religiousness as a predictor of academic performance among high-school students

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Religiousness as a Predictor ofAcademic Performance amongHigh-school StudentsHae-Seong Park aa University of New OrleansPublished online: 01 Dec 2009.

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Journal of Research on Christian Education Fall 2001, Vol. 10, No. 2 pp. 361-378

Feature + Religiousness as a Predictor of Academic Performance

among High-school Students

Hae-Seong Park University of New Orleans

Although efforts to improve academic performance previously have focused on school reform, conditions outside school hold the key to increasing our children’s academic achievement. The purposes of this study were (1) to determine the relationship between religiousness and academic achievement and (2) to develop a general model that can be generalizable across various ethnic groups. The data from the first follow-up (1990) and second follow-up (1992) of the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) were utilized in this study. Hier- archical regression and path analysis were employed. The result of the analysis shows that religiousness has a significant impact on academic achievement even though socioeconomic status is accounted for in advance in the analysis model. In the general model for various ethnic groups, student academic performance is determined by religiousness, socioeconomic status, locus of control, and strict parenting. Sugges- tions for future research are offered.

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Introduction

The academic performance of American children is of great con- cern. Efforts to boost academic performance typically have focused on school reform. Length of school days are stretched, standards are more rigorous, qualifications for teachers are heightened. Although school and teacher efforts are extremely important, conditions outside of school hold the key to substantially increasing academic performance (Schickedanz, 1995). One outside-school factor which has been the subject of considerable debate is religious socialization. Recent studies (Jeynes, 1999; Oh, 1999; Steward & Jo, 1998) which focused on the impact of individual religiousness on student academic achievement (i.e., micro-level) have shown that religiously committed children performed better on most academic measures than their less religious counterparts, even when controlling for socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and whether the students attended a private religious school. Although research on the impact of religiousness on academic achievement of children is not new, the vast majority of this research (Coleman, Hoffer, & Kilgore, 1982; Lee & Bryk, 1993) has focused on the macro-level of study (i.e., school level).

The results of Oh’s path-model study (1999), which included sociaVpsychologca1 measures (e.g., school behavior, locus of control, and self-esteem) as the intermediate variables between religiousness and academic achievement, revealed that the indirect impact of religiousness on student academic performance through the sociaVpsychologica1 factors was greater than the direct impact. It indicates that without the consideration of the sociaUpsychologca1 measures, the simple model including only the variables of religiousness and academic achievement cannot reveal the under- lying relationship between the variables. Also, the results are not surprising because many studies have revealed that there is a relationship between religiousness and locus of control. However, the direction of the association between religiousness and locus of control is controversial (Garner & Cole, 1986; Jackson & Coursey, 1988; Johnson, 1992).

In addition to religiousness, another outside school factor that has been identified as significantly affecting student achievement is parenting practices (Chao, 1994; Cohen & Rice, 1997; Leung, Lau, & Lam, 1998;

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Religiousness as a Predictor 3 63

Marjoribanks, 1996; Marshall, 1995; Paulson, 1994; Steinberg, Elmen & Mounts, 1989; Taris & Bok, 1996; Weiss & Schwarz, 1996). Specifically, warm, supportive, and accepting parenting, accompanied by appropriate supervision, is associated with high performance in school (Schickedanz, 1995). Additionally, some researchers have revealed a relationship between parent religiousness and parenting practices (Danso, Hunsberger, & Pratt, 1997; Ellison, 1996; Grasmick, Morgan, & Kennedy, 1992). These studies have found that the kmds of practices that parents adopt for rearing their children are influenced by the parents’ religions. Specifically, Danso and others (1997) exhibited that religious fundamentalism is positively linked to greater emphasis on obedience and to greater approval of corporal punishment in parenting practices.

Several studies have compared the impact of religiousness on academic achievement across different ethnic groups; however, the results are inconsistent (Chao, 1994; Jeynes, 1999; Leung et al., 1998; Oh, 1999; Sojourner & Kushner, 1997; Steward & Jo, 1998). The result of Oh’s (1999) study showed that the direct impact of religiousness on academic achievement is significant for Hispanics, but not for African Americans. Steward and Jo (1 998) discovered a significant impact of religiousness on academic achievement for African Americans, while Sojourner and Kushner’s study (1997), based on a national database, could not find a significant relationship between religious socialization and academic achievement for the same ethnic group. Jeynes’ study (1 999) showed a significant impact of religiousness on academic performance for both Af- rican American and Hispanic students. The inconsistent results point to methodological problems, mainly those associated with sampling bias and measurement, which call into question the validity of much of this research. While the previously cited research has contributed to the understanding of the relative role of religiousness on academic performance, research spe- cific to comprehensive models has not been sufficiently addressed.

These inconsistencies and limitations raise the following questions: Research Question 1 : Is there a relationship between religiousness and academic performance? Research Question 2: After considering the impact of parenting practices, socioeconomic status, and the other demographic variables, is there still a

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significant impact of religiousness on students’ academic performance? Research Question 3: Is the relationship consistent across various ethnic groups and, if it is, is there a comprehensive model that can be generalizable?

Methodology

Subjects This study utilized data from the first follow-up and second follow-

up of the National Educational Longtudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88). The surveys were sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics and were designed to provide information on educational, vocational, and cultural developments of the base sample as they progressed from middle school to high school to adulthood. Specifi- cally, data for NELS:88 were first collected in 1988 from a sample of approximately 25,000 eighth-grade students, their parents, teachers, and school principals. The first follow-up (1990) surveyed these students when they were in the tenth grade, and the second follow-up (1 992) included the same sample during their senior year.

NELS:88 used a two-stage stratified probability design to select a nationally representative sample of eighth-grade schools and students. Schools constituted the primary sampling unit and students were the sec- ondary sampling unit. The original surveys included a total school sample of 1,057. All but five schools provided usable student data (8 15 public schools and 237 private schools). The student sampling provided a random selec- tion of 26,432 students from participating schools, resulting in participation by approximately 24,600 eighth graders in the spring of 1988. The first and second follow-up student surveys were based on the original sample; a sample- freshening technique was implemented to provide a representative sample of all students enrolled in the twelfth grade during the spring term of 1992 (Ingels et al., 1994).

For the purpose of the current project, the NELS:88 database was restricted to four ethnic groups. Through the process of matching by student identification numbers, 738 Asian Americans, 1294 Hispanics, 1032


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African Americans, and 7 1 16 European Americans were included in this study. (Because of subject attrition over the course of the five-year longitudinal study, and after list-wise deletion for missing values during the con- struction of the variable for parenting style, the resultant sample size was 10,180).

Variables

The independent variables included in this study were religious variables (religious activity, religious identity, religious commitment), parentingbractice variables (supervision, strictness, support, involvement), social/psychological variables (locus of control, self-concept, socioeconomic status [SES’), and ethnicity. The dependent variable was academic achievement and was measured through standardized, composite test scores for reading and mathematics.

Religious Variables Religious activity. This measure represents how often the stu-

dent attends religious activities. The range for this variable is 1 (Rarely or never) to 4 (Everyday or almost).

Religious identity. This is a self-report measure which represents whether a student is a religious person. The responses are 1 (Yes, very), 2 (Yes, somewhat), and 3 (No, not at all).

Religious commitment. This variable was constructed to be employed in the Structural Equation Model based on the previous two religious variables. Whether a student was classified as “religious” depended on whether each student described herselfhimself as 1 (very or somewhat religious) and 2 (attending religious activities at least once a week). A dummy variable was created, indicating 1 (a high level of religious commitment) and 0 (a low level of religious commitment).

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Parenting Practice Variables Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted on sixteen (1 6)

questions from the student questionnaire that were used to determine the latent variables for parenting practices. Four factors which were retrieved from the EFA were labeled supervision, strictness, support, and involvement (see Table 1 for factor loadings). The questions for each factor are as follows:

Supervision. Five questions are included in the supervision measure; i.e., Parents try to find out who fnends are; Parents try to find out where student goes at night; Parents try to find out how student spends money; Parents try to find out what student does with fiee time, and Par- ents try to find out where student is after school. The range for this variable is -4.024 to 2.148, with more positive values indicating greater usage of supervision practices .

Strictness. Three questions represent strictness; i.e., Parents limit privileges due to poor grades; Parents limit TV watching or video games; and Parents limit time with friends. The range for this variable is -2.99 to 2.41 1, with more negative values indicating greater reliance on strict parenting practices.

Support. Three questions are included in the measure relating to support: i.e., How often parents attend school meetings; How often parents attend school events; and How often parents acted as a volunteer at school. The range for this variable is -1.709 to 3.383, with more positive values indicating greater reliance on supportive practices.

Involvement. Five questions are included in the involvement measure: i.e., Discussed school courses with parent; Discussed school activities with parent; Discussed things studied in class with parent; How often discussed grades with parent; Discussed going to college with parent. The range for this variable is -3.262 to 2.89 1, with more positive values indicating greater use of involvement in parenting practices.


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Religiousness as a Predictor 367

Table 1 Factor Loadings for Parent Practices

Component Supervision Strictness Support Involvement

Parents try to find out who friends are

Parents try to find where student goes at night

student spends money Parents try to find how

student uses free time

student is after school Parents limit privileges

due to poor grades Parents limit TV watching

or video games Parents limit time

with friends How often parents attend

school meetings How often parents attend

school events How often parents acted

as volunteer at school Discussed school courses .75

with parent Discussed school activities .7 1

with parent

in class with parent

grades with parent

college with parent

.7 1

.76

.75

30

.75

Parents try to find how

Parents try to find where

Discussed things studied .75

How often discussed .68

Discussed going to .67

.76

.7 1

.69

.76

.72

.80

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Social Psychological Variables Locus of control. This measure is a composite which represents

the student’s sense of control over hisher environment. Student questionnaire items which constitute this composite include “Luck is more important than hard work,” “When I make plans I can make them work,” etc. The range of this composite is -3.01 (external locus of control) to 1.52 (internal locus of control).

Self-concept. This measure is a composite which represents the student’s overall self-evaluation. Student questionnaire items which constitute this composite include items such as “I’m a person of worth, equal to others,’’ “I feel good about myself,” etc. The range of this composite is -3.61 (low self-esteem) to 1.25 (high self-esteem).

Socioeconomic status (SES) This measure is a composite computed from educational, occupa-

tional, and income data from the parent survey. The range for this variable is -3.243 to 2.753, with more positive values indicating higher educational and occupational levels.

Ethnicity

Hispanics, African Americans, and European Americans. Four ethnic groups were included in this study: Asian Americans,

Academic Achievement The dependent variable (academic achievement) is the scale score

for the second follow-up standardized reading and mathematics test composite administered to students as part of the NELS:88 survey. For the current sample this measure has a range of 27.86 (lowest achievement) to 71.37 (highest achievement).

To help us to make inferences on a causal link between independent and dependent variables, the independent variables were drawn from the first follow-up study, and the dependent variable was selected from the second follow-up study.


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Analytical Strategy

Data analysis for the current project was directed at explicating the impact of religiousness on academic achievement. In particular, this project is concerned with two issues: (1) whether the association of religiousness and academic achievement, if it exists, can be accounted for by other variables known to impact student performance, and (2) whether the association is generalizable across various ethnic groups. Hierarchical multiple regression was employed to address these issues. In the initial model, only SES was included. The second model added religious variables to the equation, so that the purified impact of religiousness on academic performance can be tested after controlling SES, which has been considered the most promising variable to explain student achievement. The final model added parentindpractices variables and the social/psychological variables to the equation. This strategy allowed for the study of changes in the influence of religiousness as other factors are considered. Finally, a path modeling was employed to develop a final model to be generalizable across different ethnic groups.

Results

For research question 1 (Is there a relationship between religiousness and academic performance?), the results of the significance tests for the multiple correlation determination (R2) showed that the association between religious variables and the academic achievement was statistically significant (p < .001) for all ethnic groups. The explanatory powers (adjusted R2) of the multiple regression were .12, .09, .13, and .18, for Asian Americans, Hispanics, Afncan Americans, and European Ameri- cans, respectively.

For research question 2 (After considering the impact of parenting practices, socioeconomic status, and other demographic variables, is there still a significant impact of religiousness on students’ academic performance?), hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to determine

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the relative importance of the variables considered in this study (see Table 2 for the model summary). After controlling SES, the purified impact of religiousness on academic performance remains as a statistically significant (p < .OOl) factor and the effect sizes were 6%, 6%, 7%, and 9% of the total variance of academic achievement for Asian Americans, Hispan- ics, African Americans, and European Americans, respectively (i.e., RZchange = .06, .06, .07, and .09). Additional explanatory powers by social/psychological measures in Step 3 of the regression were 7%, 8%, 7%, and 6% of the total variance of academic achievement for Asian Americans, Hispan- ics, African Americans, and European Americans, respectively (i.e., RZchange = .07, .08, .07, and .06).

Table 2 Summary of the Explanatory Power by the Hierarchical Models

Ethnic Group Step R

Asian 1 .43 .19 .19 149.08 .001 American 2 S O .25 .06 26.83 .001

3 .57 .32 .07 11.94 .001

Hispanic 1 .34 . I1 . I1 124.50 .001 2 .42 .17 .06 36.46 .001 3 S O .25 .08 16.42 .001

African 1 .40 .16 .16 150.14 .001 American 2 .47 .23 .07 32.70 .001

3 .54 .30 .07 12.29 .001

European 1 .44 .20 .20 1531.32 .001 American 2 .53 .28 .08 372.01 .001

3 .58 .34 .06 88.32 .001

Step 1: Socioeconomic status entered. Step 2: Religiousness variables (i.e., religious commitment, value of religion) entered. Step 3: Social/physchological variables (ie., locus of control, self concept, supervision, strictness, support, and involvement) entered.


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In the final model, however, the selected variables to predict academic achievement were not substantially different across four ethnic groups. The results of the regressions are shown in table 3.

Table 3 Results of the Regressions

Ethrucity Selected Variables @ > . lo)*

Asian Americans SES, Religous Commitment, Religious Identity, Strictness, Locus of Control

Hispanics SES, Religous Commitment, Strictness, Supervision, Locus of Control

African Americans SES, Religious Identity, Strictness, Locus of Control

European Americans SES, Religious Commitment, Religious Identity, Strictness, Locus of Control

*In order to weigh different sample sizes across the ethnic groups, the magnitude of association was employed in the final selections.

It should be noted that the selected variables in the final model are the same for Asian Americans and European Americans. Also, strictness seems to be a consistent, significant variable among parenting practices across the four ethnic groups. From the social/psychological variables, locus of control was selected as a significant factor for all ethnic groups. Religous commitment was selected as a significant variable for Hispanics, while religious identity was chosen for African Americans. However, the final models among the four ethnic groups did not exhibit any significant

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differences. Therefore, based on the final models of the four ethnicities from the hierarchical regression, a comprehensive model was evaluated through the path analysis for the total sample of students. (See the results of the path model in figure 1).

n Locus of I

X Test score a Re lig io \i

Figure 1. Comprehensive Path Model for the Impact of Religious- ness on Academic Achievement

Bentler (I 983) recommended that the researcher accept models when the goodness of fit index is closer to 1, or more specifically, when it is greater than .90. The model as specified (Figure 1) resulted in a good fit with GFI = .99, NFI = .97, and IF1 = .98. In path analysis, there is neither significant impact of SES nor religiousness on the strict-parenting practices. The results are displayed in Figure 1, which shows all paths signifi-


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cant at p < .O 1 or better, except those two paths regarding the impacts of two exogenous variables on strict-parenting practices. The direct effect (? = .lo) of the religious commitment on achievement is much greater than the indirect effect (? = .02) through the intermediate variable of locus of control (see Table 4).

Table 4 Standardized Effects of Exogenous Variables on Academic Achievement

Variable Direct Effect Indirect Effect Total Effect

Religousness .10 .02 .12 SES .42 .03 .45 Strict parenting .15 .15 Locus of control .20 .20

The result indicates that the purified impact of religiousness on academic achievement is still significant after controlling for the other social/psychological variables. The positive coefficient shows that more religious students outperform less religious students in academic achievement. Also, the standardized coefficient of the religious commitment to locus of control is .I0 (p < .OOl), which indicates that more religiously committed students are more likely to have an internal locus of control. This result supports the findings of the Jackson and Coursey (1988) study. Although religiousness on strict parenting has no significant impact, the parenting practice has a significant impact on academic achievement =

-15; p < .OOl). Students of parents who are more strict in their parenting practices performed poorer academically than their counterparts because more negative values indicate greater reliance on strict-parenting practices (Schickedanz, 1995).

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One should be cautioned to interpret that there is no association between religiousness and parenting because any variables related to warm, supportive, and accepting parenting were not considered in the path model. Also, the religiously committed variable is a dummy variable which represents whether students are more or less religious based on the arbitrary criterion, so that many variations in the original measured variables van- ished before the analysis.

Conclusion

The present study contributes to the growing understanding of the influence of characteristics of religiousness on academic achievement. When the effects of social/psychological variables, socioeconomic status, and religiousness were considered together, no significant difference of selected variables were present to explain students’ academic achievement across four ethnic groups. Also, no considerable discrepancy of the effect size of religousness on academic achievement existed among the four ethnic groups of students. Therefore, the generalizability of the impact of religiousness on academic achievement does not seem limited across various ethnic groups.

It is important to note that religiousness, which is classified as one of the social factors, has a significant impact on academic performance even though the most significant social/psychological variables, including socioeconomic status, were accounted for in advance in the comprehensive model. This study has focused on general religious commitment, specifically as measured by students’ self-evaluation; however, there might be differences of students’ perspective regarding their religiousness across different religious denominations. This concept may differ from other conceptualizations of certain types of religious commitment, such as Chris- tianity, Islam, or Buddhism. The measure in this study did not differentiate between students’ attitude toward their religious beliefs and their attitude in the contents of the beliefs themselves. Additional research is needed to evaluate the role of religousness in an individual denomination, as it relates to academic achievement.


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It is interesting to note that only strict parenting was consistently found as a significant factor of academic achievement for all ethnic groups. However, it does not indicate that warm, supportive, and accepting parenting has no explanatory power on academic achievement. When the strict parenting was considered in the regression model, the additional explanatory powers of the other variables in parenting practices showed relatively less power than the strict parenting. To understand this relationship more hlly, further study to determine the association between religiousness with not only parenting practices but also parenting styles is recommended.

In contrast to the findings from the recent studies (Leung et al., 1998; Taylor, Phillips, Hinton, & Wilson, 1992), which indicated that the impact of the strict parenting practices on academic achievement was significant in lower SES students but was not significant in the higher SES group, the result of the current study did not show any significant association between socioeconomic status and parenting. To determine any pos- sible interaction effect between socioeconomic status and parenting on academic achievement, a block design that divides the continuous variable of SES into a categorical variable including three or four groups is advised.

In summary, the results of this project suggest that adolescents’ religiousness is related to their academic achievement, but this link is medi- ated by the other social/psychological factors. Religiousness per se might not be an important predictor of parenting practices, when only strict parenting is considered in the analysis model. This qualifies and clarifies the conclusions of previous research on religousness and academic achievement (e.g., Jeynes, 1999; Oh, 1999; Steward & Jo, 1998) that religiously committed students performed better on academic achievement than their less religious counterparts. However, the results of the current study does not exhibit any significant associations between religiousness and parenting practices. Further, researchers might be advised to study this subject based on separate religions. And, understanding of the family context may yield important information that helps frame policy and pedagogical decisions.

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Hae-Seong Park is an associate professor in the department of educational leadership, counseling, and foundations in the College of Education at the University of New Orleans. He earned a Ph.D. in educational research methodology from Louisiana State University. His areas of specialization are quantitative research methodology and statistics, and his most recent work deals with religiousness and adolescent behavior. He has recently had articles published in the Journal of Drug Education and the Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education.


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religiousness as a predictor of academic performance among high-school students

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