Water.and.Cooking....................................................................... 35Fighting.Natural.Gas.............................................................................................. 37Embracing.Natural.Gas:.A.Time.of.Confusion.and.Its.Environmental.Legacy........39

The.New.Scenario.(1928–1960)........................................................................ 39Confusion.Associated.with.the.New.Scenario.................................................. 42Environmental.Downside.of.the.Substitute.Natural.Gas.Scenario................... 42

Holding.Companies..................................................................................................... 42Factors.Leading.to.Formation.of.Holding.Companies........................................... 43Utility.Management.Service.Costs......................................................................... 43Holding.Company.Failures.and.the.Great.Depression........................................... 43Today’s.Implications.of.MGP.Ownership.by.Holding.Companies........................44Early.Federal.Anti-Trust.Actions.against.Utility.Holding.Companies..................44The.Large.Utilities................................................................................................. 45

Case.Example.of.the.Philadelphia.Electric.Company.......................................46Casualties.of.War........................................................................................................46Gasworks.in.Our.Time................................................................................................46

Films.with.Gasworks’.Background........................................................................46Summary..................................................................................................................... 51

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Chapter 2 Gas Manufacturing Processes (I): Coal Gas and Carbureted Water Gas (Lowe)................................................................................................................. 53

Introduction................................................................................................................. 53Modern.Environmental.Implications.of.Historic.Gas.Feedstocks..............................54

Coals....................................................................................................................... 55Peat......................................................................................................................... 56Lignite.and.Brown.Coal.(Lignite.[France],.Braunkohle.[Germany])..................... 56Traditional.Alternative.Fuels.for.Manufactured.Gas............................................. 61

Resin.(Rosin).and.Fatwood................................................................................ 61Wood.................................................................................................................. 61Kerosene............................................................................................................ 62Naphtha.............................................................................................................. 62Benzole.............................................................................................................. 63Coke...................................................................................................................64

Nontraditional.Fuels.for.Manufacture.of.Illuminating.Gas...................................64Influences.of.Price.Fluctuations.on.Gas-Making.Feedstocks................................ 65Development.of.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes.....................................................65Historic.Attempts.to.Manufacture.Gas.from.Coal-Gas.Tar...................................66The.Broad.Selection.of.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes.and.Variants.................... 75

Coal.Gas.(Dry.Distillation.of.Coal)............................................................................ 85Selection.of.Gas.Coals............................................................................................86Situation.about.1850............................................................................................... 89Situation.about.1885............................................................................................... 89Situation.about.1900...............................................................................................90Situation.about.1920...............................................................................................96Situation.about.1940...............................................................................................99

Coal.Gas.................................................................................................................... 103Retorts.(Ovens)..................................................................................................... 103Retort.Capacity..................................................................................................... 105Retort.House.(Gashouse)...................................................................................... 106Furnaces.and.Boilers............................................................................................ 108Modifications.to.Retort.Houses............................................................................ 108Ascension.Pipes,.Dips,.and.the.Hydraulic.Main.................................................. 109Linking.the.Retorts.to.the.Gas.Treatment.Process.and.to.Generation.of.Toxics.............................................................................................................110Tar.Wells.and.Clarification.Sumps....................................................................... 113Alternative.Forms.of.(Improved).Coal-Gas.Retorts............................................ 113Through.Retorts.at.Coal-Gas.Plants.................................................................... 113Processes.Employing.Gravity.as.an.Assist........................................................... 114Inclined.Coal-Gas.Retorts.................................................................................... 114Vertical.Coal-Gas.Retorts.................................................................................... 114Intermittent.and.Continuous.Vertical.Coal-Gas.Retorts...................................... 115

Coal-Gas.Enrichment................................................................................................ 119Water.Gas.(Blue.Gas.=.Blue.Water.Gas.=.Blast.Furnace.Gas.=.Producer.Gas).......... 119

Dealing.with.the.Term.“Water.Gas”.................................................................... 119Differentiation.of.Water.Gas.and.Oil-Enriched.Water.Gas................................. 120

Carbureted.Water.Gas............................................................................................... 120The.Coming.of.Carbureted.Water.Gas.(Lowe;.CWG)......................................... 121Empirical.Generalizations.Regarding.CWG.Systems.......................................... 122

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Institutional.Resistance.to.Adoption.of.CWG.for.Illumination........................... 125The.Economic.“Beauty”.of.Carbureted.Water.Gas............................................. 126Understanding.the.Workings.of.Carbureted.Water-Gas.Generation.................... 130Carbureted.Water-Gas.Sets.................................................................................. 130Generators............................................................................................................ 132Carburetors........................................................................................................... 132Superheaters......................................................................................................... 133

Function.of.the.Carbureted.Water-Gas.Seal............................................................. 135The.Relief.Holder................................................................................................. 140PG&E’s.Resurgent.Experiment.with.Carbureted.Water.Gas.(1925).................... 144Influences.of.Price.Fluctuations.on.Gas-Making.Feedstocks.............................. 145Narrative.(1918).of.the.New.Municipal.Coal-Gas.Plant.at.Bellefontaine,.OH....... 145

Summary................................................................................................................... 148

Chapter 3 Gas Manufacturing (II) Secondary Processes: Gas-Manufacturing Processes Other Than Coal Gas and Carbureted Water Gas............................ 149

Premise.of.the.“Second”.and.“Third”.Levels.of.Gas-Related.Processes................. 149General.Phasing.of.Second.and.Third.Levels.of.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes............................................................................................................ 149Subtle.Exceptions.to.Hatheway’s.Concept.of.Gas-Process.Phasing.................... 149

Second-Level.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes........................................................... 154Oil-Enriched.Water.Gas—Lowe’s.Competitors.and.Emulators............................... 155

Remedial.Implications.......................................................................................... 164Water.Gas.(Blue.Gas.=.Blue.Water.Gas.=.Blast.Furnace.Gas.=.Producer.Gas).......... 164

Blue.Gas.(Water.Gas)........................................................................................... 165Gas.Engines,.Producer.Gas,.and.Producer.Gas.Engines.......................................... 165

Producer.Gas.Engines.......................................................................................... 165Early.Gas.Engines................................................................................................ 165Industrial.Sites.Favoring.the.Use.of.Producer.Gas.Engines................................ 167Producer.(Fuel).Gas.and.Its.Production.and.Use................................................. 172Producer.Gas.Engines.......................................................................................... 172Producer.Gas.as.an.Industrial.Fuel...................................................................... 178Producer.Gas.Plants.as.Industrial.Fuel.Gasworks................................................ 179

Gas.Producer.Processes............................................................................................ 180Pressure.Producers............................................................................................... 186Suction.Producers................................................................................................. 186Combinations.of.Pressure.and.Suction................................................................. 190Where.to.Expect.to.Encounter.Gas.Producers..................................................... 191Remedial.Implications.for.Producer.Gas.Plants.(Gas.Producers)........................ 197Producer.Gas.Residuals.and.Wastes..................................................................... 198Fate.of.Producer-Plant.PAH.and.Gas-Treatment.Wastes..................................... 199

Pacific.Coastal.Oil-Gas.............................................................................................200Remedial.Implications.Associated.with.Pacific.Coast.Oil.Gas.Plants................. 201

Coal.Carbonization................................................................................................... 201By-Product.Coke-Oven.Plants.................................................................................. 201

Remedial.Aspects.of.By-Product.Coke-Oven.Plants...........................................206Other.Carbonization.Processes.of.Coal.and.Organic.Feedstocks............................ 211Summary................................................................................................................... 211

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Chapter 4 Third-Level Gas-Related Processes....................................................................... 229

Premise.of.the.“Third-Level”.Processes.of.Gas.Manufacturing.............................. 229Artificial.Gas—Manufacturing.Processes.Producing.Lesser.Accumulations.of.Toxic.Residuals.and.Wastes...................................................................................... 229Various.Patented.Gas-Manufacturing.Processes...................................................... 229Early.Oil.Gas.Systems.(Pre-1890)............................................................................. 236

Early.Oil-Gas.Processes....................................................................................... 239Remedial.Implications.of.Early.Oil-Gas.Plants...................................................240

Substitute.Natural.Gas.(1920–1955)..........................................................................240Historic.Perspective:.The.Role.of.Edward.G..Boyer,.Gas.Engineer.................... 241SNG.Processes.as.Sources.of.Toxic.Residuals.and.Wastes.................................. 241Contemporary.(2010).Concern.for.Contamination.at.Derelict.SNG.Plant.Sites......................................................................................................... 246Contemporary.Case-in-Point:.Riverhead,.Long.Island........................................249Remedial.Implications.for.Derelict.SNG.Sites.....................................................249

Gas–Air.Mixtures..................................................................................................... 251Butane–Air.(Compressed.Gas.Service).Gas.Plants.............................................. 251Propane.Plants...................................................................................................... 252Remedial.Implications.......................................................................................... 252

Railway.Lighting....................................................................................................... 253Pintsch.Oil-Gas.Process....................................................................................... 253Typical.Pintsch.Plant.as.a.Remediation.Target.................................................... 261On-Board.Rail-Car.Pintsch.Lighting.Equipment................................................. 261Numbers.of.Pintsch.Railway.Oil-Gas.Plants....................................................... 261Remedial.Implications.for.Pintsch.Railway.Gas.Plants.......................................265

Late.Twentieth.Century.High-Technologies.for.Coal.Gasification.(aka.Syntheses.Plants).......................................................................................................266Other.Carbonization.Processes.of.Coal.and.Organic.Feedstocks............................ 267Nonrecovery.Coke.and.Charcoal.Ovens.(Carbonization)......................................... 271

Synopsis.of.the.Duration.and.Impact.of.Beehive.Coke.Ovens............................ 271“Standard”.American.Beehive.Nonrecovery.Block.Coke.Oven.......................... 272“Belgian”.Beehive.Nonrecovery.Block.Coke.Oven............................................. 273Planning.and.Conducting.Beehive.Oven.Site.and.Waste.Characterization......... 275Using.Historic.Industrial.Archeological.Artifacts.in.Beehive.Site.Assessment....................................................................................................... 279Summary.of.Remedial.Implications.for.Beehive.Coke-Oven.Plants................... 279

Artificial.Gas—Manufacturing.and.Related.Processes.Not.Known.for.Producing.Accumulations.of.Toxic.Residuals.and.Wastes.......................................284Institutional.Gas.Machines.......................................................................................285Illuminating.Gas.from.“Gasoline”.and.Acetylene.................................................... 289“Gasoline”.(Spirit.or.Vapor).Gases........................................................................... 289

The.Coming.of.Burning Fluid............................................................................. 289Gas.Machines.......................................................................................................290Gasoline.Vapor.Gas.............................................................................................. 291Westinghouse.Compressed.Gasoline.Vapor.Lighting.......................................... 292The.American.Gas.Machine.Company................................................................294Remedial.Implications.of.“Gasoline”.Gas.Plants................................................294

Acetylene.(C2H2).Gas................................................................................................294Acetylene.Small-Town.Systems........................................................................... 295Acetylene.Plants.at.American.Military.Posts.and.Installations...........................297

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Acetylene.Railway.Lighting.................................................................................297Remedial.Implications.for.Acetylene.Gas-Lighting.Plants.................................. 301

Lime-Light................................................................................................................ 301Remedial.Implications.for.Sites.of.Limelight.Usage............................................ 301

Bottle-Compressed.Liquid.Manufactured.Gas.........................................................302Blau.Gas...............................................................................................................302Remedial.Implications.of.Blau.Gas-Manufacturing.Plants.................................303

Carbon.Briquettes.as.Home.and.Fuel........................................................................303Conversion.of.Peat.to.Low-Carbonization.Fuel.Briquettes..................................303Remedial.Implications.of.Derelict.Fuel.Briquette.Plant.Sites..............................303

Peat-Gas.Plants..........................................................................................................303Refrigeration.as.a.Derivative.of.Manufactured.Gas.................................................304Summary...................................................................................................................306

Chapter 5 Gasworks Components (I): Generation through Clarification (or Pre-Purification)................................................................................................307

Concept.of.the.“Engineered”.Gasworks...................................................................308The.Clarification.Processes.......................................................................................309Clarification:.The.Means.of.Pre-Purification.Gas.Cleansing................................... 310Clarification.and.the.Particulate-Removal.Train...................................................... 312Concept.of.Removal.of.Particulate.Gas.Impurities................................................... 315Concept.of.Tar.Capture............................................................................................. 316

Tar.Extractors....................................................................................................... 317Tar.Filters............................................................................................................. 317Straw-Box.Tar.Filter.for.Discharged.Gas.Liquor.(1905)...................................... 317Tar.Filter.as.a.Fitting.on.Large.Carbureted.Water.Gas.Sets.(1926)..................... 320Tar.Filter.Boxes.for.Gas-Liquor.Predischarge.Treatment.................................... 320Tar.Separators....................................................................................................... 320Lampblack.Separators.......................................................................................... 330

Management.of.Collected.Gas.Tars.and.Tar.Residuals............................................ 332Tar.Management.Options..................................................................................... 332

Discharge.of.Tar.to.the.Ground....................................................................... 332Exhausters................................................................................................................. 338The.Wash.Box...........................................................................................................340

Remedial.Implications.......................................................................................... 342Condensation............................................................................................................. 342

Remedial.Implications.Related.to.the.Presence.of.Manufactured.Gas.Condenser.Locations............................................................................................348Generalizations.about.Manufactured.Gas.Condensers........................................ 351Remedial.Implications.of.Condenser.Use............................................................ 354

Washers..................................................................................................................... 354Scrubbers................................................................................................................... 356

Scrubbers.Designed.for.Particular.Removals....................................................... 357Light-Oil.Scrubbing............................................................................................. 358Rotary.Scrubbers.................................................................................................. 358Tower.Scrubbers................................................................................................... 358Remedial.Implications.of.Scrubber.Utilization....................................................364

Washer-Scrubbers......................................................................................................366Scrubber.Doubles.as.Condenser.and.Wash.Box...................................................366

Combined.Use.of.Condensers,.Scrubbers,.and.Washers........................................... 368

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Electrostatic.Precipitators......................................................................................... 368Purification.and.Storage.(Chapter.6)......................................................................... 370

Purifiers................................................................................................................ 370Gasholders............................................................................................................ 371

Summary................................................................................................................... 371

Chapter 6 Gasworks Components (II): Purification and Storage........................................ 373

Purification................................................................................................................ 373Today’s.Environmental.Impacts.of.Yesteryear’s.Purification.Activities.............. 373Contaminants.and.Contamination.Associated.with.Purification.and.Spent.Purifier.Media....................................................................................................... 375

Gas.Impurities.Treated.by.Purification..................................................................... 377Purification.as.a.Process........................................................................................... 377Purifier.Design.......................................................................................................... 379

Purifiers.as.Viewed.from.the.Standpoint.of.Size.and.Layout.............................. 379Quantities.of.Spent.Purification.Media................................................................ 380Series.Removal.of.Impurities...............................................................................380Sizing.of.Purifiers.................................................................................................380The.Basic.Purification.Process............................................................................. 381Purifier.Trays........................................................................................................ 385

Purification.Media..................................................................................................... 387Selection.of.Purification.Media.Based.on.Performance.and.Handling................ 389Coal-Liming.as.a.Pre-Purification.Extender.of.Media.Life.................................390Lime.as.a.Purifier.Medium...................................................................................390Crushed.Sea.Shells............................................................................................... 393Crushed.Lime....................................................................................................... 393Potential.Reuse.of.Spent.Purifier.Lime................................................................ 394Wood.Shavings..................................................................................................... 394“Oxides”............................................................................................................... 394Iron.Oxide.(Bog.Iron.Ore).................................................................................... 395Iron.Strips,.Borings,.and.Filings.......................................................................... 395Proprietary.Brands.of.Prepared.Oxide................................................................. 396Appearance.of.Spent.Iron.Oxide.in.the.Gasworks.Dump.................................... 396A.Misnomer.......................................................................................................... 397Preparation.of.the.Shavings/Metallic.Particle.“Oxide”.Mixture......................... 397Life.of.Purifier.Media........................................................................................... 398Spent.Purifying.Media.as.a.Contaminant............................................................ 401

Purifiers.as.a.Remediation.Consideration.................................................................402Contamination.around.Purifier.Boxes..................................................................403Fate.of.Spent.Purification.Media..........................................................................403

Removal,.Collection,.and.Management.of.Gas.Impurities.......................................403Hierarchical.Steps.in.the.Generation.of.Gas.Plant.Wastes:.Toxic.and.Nontoxic.... 403

Hierarchy.of.Process.Steps..............................................................................404Hierarchy.of.Products,.Residuals,.By-Products,.and.Wastes..........................405Cyanide.Removal.............................................................................................406

Gasholders.(Gasometers)..........................................................................................408Purpose.and.Function.of.Gasholders........................................................................ 410Gasholder/Gasometer.Design.................................................................................... 410

Evolution.of.the.Gasholder................................................................................... 411Important.Design.Features.(for.Remedial.Engineering.Consideration)............... 415

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Gasholder.Tanks.(Pits.and.Basins)............................................................................ 423Pit.Valve.Chambers.............................................................................................. 428Remedial.Implications.of.Gasholder.Design.Type............................................... 428

Gasholder.Types........................................................................................................ 429Gasholders.Classified.by.Function....................................................................... 430Commercial.Gasworks......................................................................................... 430Relief.Holders....................................................................................................... 430Storage.Holders.................................................................................................... 431Distribution.Holders............................................................................................. 431Off-Plant.District.(Distribution).Holders............................................................. 431Institutional........................................................................................................... 431Small.Commercial................................................................................................ 432Railyards............................................................................................................... 432Gasholders.Classified.by.Design.Characteristics................................................. 432Non-Telescoping................................................................................................... 433Multi-Lift.Gasholders........................................................................................... 433Slab-on-Grade...................................................................................................... 433Waterless............................................................................................................... 435High-Pressure.Holders;.Spherical.and.Hemispherical–Cylindrical.................... 436

Construction.of.Gasholders....................................................................................... 437Representative.Gasholders.................................................................................... 437

Maintenance.of.Gasholders....................................................................................... 458Generic.Leakage.of.Gasholder.Subsurface.Water-Seal.Tanks.................................460

Gasholders.Employed.for.Early.Bottled.Gas.Distribution...................................464“Sediment”.in.Gasholder.Water-Seal.Tanks........................................................464

Gasholder.Accidents.................................................................................................. 470Governors.................................................................................................................. 471

Survival.of.Holders............................................................................................... 471Remedial.Implications.of.Gasholders....................................................................... 474

A.Selection.of.Gasholder.Layout.Plots................................................................. 478Distribution.of.Manufactured.Gas............................................................................480

Gas.Mains.and.Distribution.Systems................................................................... 482Gas.Plant.Distribution.System.............................................................................. 482Off-Site.Distribution.System................................................................................ 483Mains.and.Distribution.Pipes............................................................................... 483Compressors.........................................................................................................484Off-Site.Gas.Storage.............................................................................................484Meters...................................................................................................................484

Summary...................................................................................................................485

Chapter 7 Historic Sources, Mechanisms, and Choices Responsible for Coal-Tar Site Contamination..................................................................................................487

Organization.of.This.Chapter....................................................................................487Anticipating.Residuals.and.Wastes.at.Derelict.Gas-Plant.Sites................................487

Discriminating.between.Coal-Tar.Residuals.and.Petroleum.Hydrocarbons........488Nuisance.Odors.as.an.Indication.of.Pollution.Release......................................... 489Case.of.Margaret.Bohan.(Respondent).vs..The.Port.Jervis.Gaslight.Company....491

Physical.and.Chemical.Nature.of.Gasworks.Contaminants..................................... 491Organic.Hydrocarbons......................................................................................... 492Petroleum.Hydrocarbons...................................................................................... 494

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Hydrocarbons.Found.in.Diesel.Fuels.(Oils)......................................................... 496Coal-Tar.Hydrocarbons........................................................................................ 497

Coal-Tar.Process.Residues.as.Gas-Manufacturing.Contaminants............................ 497Modern.Studies.of.PAH.Compounds.as.Toxic.Organic.Chemicals..................... 499Impact.of.the.“Appendix.VII.List”.of.Priority-Pollutant.PAHs........................... 499Regulatory.Use.of.the.Appendix.VII.List.of Priority Pollutant.PAHs.is.Scientifically.Flawed............................................................................................ 503Dealing.with.the.Flaw.Produced.by.RCRA.Appendix.VII.................................504Nongasification.Types.of.PAHs............................................................................504Arguments.Featuring.Anthropogenic.(Non-FMGP).PAHs.................................504Potential.Confusion.over.Obsolete.PAH.Chemical.Compound.Names............... 505

Coal.Distillation.versus.Coal.Carbonization............................................................505Temperature.Effects.of.Carbonization.on.Nature.of.Residuals................................508Particular.Coal-Tar.Residuals.as.Gasworks.Contaminants.......................................509

The.Light.Oils.of.Coal.Tar.as.Residuals.of.Gas.Manufacturing..........................509Naphthalene.as.a.Manufactured.Gas.Residual................................................509

Light.Oils—Monocyclic.Aromatic.Hydrocarbons—BTEX................................ 518Naphthalene..................................................................................................... 519Naphtha.or.the.Naphtha.Cut.(A.Solvent)......................................................... 528Toluol............................................................................................................... 529Tars.................................................................................................................. 529

Middle.Oils.of.Coal.Tars;.the.Phenols,.Cresols,.and.Carbolic.Oils..................... 530Tar.Acids—Phenols.and.Cresols..................................................................... 530

Heavy.Oils—High-Ring.PAHs.(More.Viscous.Tars.and.Creosote.Oils)............ 534Green.Oil.(Anthracene.Oils)........................................................................... 534

Residuals.Produced.by.Carbonization.of.Lignite................................................. 534Residuals.Typical.of.the.Various.Manufactured.Gas.Processes............................... 534

Residuals.Typical.of.Coal.Gas.Production........................................................... 534Tars.of.Carbureted.Water.Gas.............................................................................. 538

Naphthalene-Residual.Tar............................................................................... 539Gas-Oil.Tars.................................................................................................... 539Crude.Oil.Tars.of.Carbureted.Water.Gas.Generation..................................... 539

Residuals.Typical.of.Oil-Gas.Production............................................................. 539Residuals.Typical.of.Producer-Gas.Processes...................................................... 543

Gas.Liquors...................................................................................................... 545Historic.Gasworks.Management.Options.for.Gas-Manufacturing.Residuals...........546

Gas-Yard.Accumulation.of.Tar.Residuals............................................................548Collection.and.Direct.Discharge..........................................................................548Management.of.Tar.Residuals.............................................................................. 549Residuals.Separation.and.Storage........................................................................ 550Historic.Commentary.Regarding.Gas-Plant.Residuals.Management.................. 550Coal.Tar.as.a.Gasworks.Furnace.and.Steam.Boiler.Fuel..................................... 553Burning.for.Disposal.of.Unwanted.Tars............................................................... 553As.Internal.Combustion.Engine.Fuel................................................................... 556Collection,.Storage,.and.Sales.............................................................................. 556

Direct.Sales...................................................................................................... 557Rail.Shipment.................................................................................................. 557

Briquettes.............................................................................................................. 557Gasworks.Process.Components.as.Sources.of.Site.Contamination.......................... 558

Gas.Holders.......................................................................................................... 558Tar.Extractors....................................................................................................... 558

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Wash.Boxes.......................................................................................................... 558All.Other.Clarification.Devices,.along.with.Purifiers.......................................... 559

Gas.Works.Fluid.and.Semifluid.Residuals.and Wastes.as.Potential.Contaminants..........................................................................................................559

Clarification.Effluent.Waters................................................................................ 561Tars.and.Tar.Sludge.............................................................................................. 562Management.of.Gasworks.Tars............................................................................ 562Tar-Separation.Sludge.......................................................................................... 562

Ammonia......................................................................................................... 563Light-Oil.Still.Wastes......................................................................................564Producer.Gas-Tar.Extraction........................................................................... 565Gas.“Cooler”.Water......................................................................................... 565

Tar–Water.Emulsion,.the.Troubling.Residual-Turned.Toxic.Waste..................... 565Treating.Tar–Water.Emulsions............................................................................. 568Modern.Remedial.Implications.of.Tar–Water.Emulsions.................................... 569

Oil-Gas.Plant.Tars........................................................................................... 575Coke-Oven.Plant.Tars...................................................................................... 575

Gas.Works.Solid.Wastes.as.Potential.Contaminants................................................ 576General.Remedial.Implications.of.Gas-Manufacturing.Residuals.and Wastes....................................................................................................... 577

Coke................................................................................................................. 577Ash.and.Clinker............................................................................................... 577Spent.Purifier.Media.(Purifier.Box.Waste)...................................................... 579Spent.Purifier.Lime......................................................................................... 580Spent.Wood.Chips.and.Shavings..................................................................... 581Spent.Iron.Oxides.and.Oxide.Mixtures........................................................... 583Cyanide.and.Cyanogens.................................................................................. 585Prussian.Blue-Stained.Gravel.and.Cobbles..................................................... 587Ferrocyanides.................................................................................................. 587Historic.Cyanogen.Recovery........................................................................... 587Regulatory.Implications.of.Gasworks.Cyanide.and.Cyanogens..................... 587Tar.Pitches....................................................................................................... 589Lampblack....................................................................................................... 589Trapping.Lampblack.in.Oil.Gas.Wash-Box.Residuals.................................... 589Breeze.............................................................................................................. 592

Inert.Solid.Wastes.at.Gasworks.Sites........................................................................ 593Demolition.Waste.of.Replaced.Ceramic.Retorts.and.Brick.Benches.................. 593Inert.Plant.Trash................................................................................................... 596

Historic.Reuse.Options.for.Gasworks.Residuals...................................................... 596On-Plant.Use.of.Gas.Tar.as.Gas-Plant.Fuels........................................................ 596Burning.Tar.at.the.Gasworks,.as.a.Fuel............................................................... 597Gas-Plant.Accommodations.for.Off-Plant.Sales.of.Gas.Tars.............................. 599

Gasworks.Dumps.and.Tar.Ponds..............................................................................600Detecting.and.Verifying.Gasworks.Dumps.........................................................600The.Reality.of.Gasworks.Dumps.........................................................................600Case.Study.of.Gasworks.Nos..1.and.2,.Ramsgate,.Kent,.the.United.Kingdom..... 601Gasworks.Dumping.on.or.into.Bodies.of.Open.Water.........................................604Plant-Area.Contaminated.Sediment.....................................................................605Tar.Ponds.as.an.Historic.Residuals.Management.Option....................................606Tar.Ponds.as.the.Ultimate.Disposal.Site.for.Tar–Water.Emulsions.....................607Case.of.the.Adamczak.Road.Gasworks.Dump,.Manistee,.MI.............................607

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Fate.and.Transport.of.Coal-Tar.Residuals.................................................................608Source.Areas.and.Associated.Waste.Types.for.Characterization.Planning.........609

Waste.Types.....................................................................................................609Fate.at.the.Plant.Site........................................................................................609Fate.of.Surface.Disposal..................................................................................609Evaporation...................................................................................................... 610Weathering.and.Degradation........................................................................... 610

Organic.Chemical.Fingerprint.Association.with.Source.Area............................ 610Historic.Knowledge,.Legislation,.and.Litigation.over.Gas-House.Wastes............... 610By-Product.Recovery.Operations.as.Sources.of.Gasworks.Contamination............. 611

Recovery.of.By-Products...................................................................................... 611Recovery.of.Naphthalene.as.a.By-Product.Base............................................. 612

Inorganic.Compounds.......................................................................................... 614Sulfur............................................................................................................... 614Ammonia.and.Its.Recovery............................................................................. 614Ammonia.Still.Wastes..................................................................................... 615

Recovery.of.Ammonium.Sulfate.......................................................................... 615Historic.case.of.Ammonia.Scrubber.Waste.Pollution.at.Schenectady,.NY........618Modern.Remedial.Implications.of.Gas-Plant.Ammonia................................. 620

Solid.Wastes.That.May.Mimic.Tar.Residuals...................................................... 620Heavy.Metals................................................................................................... 620

Predictable.Gas-Yard.Sources.of.Site.Contamination............................................... 621Management.of.Condensation.and.Purification.Residuals................................... 621Condensers.and.Other.Fine-Particle.Removers.................................................... 621Coal.Gasification.Condenser.Residuals................................................................ 621Tar.Extractors.and.Separators.............................................................................. 621

Tar.Extractors.................................................................................................. 622Relief.Holders.as.a.Crude.form.of.Tar.Separators............................................... 625Water.Gas-Tar.Separators.and.Their.Overflow.................................................... 626Overflow.from.Washers.and.Washer.Scrubbers................................................... 626Tar.Wells............................................................................................................... 626Curious.Case.of.the.“Migrating”.Tar.Well,.Springfield,.MO.............................. 628The.Function.of.Tar.Wells.................................................................................... 631Tar.Wells.as.Discharge.Points.for.Residuals........................................................ 631Tar.Tanks.(Surface.and.Subsurface)..................................................................... 632Water-Gas.Wash-Box.and.Carbureted.Water-Gas.Wash-Box.Residuals............. 634

Purifiers........................................................................................................... 634Leaks,.Spills,.Drainages,.and.Direct.Discharges.as.Sources.of.Site.Contamination....635

Drainage.of.Tar.Residuals.and.Tar.Wastes........................................................... 635Case.of.Lake.Station,.a.Central Station.(AKA.“Gasworks.Park”),.Seattle,.WA.(1906–1965)...................................................................................... 635Fluid.Leakage.from.Subsurface.Vessels.............................................................. 637Corrosion-Based.Leakage.................................................................................... 637Chemical.Corrosion.and.Pipe.Leaks.................................................................... 638Corrosion.of.Aboveground.Plate.Steel.Gasholder.Water-Seal.Tanks.................. 638Electrolytic.Corrosion.from.Stray.Trolley-Line.Currents....................................640Off-Site.Subsurface.Leaks.................................................................................... 643

Various.Coal-Tar.Operations.as.Sources.of.Contamination..................................... 643Recovery.of.Coke-Oven.By-Products.................................................................. 643

Collection.of.Coke-Oven.Gas..........................................................................644Primary.Cooler................................................................................................644

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By-Products.Building......................................................................................644Final.Cooler.and.Benzol.Washer.....................................................................644Variations.in.Coke.Oven.Design.....................................................................644Remediation.Implications.of.By-Product.Coke-Oven.Sites............................644

World.War.I.and.the.U.S..Government.Toluol.Plants...........................................644World.War.I.and.the.U.S..Government.Cellulose.Acetate.Plants........................ 647Coal-Tar-Consuming.By-Product.Industries........................................................ 647Coal-Tar.Distilleries............................................................................................. 652Nature.of.the.Tar.By-Product.Distillation.Industry..............................................654Coal-Tar.Paints.and.Pipe.Dips.............................................................................. 655Coal-Tar.Pitch....................................................................................................... 655Coal.Tar.as.Solvent.and.Fabric.Waterproofing..................................................... 657Coal.Tar.as.a.Marine.Preservative....................................................................... 657Coal-Tar.Residuals.as.a.Fungicide/Pesticide.Base............................................... 657Charcoal.Kilns.and.Wood-Distillation.Plants...................................................... 658

Charcoal.Kiln.Sites.......................................................................................... 658Wood.Distillation.Sites.................................................................................... 658

Wood-Tar.By-Products......................................................................................... 659Remedial.Implications.of.Wood-Tar.Sites............................................................660Incandescent.Mantle.Manufacturing.Residue.(Thorium)....................................660The.Fine-Chemical.Tar.Industry.Plants............................................................... 661

Dye.Industry.................................................................................................... 661Coal.Tar.as.a.Source.of.Color.Dyestuffs.............................................................. 662Medicinal.Tar.Compounds................................................................................... 662Coal-Tar.Distilleries.as.Uncontrolled.Hazardous.Waste.Sites.............................663Wood.Preservation.Facilities.as.Uncontrolled.Hazardous.Waste.Sites................663Early.American.Wood.Preservation.Techniques.by.Creosote.............................663Tar.in.Wood.Preservation.....................................................................................664Creosote................................................................................................................665Remedial.Implications.of.Creosote-Based.Wood-Treatment.Plant.Sites............. 673Coal.Tar.as.a.Road.Improvement.Product............................................................ 673

Gas.Tars.in.Road.Construction........................................................................ 673Historic.Road-Tar.Developments.in.Europe......................................................... 675Historic.Road-Tar.Developments.in.America...................................................... 677Technical.Developmental.Aspects.of.Road-Tar.Usage......................................... 678Road.Paving.and.Surface.Treatment.by.Prepared.Coal.Tar................................. 679The.Coal-Tar.Specialty.Industry.Producing.Road.Tars.......................................680Application.of.Prepared.Coal-Tar.Road.Improvement.Products.......................... 682The.Final.Outcome:.Asphalt.vs..Road.Tar........................................................... 683

Historic.Operational.Nuisances.and.Damages.Associated.with.Manufactured.Gas.Plants.................................................................................................................. 683

State.of.Knowledge.Regarding.Gas-Manufacturing.Residuals.during.the.Gas-Production.Era..............................................................................................684

Summary...................................................................................................................684

Chapter 8 Historic Technical Literature of Manufactured Gas........................................... 689

Introduction............................................................................................................... 689Dealing.with.the.Literature....................................................................................... 689

Types.of.Literature.Pertaining.to.Remediation.of.FMGP.Sites...........................690What.the.Literature.Reveals.Is.of.Importance.to.Remediation............................ 691

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Nature.and.Dissemination.of.Remediation-Relevant.Gas.Industry.Literature....692Levels.of.the.Technical.Literature........................................................................692

“Authority”.of.Literature...........................................................................................692“Absolutes”.about.the.Literature.......................................................................... 693

Technical.Journals.....................................................................................................694Applicable.Journals.to.1960.................................................................................694Effect.of.Emerging.Natural.Gas.Activity.............................................................694Effect.of.Post-1930.Shortages.in.Gas-Manufacturing.Feedstocks.......................694

Making.Practical.Remedial.Use.of.the.Literature.................................................... 695Selected.Useful.Technical.Papers......................................................................... 695Handbooks.and.Textbooks................................................................................... 695Journals.of.the.Manufactured.Gas.Industry......................................................... 701Historic.Literature.in.Microform.and.Internet.Digital.Archival.Format............. 701Making.Use.of.the.American Gas-Light Journal................................................ 708Related.Sanitary.Engineering.Content.of.American.Journal.Papers...................709Applicable.Governmental.Agency.Literature...................................................... 709

Other.Major.Types.of.Relevant.Technical.Literature................................................ 709Historic.Congresses.and.Expositions................................................................... 710Regional.and.National.Gas.Association.Proceedings.......................................... 710Federal.and.State.Engineering.Experiment.Stations............................................ 712Regional.Engineering.Associations..................................................................... 712Technical.Journals.of.Allied.Industrial.Fields..................................................... 712Commercial.Journals.of.Engineering.and.Applied.Science................................ 722Standard.Indices.to.Engineering.and.Science.Literature..................................... 722

Brown’s.Directory.of.North.American.Gas.Companies................................. 722Gas.Record.“Pink.Directory”.......................................................................... 729

Gas.Utility.Company.Archives................................................................................. 729Internal.Literature.and.Documents...................................................................... 730Gas.Utility.Periodic.Operational.Reports............................................................ 732Gas.Utility.Annual.Reports.and.Employee/Public.Relations.Magazines............ 732Gas.Utility.Operational.Documents..................................................................... 732Annual.Reports.of.Corporate.Internal.Departments............................................ 737Annual.Reports.to.Stockholders.and.to.U.S..Government................................... 737General.Manager.Annual.Reports....................................................................... 737Plant.Financial.Records.of.Income.and.Expenditures......................................... 737Maps.of.Generation.and.Distribution.Systems..................................................... 738Maps.of.Real.Property.at.Individual.Stations...................................................... 738Contour.Maps.and.Boring.Logs.for.Proposed.Station.Development................... 738Layout.Maps.of.Individual.Gas.Plants.and.District.Stations............................... 738Contract.Specifications.and.Drawings.for.Plant.Components............................. 740Charts.of.Corporate.History................................................................................. 744Charts.of.Corporate.Organizational.Management............................................... 744Charts.of.Corporate.Executive.Responsibility..................................................... 744Charts.of.Properties.Owned.and.Controlled........................................................ 746Biographic.Details.of.Key.Personnel................................................................... 746Corporate.Photographic.Archives........................................................................ 746Stock.Certificate.Art.of.Manufactured.Gas......................................................... 749Environmental-Era.Corporate.Historical.Assessments........................................ 749In-House.Conclaves.............................................................................................. 749

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Utility.Industry.Public.Information...................................................................... 749Role.of.Universities.in.Gas.Industry.Education.and.Technology.Exchange........ 749

Public.Utility.Regulatory.Agencies.......................................................................... 753State.Public.Utility.Regulatory.Commissions...................................................... 753Other.State.Regulatory.Agencies......................................................................... 758City.Ordinances.(Franchising)............................................................................. 762Congressional.Anti-Trust.Hearings.and.Reports.................................................. 763Historical.Summaries.to.the.Federal.Power.Commission................................... 763Corporate.Histories.and.Monographs.of.the.Newcomen.Society........................ 763Commercial.Public.Utility.Finance,.Investment.Literature................................. 764Fire.Insurance.and.Detailed.Real-Estate.Plat.Maps............................................. 764Dealing.with.Sanborn.Maps.Today...................................................................... 771Public.Sector.Sanborn.(and.Other.Related.Map).Coverage................................. 771Private-Sector.Sanborn.Fire.Insurance.Maps...................................................... 772Plat.Maps.............................................................................................................. 773Bird’s-Eye.Views.................................................................................................. 773Record.Keeping.................................................................................................... 774Reports.of.Consultants.in.Manufactured.Gas.and.Coke...................................... 775Engineering.Evaluations.and.Appraisals............................................................. 775Content.of.a.Typical.Historic.Consulting.Engineering.Report............................ 776Methods.of.Compilation.of.Evaluation.Reports................................................... 777Companies,.Personalities,.Consultants,.and.Experts........................................... 777Municipal.Boosterism.......................................................................................... 779Gray.Technical.Literature.................................................................................... 779Drawing.Deductions.from.the.Gas.Literature...................................................... 779

Financial.Failures............................................................................................ 779Explosions.and.Fires.at.Gas.Plants.................................................................. 780

Ill-kempt.Gas.Plants............................................................................................. 780Historical.Photographs......................................................................................... 780Specialty.Libraries................................................................................................ 781Survival.of,.and.Access.to,.the.Technical.Literature........................................... 782Dealing.with.Gas.Literature.Problems................................................................. 782

Newspapers............................................................................................................... 784Modern.Literature..................................................................................................... 784

U.S..Environmental.Protection.Agency............................................................... 784U.S..Department.of.Energy.................................................................................. 786State.Environmental.Agencies............................................................................. 786Utility.Industry..................................................................................................... 786Contributions.from.the.Gas.Side.......................................................................... 786Agencies.of.the.American.Gas.Institute............................................................... 786The.AGA.Library................................................................................................. 787Institute.of.Gas.Technology.................................................................................. 787Gas.Research.Institute.......................................................................................... 788Institute.of.Gas.Technology.................................................................................. 788Contributions.from.the.Electric.Side.of.the.House.............................................. 788Edison.Electric.Institute....................................................................................... 788Electric.Power.Research.Institute......................................................................... 789United.Kingdom...................................................................................................790

Summary...................................................................................................................790

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Chapter 9 Site and Waste Characterization for Coal-Tar Contamination.......................... 791

Expecting.and.Predicting.the.Presence.of.Former.Gas.Plants.................................. 792Status.of.American.State.Agency.FMGP.Remediation.Activities............................ 795

History.of.American.Activities.in.Locating.and.Remediating.FMGPs............... 795Legal.Bases.under.Which.Gasworks.Are.Remediated........................................ 795Historic.Emphases.on.Gasworks.Remediation.................................................... 795Basis.for.USEPA.Concern.for.Former.Gasworks.and.Related.Coal-Tar.Sites........ 796A.Word.about.“Coal-Tar”.Sites,.as.Related.to.the.RCRA.Appendix.VIII.PAHs......................................................................................... 796Historic.Flaws.in.CERCLIS.Screening................................................................ 796

Research.Access.to.CERCLIS.FMGP.Sites.............................................................. 797Identification.of.FMGP.Sites.via.Internet............................................................ 797Gaining.Access.to.FMGP.Site.Environmental.Records...................................... 797

Proper.Importance.of.NFRAP.................................................................................. 797Original.USEPA.Rationale.for.NFRAP’ing......................................................... 798What.Can.Happen.to.an.NFRAP.FMGP?........................................................... 798Fate.of.NFRAP’d.FMGPs.................................................................................... 799What.Actually.Happens.to.NFRAP’d.FMGPs?................................................... 799

Other.Forms.of.Terminating.Remedial.Action.........................................................800Public.Utilities.as.Responsible.Parties...................................................................... 801Risk.Assessment.as.Applied.to.FMGPs....................................................................802Coal-Tar.Impacts.on.State.Transportation.Departments...........................................802

State.DOT.Experience..........................................................................................802What.the.Transportation.Advisory.Agencies.Have.to.Say...................................803Example.Circumstances.under.Which.Certain.FMGPs.Were.First.Discovered........................................................................................................ 803

Importance.of.Accurate.Site.and.Waste.Characterization........................................803Chronologic.Assessment.of.Coal-Tar.Operations.....................................................803

Guide.to.Competent.Historic.Assessment............................................................806Areas.for.Document.Discovery............................................................................808Publications,.Formal.and.Informal......................................................................809Analyzing.Site.Operational.Chronology..............................................................809Framework............................................................................................................809Factoring.in.the.Utility.Holding.Companies........................................................809

Planning.and.Conduct.of.Site.and.Waste.Characterization...................................... 810Analysis................................................................................................................ 813Evaluation............................................................................................................. 813

Chemical.Characterization.of.Historic.Gas-Manufacturing.Wastes........................ 817Let.the.Coal.Tar.Speak.for.Itself.......................................................................... 817Dealing.with.the.EPA.RCRA.Appendix.VII.Coal-Tar.Chemicals...................... 821Conditions.of.Expected.Coal-Tar.Loss................................................................. 821Conditions.of.Expected.Coal-Tar.Recovery......................................................... 821Source.Areas........................................................................................................ 822Disposal................................................................................................................ 822Gasholders.as.Sources.of.Residuals.....................................................................824A.Rationale.for.Analyzing.Gasholder.Locations................................................. 825Fate.of.Gasworks.Residuals.and.Wastes..............................................................826Fate.of.Surface.Disposal....................................................................................... 827Evaporation........................................................................................................... 827Weathering.and.Degradation................................................................................ 828

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Migrated.Contamination...................................................................................... 828Detection.of.Coal-Tar.Residuals........................................................................... 828

Phenols.as.Indicators....................................................................................... 828Pyrene.as.an.Indicator..................................................................................... 829

Guidelines.for.Prediction.of.DNAPL.Movement................................................. 830Seven.Intrinsic.Geologic.Parameters.Controlling.Migration............................... 831

Porosity............................................................................................................ 831Permeability.(to.Coal-Tar.Residuals)............................................................... 831Tortuosity.(of.Flow.Channels)......................................................................... 833Saturation.Percent............................................................................................ 833Heterogeneity.(of.Sedimentary.Character)...................................................... 833Entry.Pressure.(of.Infiltrating.Groundwater)................................................... 833Capillary.Pressure.(of.Opposing.Capillary.Fringe)......................................... 833Sum.Total.of.PAH.Migration.Forces............................................................... 834

Gross.Estimation.of.Source-Volume.Extent......................................................... 834Utilization.of.Geologic.Factor.Assessment.......................................................... 834Coal-Tar.Residuals.in.Groundwater..................................................................... 834

Historic.Events.as.Disruptors.of.Gasworks............................................................... 838Erroneous.Dismissal.of.PAHs.at.Undetected.Coal-Tar.Sites....................................840

Livingston,.Montana.Rail.Yards..........................................................................840Case.of.the.Former.Atlas.Powder.Works,.near.Joplin,.MO.................................840

Geologic.Complexities.in.MGP.Site.Characterization..............................................840Standard.of.Care.in.Site.Characterization................................................................ 841Respecting.and.Utilizing.Site.Technical.History...................................................... 843Essential.Format.for.the.Site.Characterization.Report............................................. 843

Essential.Focuses.of.a.Comprehensive.Site.and.Waste.Characterization............ 847Regulatory.Consent.Orders.and.Decrees.............................................................848Evaluation.of.Consultants.....................................................................................848Breadth.of.Experience..........................................................................................849Local.vs..National.Experience.............................................................................849FMGP.Consultant.Selection.Process.................................................................... 849Budgeting.............................................................................................................. 850Contracting........................................................................................................... 850Managing.the.Consultant..................................................................................... 850Integration.of.Legal.Counsel................................................................................ 850Work.Plans............................................................................................................ 850

Gasworks.Contamination.......................................................................................... 852Waste.Sources....................................................................................................... 852Gas.Yard.Corrosion.as.a.Source.of.Leaked.Residuals......................................... 852Gas.Plant.Source.Areas........................................................................................ 852Waste.Disposal.Bodies......................................................................................... 853The.Gasworks.Dump............................................................................................ 853Box.Wastes,.in.General........................................................................................ 857Migrated.Wastes................................................................................................... 858Iteration.of.Incoming.Field.Data.......................................................................... 858Use.of.Laboratory.Testing.................................................................................... 859“Fingerprinting”.of.Tar.Affinity.and.Likely.Origin.............................................860

Risk.Assessment........................................................................................................ 861Usual.Purpose.for.Making.Risk.Assessments.of.FMGPs.................................... 861ATSDR.Participation............................................................................................ 862

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Assessment.by.Responsible.Parties...................................................................... 862Potential.Errors.in.Risk.Assessment.................................................................... 863

Errors.and.Contentious.Issues.in.FMGP.Characterization....................................... 863Site.Conceptual.Geologic.Model..........................................................................864Errors.and.Erroneous.Concepts............................................................................864Erroneous.Concepts..............................................................................................864Contentious.Issues................................................................................................866Need.to.Employ.Multiple.Working.Hypotheses...................................................866Assumptions.........................................................................................................866Issues.of.Waste.Presence......................................................................................866Issues.of.Fate.and.Transport................................................................................. 867Chemically.Based.Excuses.for.No-Action........................................................... 867Issues.of.Misidentification....................................................................................868Shortfalls.in.Scope.of.Work.for.Remedial.Investigations....................................868Legitimate.Questions............................................................................................ 869Gray.Issues,.Ghosts,.Hearsays,.and.Fables........................................................... 870

Remediation.Planning.and.Selection.of.Consultant.................................................. 870Avoiding.Pitfalls.in.Site.Remediation....................................................................... 872

All.Consultants.Are.Not.in.Fact.Equal................................................................ 872Priced-Competition.Is.a.Method.of.Consultant.Selection.................................... 872

Pathway.for.Characterization.and.Remediation.Decisions....................................... 873Summary................................................................................................................... 873

Chapter 10 Selection and Construction of Remedy: A Commendation to the “RPM”.........875

Introduction............................................................................................................... 875Practical.Effects.of.the.Voluntary.Cleanup.Program.Movement.in.America...... 875

Practical.Technological.Imperatives.of.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation......................... 877Basic.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation.Steps.....................................................................880Documentary.History.of.American.Coal-Tar.Cleanup............................................. 881

Programmatic.FMGP.Cleanup.in.the.United.States............................................ 881Historic.Role.of.the.U.S..Environmental.Protection.Agency.in.FMGP.Cleanup................................................................................................................881

Toxic.Gas-Manufacturing.Residual.and.Compounds.as.a.Base.Reference.in.Remedy.Selection...................................................................................................... 888

Conventions.for.Notation.of.PAH.Contaminant.Concentration........................... 888The.Coal-Tar.Compounds.Viewed.from.the.Standpoint.of.Public.Health........... 888Dealing.with.Cyanogens...................................................................................... 893

Reference.Information.on.Popularity.of.Particular.FMGP.Remediation.Technologies.............................................................................................................. 893

Typical.Remediation.Alternatives.for.Consideration.at.FMGPs.......................... 893U.S..EPA.Records.of.Decision.for.FMGPs.......................................................... 893

Selection.of.Remedy.................................................................................................. 916Establishing.the.Site-Knowledge.Basis.for.Selection.of.Remedy........................ 916Broad.Influences.on.Selection.of.Remedy............................................................ 916Actual.Process.of.Coal-Tar.Cleanup.in.North.America....................................... 917Examples.of.Actual.North.American.Cleanup.Actions....................................... 917Post-Remediation.Land.Use.of.Central.Station.FMGP.Sites............................... 917Special.Attention.to.Historic.Structures.Located.over.Gasworks.Toxics............ 918

Remedial.Technologies.Particularly.Applicable.to.FMGP.Sites..............................920Regulatory.Classification.of.Coal-Tar.Wastes........................................................... 921

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Types.of.Gasworks.Contaminants.Subject.to.Remedial.Action............................... 921Tars.in.and.about.the.Gasworks...........................................................................922Dealing.with.the.Multitude.of.PAH.Tar.Compounds...........................................922Cyanogens............................................................................................................923

Basic.Questions.to.Be.Answered.for.Identified.Box.Waste.Locations............923Observations.Related.to.Gasworks.Cyanogens...............................................924

Potential.Risks.Associated.with.Coal-Tar.Residuals................................................925Selection.of.Action.Levels.........................................................................................925Developing.Remedial.Objectives..............................................................................928

Presumptive.Remedies.........................................................................................928Air.Emissions.......................................................................................................928Sediment...............................................................................................................930Sheen.................................................................................................................... 931Surface.Water....................................................................................................... 932Groundwater......................................................................................................... 932By.Receptor.......................................................................................................... 933

Key.Chemicals.of.Concern....................................................................................... 933Risk-Associated.Chemical.Makeup.of.Coal-Tar.Residuals..................................934Air.Emissions.as.a.Remediation.Concern............................................................934Potential.Subsurface.Releases.to.Groundwater.................................................... 935Cancer.Risk.as.a.Means.of.Evaluating.Specific.Coal.Tars.................................. 935Chronic.vs..Carcinogenic..................................................................................... 935Cancer-Based.Risk.Estimation............................................................................. 935The.Unfortunate.Case.History.of.the.Taylorville.FMGP,.IL............................... 936

Selection.of.Remedial.Actions.................................................................................. 937Selection.of.Cleanup.Level................................................................................... 937

Risk-Based.Selection.of.Remedies............................................................................ 938RBCA.Applied.to.Leaking.Underground.Petroleum.Tank.Sites.........................940RBCA.as.Promoted.beyond.Leaking.Underground.Petroleum.Tanks.................940Misapplication.of.RBCA.to.FMGPs.and.Other.Coal-Tar.Sites............................ 941

Rational-Basis.Selection.of.Remedy.for.FMGPs.and.Other.Coal-Tar.Sites............. 941Addressing.FMGP.Residuals.in.Selection.of.Remedy......................................... 941Liquid.Gas.Plant.Residuals.and.Wastes............................................................... 941Origin.of.Gas.Plant.Impurities.as.Today’s.Hazardous.Waste.............................. 943Hazardous.Residuals.and.Wastes.of.Coke.Works.and.Tar.Distilleries................ 943Modern.Fate.of.Historic.Residuals.and.Wastes.................................................... 943What.We.Learn.from.the.Historic.Gas.Industry.Literature................................. 943What.We.Need.for.Selection.of.Remedy..............................................................944Remediation.Imperatives.for.Accurate.Site.and.Waste.Characterization............944Avoiding.“Junk.Science”.in.Characterizing.FMGPs........................................... 945

Selection.of.Remedy..................................................................................................946Selection.of.Action.Level..................................................................................... 947In.Consideration.of.Intended.Future.Land.Use.................................................... 947By.Exposure.Scenario.......................................................................................... 947By.Risk-Based.Corrective.Action.........................................................................948

Remedial.Alternative.Options.for.Coal-Tar.Sites......................................................948Traditional.FMGP.Actions...................................................................................948

No Action.........................................................................................................948Institutional Controls......................................................................................948Surface Water Controls................................................................................... 949Groundwater Controls.................................................................................... 949

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Containment.................................................................................................... 950Excavation........................................................................................................ 951Land.Burial...................................................................................................... 951Resource.Recovery..........................................................................................954Direct.Treatment.............................................................................................. 958Thermal.Treatment.......................................................................................... 959Thermal.Treatment..........................................................................................960Modern.Chemical.Reprocessing.of.Gas-House.Wastes.................................. 963Solidification/Stabilization.and.Land.Burial................................................... 963

A.Word.about.Coal.Tar.as.a.Contamination-Remediation.Target............................964Indirect.Treatment.of.FMGP.Residuals.and.Wastes.................................................964

Pump.and.Treat....................................................................................................964Soil.Vapor.Capture...............................................................................................966Bioremediation.....................................................................................................966

Innovative.Technologies............................................................................................ 967Construction.of.the.Remedy...................................................................................... 967

General.North.American.Status.of.FMGP.Constructed.Remedy........................ 967Remediation.Literature.in.General.......................................................................968

British.FMGP.and.Coal-Tar.Remediation.Literature......................................968American.FMGP.and.Coal-Tar.Remediation.Literature.................................968

Other.Government.Entities...................................................................................969Utility.Industry.Groups........................................................................................ 970Environmental.Consultants.................................................................................. 970Open.Literature.................................................................................................... 971

FMGP.Remedial.Contract.Documents..................................................................... 971Specifications.and.Drawings................................................................................ 971Unit-Item.Bidding................................................................................................. 971Lump-Sum.Bidding.............................................................................................. 972Sweat-Equity.Remedial.Contracts........................................................................ 972Scheduling............................................................................................................ 972Contingencies....................................................................................................... 972Emission.Control.................................................................................................. 973Temporary.Structures........................................................................................... 973

Sometimes.Contentious.Remedial.Contract.Issues................................................... 974Site.Unknowns...................................................................................................... 974Indemnification..................................................................................................... 974Bid-Award.Process............................................................................................... 974Quality.Control.and.Quality.Assurance............................................................... 975Oversight.of.Remedial.Construction.................................................................... 975Regulatory-Agency.Interfacing............................................................................ 975Mediation/Arbitration........................................................................................... 975Management.of.Construction.Claims................................................................... 976

Summary................................................................................................................... 976

Chapter 11 FMGP Regulatory and Legal Considerations for Remedial Engineers and Scientists...................................................................................................................977

Introduction...............................................................................................................977Remediation.Laws.and.Their.Implementing.Regulations......................................... 977

General.Parties.to.Site.Remediation.....................................................................977Secondary.Parties.to.Site.Remediation................................................................ 978

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Premise.for.Understanding.Remedial.Regulations.............................................. 978General.Magnitude.of.Gasworks.Cleanup.under.National.Law............................... 978

General.Number.of.Gasworks.and.Coal-Tar.Sites.in.North.America.................. 979Prominent.Gasworks.Responsible.Parties.in.North.America.............................. 979Gasworks.Responsible.Parties.in.the.United.Kingdom........................................ 979

Remediation.Tracks.in.General................................................................................. 979General,.Predictable.Sequence.of.FMGP.Remediation.......................................998

Gasworks.Remediation.in.the.United.States.............................................................999Remediation.Influenced.by.RCRA.(1976,.as.Amended)....................................1000Remediation.Influenced.by.CERCLA.(SUPERFUND;.1980,.as.Amended).......1000

CERCLA.National.Priority.List....................................................................1000Removal.Site.Evaluations.............................................................................. 1005The.CERCLIS................................................................................................1007Brownfield.Sites.............................................................................................1008Voluntary.Cleanup.Programs........................................................................ 1008State-.or.Federal-Lead.Cleanups...................................................................1009NFRAP’d.Federal.CERCLIS.Sites................................................................1009Potential.for.Third-Party.Plaintiff.Suits.over.Closed.Sites............................1010

Advantages.of.RP.Compliance.under.Superfund................................................1010Long-Term.Stewardship.......................................................................................1011

Gasworks.Remediation.in.the.United.Kingdom..................................................... 1012Statutory.Recognition.of.Gasworks.in.the.United.Kingdom............................. 1013Issue.of.“Orphaned”.U.K..Gas.and.Coal-Tar.Sites............................................. 1015U.K..Commitment.to.Consensus.and.Local.Authority.Participation..................1016Scottish.Executive.Moves.to.Streamline.Its.Guidance.(2005)............................10162006.as.a.Year.of.Change.for.Gasworks.Remediation.in.the.United.Kingdom........................................................................................................... 1017

Resident.Discovers.Coal.Tar.at.Bawtry,.Yorkshire........................................1017Relevant.Applicability.of.the.U.K..Environmental.Act.(1990)......................1017Enter.the.Local.Authority.at.Bawtry..............................................................1018Defining.the.Knowing.Permitter....................................................................1018Recovery.of.Reasonable.Remediation.Costs..................................................1018Stipulation.of.the.Knowing.Parties.................................................................1018NGG.Objects.to.the.Assessed.Contribution.................................................. 1019Counter.Arguments.to.the.Position.of.NGG................................................. 1019High.Court’s.Conclusions.of.Precedent......................................................... 1019

Trial.Lawyer.(Barrister).Comments.on.the.NGG.Case.Impact......................... 10202009.and.the.Corby.Borough.Decision.............................................................. 1021

Remediation.under.State/Provincial/Regional.Law................................................ 1021Twenty-First.Century.Legal.Flaws.in.Worldwide.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation....... 1022Funding.Remediation.............................................................................................. 1022

Late.and.Present.Utility.Industry.Dilemma....................................................... 1023Achieving.Economy.in.FMGP.Site.Remediation............................................... 1023Cost.Estimation.for.Remedial.Planning.of.FMGP.Sites.................................... 1027Underlying.Factors.Influencing.Cost.Spreads.for.Remediation.of.North.American.FMGP.Sites....................................................................................... 1028Political.Situation.Facing.Utility.Owners.of.FMGP.Sites.................................. 1028

Historic.Changes.in.North.American.Utility.Companies............................. 1028Coming.of.the.Environmental.Era................................................................ 1032Enter.the.British.to.North.American.Gas.Properties.................................... 1032

Cost.Recovery.as.a.Means.of.Funding.Gasworks.Remediation......................... 1033

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Coal-Tar.Riders.on.Utility.Rates................................................................... 1033Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation.Cost.Factors........................................................ 1036

FMGP.Litigation.under.American.Environmental.Law......................................... 1039General.Causes.of.Modern.Gasworks.Litigation............................................... 1039General.Prevalence.of.Modern.Gasworks.Litigation......................................... 1039Remedial.Cost.Claims.against.General.Liability.Insurance.Coverage.............. 1041

General.Liability.Notice.Impact.of.the.March.1984.Letter........................... 1041Insurance.Recovery.Impact.of.the.March.1984.Letter.................................. 1041Response.of.the.Insurance.Industry.............................................................. 1041

Usual.Technical.Topics.of.Contention.Gasworks.Insurance.Coverage.Litigation............................................................................................................ 1063

Seeking.Site.“Truths”.in.the.Context.of.Remediation.and.of.Related.Litigation...... 1064Consideration.of.Historic.Waste.Management.Practices................................... 1064Basic.Truths.about.Historic.Gasworks.Operational.Practices........................... 1064Judging.the.Truth.Content.of.FMGP.Site.Characterization............................... 1066

Remediation.Roles.for.Professional.Scientists.and.Engineers................................ 1066Hallmarks.of.a.Profession.................................................................................. 1067Understanding.Employer.Interests.as.Relative.to.the.Law................................. 1067

Litigation.Factors.Impacting.the.Roles.of.Professional.Engineers.and.Scientists.Involved.in.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation................................................... 1068

Conduct.of.Site.Historical.Research................................................................... 1068Expert.Witnesses.and.Litigation.Consultants..................................................... 1068Ethics.of.Expert.Technical.Engineering.and.Science.Testimony...................... 1070Situations.in.Which.the.Expert.Chooses.to.Compromise.the.Truth.................. 1070Examination.of.Previous.Expert.Testimony....................................................... 1071Expert.Qualification.Responsibilities.of.the.Court.and.Other.Parties.to.the.Case.......................................................................................................... 1071Modern.Court-Room.Meanings.Related.to.Expert.Testimony.on.Discharges.of.Gasworks.Residuals.and.Wastes................................................. 1071

Commentary.on.the.General.Roles.of.Parties.to.Compelled.Coal-Tar.Site.Remediation............................................................................................................ 1072

Role.of.Government.Agencies............................................................................ 1072American.Utility.Industry.(Post-1980).as.FMGP.RPs....................................... 1074True.Impact.of.RP.Recalcitrance.over.CERCLA.Provisions............................. 1075Injured.Residents,.Neighbors,.and.Visiting.Citizens.......................................... 1076Citizens.Calling.for.Gasworks.Remediation...................................................... 1076Some.Projections.toward.Future.Gasworks.Litigation....................................... 1077

Some.Engineering.and.Scientific.Aspects.of.Redevelopment.of.Coal-Tar.Sites....... 1077Summary................................................................................................................. 1079Acknowledgments................................................................................................... 1079

Appendix A: History of Manufactured Gas and Related Technologies: Major Chronological Events in the History of Manufactured Gas............................ 1081

Appendix B: Historic Glossary of Manufactured Gas and Allied Technologies...................1113

Appendix C: Historic Gas Industry Personalities................................................................... 1197

Appendix D: Locations of Manufactured Gas Plants Worldwide..........................................1211U.S..Army.and.Navy.Manufacture.Gas.................................................................. 1212

England............................................................................................................... 1218United.States....................................................................................................... 1219

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Some.American.Generalizations,.by.State.............................................................. 1220Alabama............................................................................................................. 1220Arizona............................................................................................................... 1220Arkansas............................................................................................................. 1221California............................................................................................................ 1221Colorado............................................................................................................. 1223Connecticut......................................................................................................... 1223Delaware............................................................................................................. 1224District.of.Columbia........................................................................................... 1224Florida................................................................................................................ 1225Georgia............................................................................................................... 1226Idaho................................................................................................................... 1227Illinois................................................................................................................. 1227Indiana................................................................................................................ 1228Iowa.................................................................................................................... 1228Kansas................................................................................................................ 1229Kentucky............................................................................................................. 1229Maine.................................................................................................................. 1229Maryland............................................................................................................ 1230Massachusetts..................................................................................................... 1230Michigan............................................................................................................. 1232Minnesota........................................................................................................... 1232Missouri.............................................................................................................. 1233Montana.............................................................................................................. 1233Nebraska............................................................................................................. 1233Nevada................................................................................................................ 1235New.Hampshire.................................................................................................. 1235New.Jersey.......................................................................................................... 1237New.Mexico........................................................................................................ 1237New.York............................................................................................................ 1237New.York.State................................................................................................... 1237

Consolidation.of.New.York.Gas.Companies................................................. 1238Institutional.Gas.Plants.of.New.York............................................................ 1238Holding.Companies.in.New.York.State......................................................... 1238Municipal.Gas.Plants.of.New.York............................................................... 1238Gas.Regulation.in.New.York......................................................................... 1239Alternative.Gas.Processes.in.New.York........................................................ 1239Natural.Gas.in.New.York.State..................................................................... 1239New.York.City...............................................................................................1240Consolidation.in.New.York.City.................................................................... 1241Astoria.Gas.Works—Chief.Bradley’s.Great.Works...................................... 1241Hunts.Point.Gas.Works,.The.Bronx.............................................................. 1241Manufactured.Gas.in.Brooklyn..................................................................... 1242Natural.Gas.Arrives.at.New.York.City.......................................................... 1242Environmental.Legacy.of.New.York.City.Gas.Plants................................... 1242

Long.Island......................................................................................................... 1242North.Carolina.................................................................................................... 1242North.Dakota...................................................................................................... 1243Ohio.................................................................................................................... 1243Oklahoma........................................................................................................... 1243Oregon................................................................................................................1244

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Pennsylvania.......................................................................................................1244Rhode.Island....................................................................................................... 1245South.Carolina.................................................................................................... 1245South.Dakota......................................................................................................1246Tennessee............................................................................................................1246Texas................................................................................................................... 1247Utah....................................................................................................................1248Vermont..............................................................................................................1248Virginia............................................................................................................... 1249Washington.State................................................................................................ 1250West.Virginia...................................................................................................... 1251Wisconsin........................................................................................................... 1251Wyoming............................................................................................................ 1251Canada................................................................................................................ 1251Eastern.Canada................................................................................................... 1251Western.Canada.................................................................................................. 1251Latin.America..................................................................................................... 1252Mexico................................................................................................................ 1252Europe................................................................................................................ 1253Belgium.............................................................................................................. 1253Denmark............................................................................................................. 1253France................................................................................................................. 1254Netherlands......................................................................................................... 1255Poland................................................................................................................. 1256Spain................................................................................................................... 1256United.Kingdom................................................................................................. 1256“Overseas”.......................................................................................................... 1258South.Asia.......................................................................................................... 1259India.................................................................................................................... 1259Asia..................................................................................................................... 1260

China.............................................................................................................. 1260Taiwan............................................................................................................ 1260

Australasia.......................................................................................................... 1262Summary................................................................................................................. 1262

Appendix E: American Gas Utility Companies Associated with FMGPs as Yesteryear’s Holding Companies and Today’s Utilities.................................... 1263

Appendix F: Actual Remedial Actions Selected for Former Manufactured Gas Plants and Other Coal-Tar Sites......................................................................... 1285

Consolidated References............................................................................................................ 1323

Index............................................................................................................................................. 1355

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