religious ethics for a2.doc

8/19/2019 Religious Ethics for A2.doc

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May 2011 Religious Ethics Harry Townsend

Religious Ethics for A2 – OCR Free Will and Determinism:

There are three main approaches to freedom:

1. Hard Determinism: Humans cannot be morally blameworthy because their actions are

determined.

2. Soft Determinism: Some human actions are determined but we still have moralresponsibility.

3. Libertarians: Humans are free to act and as such are morally responsible for their actions.

Hard Determinism:

• aruch Spino!a: "#n the mind there is no absolute or free will$ but the mind is

determined to will this or that by a cause% which has been determined by another

cause & and so on to infinity.'

• Hard determinism holds that everythin( in the universe has a cause. This includes all

human activity.

• #f we )now all the events that lead to an action then we theoretically should be able to

predict the action. *reedom is an illusion.• #t is incompatible with both free will and moral responsibility.

• Hard Determinism poses a real problem for morality + what we ou(ht and ou(ht not

to do.

• The problem is + what if they could not have done anythin( else, Does it ma)e sense

to punish people for their crimes,

Philosophers:

• John Hospers: believed that we cannot be held morally blameworthy for our actions.

-e reco(nise a )leptomaniac as havin( a powerful compulsion to steel% but it is unfair

on the person because we do not fully understand what motivates them. He is uoted

sayin( /morality is a victim of circumstances and it is all a matter of luc)0.• Clarence Darro: was an merican defence lawyer who defended to boys Leopold

and Lobe who murdered a 14 year old boy. He convinced the court that the boys

should have a life sentence as opposed to the su((ested death sentence% as they were

/a product of their upbrin(in(.0 Darrow believed people should be sent to prison for

their actions but it shouldn0t be assumed they are responsible. /# )now nothin(

happens in this world without a cause.0

• John! "! Watson: behaviour can be predicted and controlled as people live and act in

a determined universe so that all human behaviour includin( ethical decisions is

controlled by prior causes which are )nowable in principle.

• John #oc$e: /*reedom is an illusion.0 -e only thin) we chose freely because we

don0t )now the causes that lie behind the choices. #llustrates this with the analo(y of asleepin( man who wa)es up in a loc)ed room. 5n awa)enin( he decides to stay where

he is% not realisin( the door was loc)ed. He believes he0s ma)in( the decision but in

reality he has no choice.

• %ed Honderich: everythin( is determined% no choice or responsibility% not even any

/self0 within us that is the ori(in of our actions. 6o room for moral blame% therefore

no point for punishment% no room for freewill.

Critical Ealuation:

+ 7romotes the idea of rehabilitation over punishment. This will mean those who /do

wron(0 will be fi8ed and can then be for(iven.

+ #t is wron( to punish people if they are not responsible so if you0re fi8in( them thenyou avoid an in9ustice.

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+ vidence for it is presented by Derren rown + He convinces Simon 7e( that he

wanted a ;< bi)e by usin( outside influences to convince him he wanted

somethin( else.

− 7eople would not be morally responsible% and so do not deserve blame for even the

most cold blooded and calmly performed evil actions.

− ;eans we cannot blame or praise people for their actions% very hard to accept if a

child has been murdered and the murderer cannot be blames.

− =lassical 7hysics is indeed deterministic% but modern uantum physics is not

deterministic and so it ma)es no sense to worry about determinism in the 21 st century%

modern physics maintains that the most basic laws of nature are 65T deterministic

but 75#L#ST#=.

− #f hard determinism is true then all the horrible thin(s in the world had to happen +

this is a very pessimistic view of the world.

− #ncompatible with the >od of =lassical Theism + *ree -ill.

− ?emoves all responsibility% control and ar(uably meanin( from our lives. How are

you meant to do your best or be motivated if life is determined,"o#t Determinism $compati%ilist&:

• Some of our actions are determined but we are still morally responsible for our

actions.

• They ar(ue that there is confusion between determinism and fatalism all thin(s

happen by inevitable necessity about what we mean by freedom of choice. *reedom

of choice is not compatible with fatalism% /what ever will be will be0% which says that

nobody can chan(e the course of events% but is compatible with determinism% a theory

of universal causation if we include our own values% choices and desires amon( the

choices determine our actions.

• Determinism is compatible with whatever sort of freedom is necessary for moralresponsibility.

• 65T a position that combines deterministic and libertarian% 65T a compromise%

doesn0t limit free will% @T is a position ta)en due to the need to have some

accountability and responsibility for human behaviour.

• -e are not free to fly 9ust by usin( our own bodies to propel us throu(h the air + this

misuses the word /free0. Soft Determinism chan(es bein( free from 0bein( able to

choose0% to /bein( physically able to do.0

• -e are morally responsible for% and can reasonably be punished and praised for those

actions which are caused by our own desires and decisions.

Philosophers:

• &mmanuel 'ant: Determinism applies to everythin( which is the ob9ect of

)nowled(e$ but 65T to acts of the will. 7eople wor) from two different A seemin(ly

incompatible standpoints: the theoretical pure reason and the practical practical

reason.

B 7ure reason C )nowled(e% the mind% and the way we see the scientifically e8plicable

world.

B 7ractical reason C actions% the will% and the way we see ourselves as free.

B ant0s ar(ument is that our won selfBawareness% without which the world would not

ma)e sense to us% forces on us the idea that we are free so we cannot (et rid of the

idea we are free without ceasin( to see ourselves as the ori(inator of our actions.

• (te)en *in$er: loo)ed at it from another an(le. -e Loo)ed at Darwin0s ideas thatemotions such as (uiltEloveEan(er etc. have a biolo(ical basis. He developed a theory

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that our moral reasonin( is a result of natural selection% but claims this didn0t the end

of moral responsibility. .(. evolution mi(ht predispose men to violence% but this

doesn0t e8cuse it as our moral sense is innate% within us and so is /as real for us as if it

were decreed by the almi(hty or written in the =osmo0s.0

• Richard Da$ins: =ompletely a(rees with 7in)er. However% if our reasonin( is a

result of natural selection% then how can we be held morally responsible,Critical Ealuation:

+ There is no proof had unuestionable evidence for either hard determinism or

libertarianism. Theoretically it ma)es sense to try and find a balance between the two.

+ ;a)es the two compatible + a determined world with responsibility.

+ #t is o)ay that it0s va(ue because it is a very difficult line to draw and e8plain.

+ #t allows for creativity in our choices% so not all our choices are the result of e8istin(

desires or habits.

+ Soft Determinism a(rees that moral responsibility is important in our society% but it is

not reasonable to hold a person responsible for actions caused by his emotions%

beliefs% desires% and decisions if he has no choice about havin( them + ma)es lo(icalsense.

− However% it is hard for Soft Determinists do decide what e8actly is determined and

what can be freely chosen. The comple8 nature of people and the roles of physics%

(enetics% and psycholo(y ma)e decidin( what e8actly is% or is not% a determinin(

factor very hard.

− Doesn0t (ive specific (uidelines as to what isEisn0t determined.

− #f everythin( can be influenced by so many factors + which ones are deterministic,

− Stru((les to decide which actions are determined as psycholo(y% social conditionin(%

and (enetics ma)e decision ma)in( far more comple8 than it can possibly be% not

practical.− r(uably misses the point + not ar(uin( or 9ustifyin( anythin(.

− t the same time it denies both libertarianism and Hard Determinism% but also doesn0t

with Hard Determinism it fails to realise freedom is limited but with Libertarianism it

fails to realise the true e8tent of human freedom.

'i%ertarianism:

• ?e9ects determinism because it re9ects moral responsibility$ and it ar(ues that we have

a sense of freedom to act.

• lso called /incompatibilist0 because they maintain that free will is incompatible with

determinism.

•

They don0t however re9ect determinism all to(ether. They a(ree that the innate worldis determined but they deny that causation applies to human action.

• Lin) to Hard Determinism Hospers: #t may well be that the leptomaniac left on his

own in a shop will steel% but no one can ever be certain of this.

• They ma)e the distinction between your personality and moral self. Four personality

is determined by causal laws and influences% but your moral self =6 =5@6T?

those tendencies.

Main (rguments #or 'i%ertarianism:

1. ;ost common ar(ument is that we see ourselves as free a(ents% not robots. -e

commonly have the e8perience of a selfB determinin( creature. -e blame ourselves

when we do wron( and we have the e8perience in decidin( between /tea and coffee0%

/which boo) to read0 etc. we consciously )now that we are ma)in( that final decision.

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2. The second ar(ument analyses the way in which we ma)e decisions. -hen we ma)e a

choice we ac)nowled(e that: a we do not already )now what we are (oin( to do$ and

b it is in our power to do what we are thin)in( of doin(. -hen we ma)e decisions we

believe that we are free to ma)e them.

3. 3rd ar(ument disputes the case that all events have a cause. ;odern physics

currently upholds the belief that somethin( can come from nothin(. Human choicecould be the first cause. However% you could ar(ue that this misses the point + the

opposite of causation is randomness and you cannot be morally responsible in a truly

random world either.

Philosophers:

• *eter +an &nagen: /nalo(y of the ?oad0% determinism only has the one road% but

libertarianism has many branches of choice off of it. G -e can relate to this in terms

of the debate and life but + These branches could be an illusion% he doesn0t e8plain the

illusion.

• Werner Heisen,erg: -e cannot )now both the location and momentum of subatomic

particles at the same time. etter to refer to statistical possibilities rather than (eneral

laws. Science shows thin(s don0t 6D a cause C random A undetermined. + This

would mean there would be no order.

• Jean-*aul (atre: ;an is not free not to be free + we are 1I responsible for our

actions + this is the purposeEmeanin( to our lives and life is meanin(less without free

will. + There is no evidence$ he is 9ust /pointin( to the point.0

Critical Ealuation:

+ ?eco(nises that people have a sense of decisionBma)in(% a sense of freedom% a sense

of deliberatin( over their choices of life.

+ >ives us purpose and responsibility in our lives which underpins our whole system of

ethics and law.

+ -e see ourselves as free a(ents.

− *act we see ourselves as free a(ents could 9ust be an illusion. There is no proof of it.

lso% doesn0t e8plain human actions.

− How does a person decide what to do,

− Doesn0t account for human motive which is always caused by somethin(.

− ;ust be actions we can0t controlEalter e.(. (eneticsEpsycholo(y.

− lmost unBdoubtable that our bac)(round and past e8periences determine our actions.

The )n#luences o# Psychology or Moral Choices:

7sycholo(y is the systematic study of behaviour and the psycholo(ical and co(nitive

processes that underlie it. #t aims to describe% e8plain and predict and modify human behaviour. 4 main approaches:

'earning (pproach:

• lso )nown as the /behavioural approach0.

• "#t0s all due to e8perience.'

• John -atson said /behaviour can be predicted and controlled0 and that we learn from

observin( our environment and the people in it.

Physiological (pproach:

• lso )nown as the /biolo(ical approach0.

• Loo)s into the physical influences on our behaviour.

• 5ur (enetics and our endocrine system hormones.• 5ur nervous system includin( the brain.

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Psychodynamic (pproach:

• #t is all in our subconscious.

• #t all stems from *reud.

• The way we behave as adults is rooted in our childhood e8periences.

• 5ur behaviour is affected A shaped by the unconscious mind.

Cognitie (pproach:

• Loo)s at the mental process in determinin( how we process information% develop

lan(ua(e% solve problems and thin).

• How we receive our information determines how we interpretErespond to events.

)n#luence o# "ocial Conditioning:

• 7eople thin)Eact in line with their social conditionin(% rather than throu(h (enetically

determined factors or real freedom of choice% has a distinct social cause.

• Therefore all our actions are caused by somethin( within society.

• %homas (oell: "Social conditionin( is the idea that human self is infinitely plastic%

allowin( humanity to be chan(ed and ultimately perfected.'

• 5ur social learnin( and placement is what determines our actions and we can do

nothin( else but follow the sociolo(ically determined path.

)n#luence o# *enetics:

• lmost all physical and behavioural aspects of humanity are controlled by (enetics.

• 5ther influences play a part% but difficult to escape our (enes. volved throu(h bein(

determined by our (enes. 7in)er + ?easonin( is a result of natural selection. Humans

have moral responsibility% yet an innate sense of morality.

The )n#luence o# the Enironment:

• nvironmental determinism su((ests that (eo(raphy and climate influences

individuals much more than social conditionin( does.

• Historically our climate contributes to our actions as it affects the behaviour of our

society. .(. tropical climates C la!iness and promiscuity$ urope C Hard wor)in(.

%he Role of the Conscience

• =onscience is our moral sense of ri(ht and wron(.

• 4 )ey uestions to )eep in mind when considerin( the nature and function:

-hat is conscience,$ -here does it come from,$ #nnate or acuired,$ -hat is its

function in ethical decision ma)in(,

• There are two main views that influence the stance people have:

1. ?eli(ious Kiews: iblical teachin(% Divine =ommand Theory u(ustine% utler

etc..

2. Secular Kiews: 7sycholo(ical% sociolo(ical% humanitarian and authoritarian."t! (ugustine o# Hippo:

• elieved that divine love binds all the aspects of virtue to the one virtue which is >od%

and that conscience emer(es from the outflow of divine love.

• The conscience is >od0s love poured forth to human bein(s: it is when >od spea)s to

the individual and it reveals itself in solitary moments.

• To be identified with the voice of >od spea)in( to us. -hen we listen to it we are

really listenin( to >od whisperin( to us about what is ri(ht and wron(.

• "?eturn to your conscience & uestion it & see >od as your witness.'

Critical Ealuation:

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− 1st problem is that it cannot be uestioned. #t is the infallible voice of >od% which is

hard for some that it cannot be contradicted% especially when it (oes a(ainst the

teachin(s of >od.

− 6ot possible to verify whether it is the voice of >od% or selfBdelusion.

− Some have an issue with a >od who contradicts himself. #f the conscience of one

individual lead them to do precisely the opposite to someoneBelse.

− .(. 11% protestant citi!ens of Toulouse rose in revolt a(ainst their =atholic rulers.

They were /lead by their consciences0 to do so. Several wee)s later they were

butchered by =atholics% whose conscience0s told them 7rotestantism was a cancer to

the *rench state that must be destroyed. Fou could ar(ue neither side demonstrated

/(ape0 nor the /love of >od0.

"t! Thomas (+uinas: Reason see,ing understanding

• =entred on 6atural Law% and is part of an intellectual% rational approach to derive

from basic laws which ou(ht to be done in a particular situation.

• #t is lin)ed to the moral virtues and the />olden ;ean0. see virtue ethics

B "pplication of )nowled(e to activity'.• uinas distin(uishes between "ynderesis >ree) conscience and Concienta Latin.

• "ynderesis: identified with /ri(ht reason0% an intellectual process of (ainin(

)nowled(e and siftin( throu(h evidence lo(ically. #t is not a command.

• Concienta: the process of applyin( ri(ht reason to a specific issue.

• =onscience for uinas comprises these two elements: the application of ri(ht reason

to life issues.

Critical Ealuation:

uinas0 view has certain wea)nesses:

1. The same natural yet ethical laws (uide all human bein(s. Different societies may

have different moral laws and as a result their consciences may vary.2. The conscience of each humanBbein( points to the -Telos. of (oodness% which is not

variable from person to person. How is sense to be made of the fact that people can

reach totally different conclusions on important ethical issues, uinas0s counter

ar(ument would be that this wouldn0t be the case if /ri(ht reason0 were employed.

3. The conscience is (rounded in natural Law. #t is ar(ued that the fundamental

understandin( of nature that this theory is based on is no lon(er consistent with a

modern understandin( of how nature wor)s.

4. 7rinciples can be lin)ed to realityM: theory to application. Somethin( precedes its

e8istence .moral principles e8amined in the conscience lead to practical% material

decisions. utler ar(ues this is an impossible step from moral principle to an action.

• Some =hristians would say uinas0 rationalistic approach doesn0t consider thatrevelation comes directly from >od. uinas could respond by ar(uin( conscience is

reasonin( used correctly to find out what >od sees as (ood.

/udith utler: Conscience comes #rom *od!

• Li)e uinas% he believed conscience could determine and 9ud(e the

ri(htnessEwron(ness of an action and thou(hts.

• =onscience holds a powerful position within human decision + ma)in( because% /it

ma(isterially e8erts itself0 spontaneously /without bein( consulted0.

• He (ave to conscience the final say in moral decision ma)in(.

• He believed the conscience came from >od. >odB(iven (uide that must always befollowed.

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• He says conscience obviously e8ists$ it comes from >od and must be obeyed if a

person is to be happy. He didn0t see mista)es as a problem as he believed that in any

moral dilemma most people will see intuitively what is the ri(ht thin( to do.

Critical Ealuation:

− SelfBesteem should not be the basis of conscience that doesn0t e8ist to ma)e humans

thin) they are (ood but to convict them when they are wron(.

− #t could be ar(ued that criminals are not wron(doers thou(h lac) of selfBrespect but

not too much selfBre(ard.

− The optimism of this view of human nature has been undermined by the atrocities of

the twentieth century. Tra(edies such as the holocaust shows that nature is in fact

brutal% underminin( this view.

3reud: -Conscience is guilt.:

• *or *reud the conscience is most clearly connected with the sense of (uilt we feel

when we (o a(ainst it. #t is a simple construct of the mind.

• Didn0t believe in any absolute moral laws% and held that all our moral codes are

shaped by our e8periences. =ulturally dependent% e8plainin( the varieties of moralcodes in different societies.

1. The SuperB(o: Set of moral controls (iven to us by outside influences. #t is our moral

code or conscience and is often in conflict with the /id0.

2. The (o: The conscious self$ the part seen by the outside world.

3. The #d: the part of the mind containin( the basic drives and repressed memories. #t is

amoral% and has no concerns about ri(ht and wron(% only concerned with itself.

Critical Ealuation:

− ein( relativist in nature wea)ens this psycholo(ical approach + no meanin( to it.

− Human bein(s share many thin(s in common but also have minds that are

individually uniue. =onscience will vary from person to person% ma)in( obeyin(

your conscience a meanin(less concept.

− Four conscience is merely obeyin( what your mind tells you to do. This is hardly an

ob9ective source of moral truth.

− The conscience has become the inner voice rather than the voice of >od.

+ ll these criticisms are only valid if *reud was a theist% however he is an atheist and

these 9ust cement his ar(ument.

3romm: (uthoritarian and Humanistic:

(uthoritarian Conscience:

• ll humans are influenced by e8ternal authorities% parents% teachers% church leaders%

who apply rules and punishments for brea)in( them% and that these rules are then

internalised by the individual.

• 5ur sense of moral ri(ht and wron( is formed in us by authority fi(ures that we have

a desire to obey.

• Disobedience results in (uilt% wea)enin( of our power and ma)in( us more

submissive to authority.

• *romm escaped 6a!i >ermany in 1N34 + he was a ;ar8ist.

• (uilty conscience is a result of displeasin( authority% and if that authority is >od

then the fear of bein( reprimanded will have a powerful influence on an individual.

Humanistic Conscience: $3romm.s iew changed oer time&

• He saw the humanistic conscience as much healthier% as it assessesEevaluates

behaviour.

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• -e use our own discoveries in life and the teachin(sEe8amples of others to (ive us

personal inte(rity and moral honesty% uite the opposite of the slavish obedience and

conformity of the authoritarian conscience.

• ;ay conflict with uinas% utler and 6ewman but doesn0t rule out >od havin( a

role in our conscience.

Critical Ealuation:

− *romm ar(ues that humans are predetermined creatures% which sits uncomfortably

with his view that life offers hope.

− How is it possible to rise above alienation if we are determined to be alienated,

+ *romm ar(ued that to be set free it is necessary to be consciousEa person of

conscience.

− =ritics ar(ue *romm analysed the situation but didn0t establish the cause.

− They also uestion whether the conscience wor)s to (ive hope% love and 9oy.

− ;ichael *oucault ar(ued the conscience acts to condemn% not liberate% the individual.

− How is a conscience based on the /love of0 and /love for0 life to be used,

+ *romm ar(ued it is to enhance the uality of life% and desi(ned to empower every

individual.

Piaget: 4ot eeryone has the same conscience

• ;oral character is a train 9ourney. Fou start at situation and end at =. There are

broardly two types of people.

• The first type (ets off at station and do not complete their moral 9ourney:

development stunted.

• The rest reach station = and whilst en route their character and moral sense has been

allowed to develop fully.

• He described two types of conscience:

1! Heteronomous Morality: arly years until N or 1 and the child doesn0t decide their

own moral stance. Decided by authority parents etc.. ased on observation of rules%

and punishment when rules have been disobeyed% some never develop beyond this

sta(e. They may have >od as their authority fi(ure.

2! (utonomous Morality: Those who continue become mature enou(h to decide what

is morally (ood for them. ;orality is selfBdisciplined% not e8ternal.

Critical Ealuation:

− Simplicity of the theory re(arded as a ma9or wea)ness.

− nother wea)ness is the dependence on empirical and uestionable studies on

children.

− Some uestion the claims that 7ia(et to have found a rout throu(h which all humanstravel in their discovery of a moral conscience.

− ;any modern philosophersEpsycholo(ists uestion the importance (iven to human

nature.

)nnate or (c+uired5

• =onscience needs two thin(s to wor) successfully + freedom$ and a )nowled(e of the

>ood.

• @nless you are free% your conscience is pointless.

• =onscience implies an /innate )nowled(e0 of /what is (ood0. if it is innate then

everyone should have one and they should all be almost identical.

− However% people have different ideas of what is ri(ht when faced with a moralsituation and hold different moral principles.

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• *reud and other psycholo(ists challen(e the traditional idea of conscience but the

uestion is whether it is the conscience itself that is acuired% or the moral s)ills.

+ %he s$ill ma. ,e innate/ ,ut the moral principles that guide it seem to ,e

ac0uired!

1eta Ethics

• ;eta thics is centred on what we mean by />ood0 and /bad0$ /?i(ht0 and /wron(0

etc.

• #t is the analysis of ethical lan(ua(e. #t (oes beyond the ethical theories to loo) at

what is meant by the terms we use in ethics.

• thical statements are not 9ust about observable facts% but are often statements about

what we believe should happen and so are not very easy to establish as true or false%

as they may be e8pressions of points of view that are not shared by everyone.

• -ords such as: />ood% bad% ri(ht% wron(% ou(ht% mean0% are used in everyday life and

most the time are used as ways of e8pressin( opinions.

• There are 4 main areas in ;eta thics:

1. 6aturalism + Statements of fact2. #ntuitionism + -e intuitively )now what (od% bad etc. are but we can0t describe it.

3. motivism + ll moral statements are emotions

4. 7rescriptivism + thical terms are emotive% but we also prescribe these to others.

4aturalism 6 3! H! radley $17891;28&:

• Fou can empirically prove ri(ht and wron(.

• ll ethical statements are the same as nonBethical natural ones.

• They are all factual and can% therefore% be verified or falsified.

• There are two types of naturalism: Theological 4aturalism: >oodness is lin)ed to the

will of >od as seen in nature. >ods will defines morality murder is wron( because

>od commands a(ainst murder. The alternative is Hedonic 4aturalism: >oodness isa fact of pleasure or happiness.

Critical Ealuation: $The 4aturalistic 3allacy&

− >. . ;oore =5;7LTLF disa(reed with naturalism. He based his ar(ument on

Hume% who thin)s that to derive an /ou(ht /from an /is0 is lo(ically invalid.

− -e cannot infer from a description of how the world /is0 to how the world /ou(ht0 to

be.

− ;oore said (oodness is indefinable. The naturalistic fallacy says 6aturalism has it

wron(. (reed with Hume% /you can0t ma)e an /ou(ht0 into an /is0.0

− Fou can always as) after a physical property% /is it (ood,0 because it is an open

uestion that can be as)ed after anythin( + obviously not a physical property.− ood0. This can0t be true because then you could say

/(od is (ood0 if it were a physical property% but it isn0t. Fou can0t as) that because you

could ma)e anythin( (ood.

)ntuitionism 6 *! E! Moore $17>?1;@7&:

• "-e )now what is (ood% but we 9ust can0t define it.'

• ll of us )now what is (ood but we 9ust cannot e8plain it.

• >. . ;oore said: ">oodness is indefinable as /yellow0 is indefinable% because yellow

is already in its S#;7LST *5?;. >ood is (ood.'

•

">ood is a /simple% analysable property% 9ust as a primary colour is.'

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• The only thin(s that are indefinable are thin(s at their simplest form. >oodness e8ists

out there% we all )now what it is% but cannot define it.

A! D! Ross: $17>>1;>1&

• (reed with intuitionism% "-e intuitively )now we have the duty to fulfil certain

duties% similar to ant. He called these the Prima 3acy Duties:

1. Duties of *idelity$ 2. Duties of beneficence helpin( others$ 3. Duties of(ratitude$ 4. Duties of 9ustice$ . Duties of reparations$ O. Duties of selfB

improvement$ P. Duties of nonBmaleficence not harmin( others.

• 7rima *acy Duties are ri(ht. Jud(ement must be used to decide what to do in any

situation. 5ne duty can be re9ected in favour of another.

H! (! Prichard: 17>11;8>:

• Fou can lin) 7richard with uinas0s reason and intuitive obli(ation.

• -e use our reason to wor) out what is ri(ht or wron(.

• 6o definition can be (iven to /ou(ht0 but we reco(nise its properties.

7ritchard felt there were two types of thin)in(: ?eason and #ntuition:

Reason: Loo)s at the facts of a situation. )ntuition: Decides what to do.• Thou(ht that in any situation% intuition would show which particular action as ri(ht

and where moral obli(ations lay.

• ?eco(nised the problem that peoples morals are different% but said this was because

some people had developed their moral thin)in( further than others on different

levels.

Critical Ealuation:

− The #dea of )nowin( what is (ood by intuition and not by any empiracle evidence is

not proved conclusively by ;oore + who says you either a(ree with him or have

never thou(ht about it properly.

− #f the naturalistic fallacy shows you can infer value 9ud(ements from natural facts bymeans of evidence obtained throu(h the senses then the introduction of /nonBnatural0

facts A a special /intuition0 simply shrouds the whole issue in misery.

− 7. 1OQ doesn0t account for different people. >ood and bad a reflection of our social

upbrin(in(.

Emotiism: (! /! (yer:

• 6onB=o(nitivism: thical statements reflect emotions% not bein( proved true or false.

• thical lan(ua(e is not tellin( you factually what is true or false% it is in fact tryin( to

e8press an emotion and also inspire an emotional response from the other reason.

• . J. yer set up the Kienna =ircle and the Kerification 7rinciple. He ar(ued that there

are two meanin(ful types of ethical statements:B nalytic: Statements which are true by definition.

B Synthetic: can be true or false and be tested usin( e8perience or senses.

• yer is provin( ethical lan(ua(e is meanin(less because there are neither analytic or

synthetic the only meanin(ful types of statements and in the end all we0re doin( is

e8pressin( a feelin(.

• ecause you cannot verify ethical statements they are simply% "ooEHurrah.'

• -hen we say% /;urder is wron(0% we are really sayin( /oo to murder.0

• -hen we say% /=harity is (ood0% we are really sayin( /Hurrah to charity.0

C! '! "teenson:

• thical statements are attitudes based on beliefs about the world.

• thical statements are attempts to influence the views of others.

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• thical statements are sub9ective opinions.

• -hen an individual is ma)in( a moral 9ud(ement e0s not only (ivin( vent to his

feelin(s% but also tryin( to influence others attitudes.

• =onnects /carin(0% /approvin(0% /disapprovin(0% with the very meanin( of the ethical

words.

• This means ethical statements can be based on emotions$ however% these are not

merely arbitrary% but rather are based on our e8perience of the world and how we want

it to be.

• Stevenson saw ethical statements as not only e8pressions of emotions% but also the

result of attitudes based on fundamental beliefs% ethical disa(reements between people

are disa(reements about fundamental principles.

Critical Ealuation:

• -hen criticisin( emotivism it is important to remember it does not purport to be an

ethical theory% but is simply an analysis of the nature and content of ethical lan(ua(e.

− However% ?achel0s does point out moral 9ud(ements appeal to reason$ they aren0t 9ust

e8pressions of feelin(s% so whereas the statement /# li)e oran(e smarties0 needs noreason% moral 9ud(ements do or else they are arbitrary.

+ yer does su((est that ethical statements are more than simply e8pressions of

feelin(% but have the intention to stimulate others to act in the way people feel

is ri(ht.

+ Stevenson addresses this further by as)in(: -hy should one person0s feelin( about a

matter be better than those of another, However% all emotivism can do is draw

attention to the reasons people have different views. History shows us stimulatin(

people to act throu(h powerful and emotional speeches and have undesirable results

e.(. Hitler.

− =an be seen as allowin( a complete freedom on (rounds that everyone0s opinion iseually valid.

Prescriptiism: R! M! Hare&:

• thical statements have an intrinsic sense so other people should a(ree with the

statements and follow it.

• The role of ethical statements is to say what /ou(ht0 to be done and such prescriptions

are moral because they are /universal0.

• Simplified summary of Hare0s 7rescriptivism:

1. thical statements are universal.

2. thical statements are e8pressions of opinion.

3. They0re not 9ust e8pressin( our views% but prescribin( orderin( them to others.

4. Hare0s >olden ?ule was /Do unto others what you would want done unto you'.

Jesus.

• .(. "# believe this shouldn0t happen% so therefore neither should you.'

• 7rescriptivism is similar to emotivism but is much stron(er when

orderin(Eprescribin(.

• #f we use the word /(ood0 in a a moral sense% we are usin( a set of standards that

apply to a person or an action and we commend hat person or that action.

• r(ument attempted to show ethical lan(ua(e is prescriptie: to say what ou(ht to be

done and are universal.

• Hare ar(ues that however we use the word /(ood0% we always do so in relation to a set

of standards% meanin( the word /(ood0 always has a descriptive meanin(. ut it can

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also have a prescriptive meanin( with words that both commend and describe e.(.

Steal and ;urder.

• Hare said the difference is that /Stealin( is wron(0 really means /Fou ou(ht not to

steal and neither will #.0

• 7rescriptivism holds that% to achieve consistency in moral 9ud(ements. -hen we say

someone else ou(ht to do somethin(% we ou(ht to as well.

• 7rescriptions happen one at a time% and only apply to that situation% but that situation

it applies universally.

Critical Ealuation:

− #f moral 9ud(ements are founded on prescriptions% it still doesn0t mean there is a valid

reason for followin( one person0s prescriptions rather than another0s.

− #t doesn0t necessarily mean morals are universal + preferences are different.

+ However% Hare reco(nised this by sayin( the only constraint is that one should put

oneself in /another0s shoes0 before ma)in( the 9ud(ement.

− Despite this% this doesn0t stop lunatics or fanatics.

− 7rescriptivism holds /ou(ht0 9ud(ements are universalisable prescriptives and nottruth claims% this (oes a(ainst the way people approach ethics in everyday lives.

7eople (enerally do thin) that it is wron( to steal or )ill etc. but accordin( to Hare we

could 9ust as easily chose the opposite if we wished and we could chan(e our moral

principles as we choose or as our circumstances alter.

;etaBethics differs from normative ethics 6atural ;oral Law% ant% @tilitarianism etc.

because it is about tryin( to ma)e sense of all the terms and concepts used within it. 6ot

about observable facts% but there is often confusion around the meanin( behind the word

/>ood% bad% ri(ht and wron(.0

thical 6aturalismE=o(nitivism: theory that moral values can be derived from sense

e8perience.

thical 6onB6aturalismE=o(nitivism: thical statements cannot be derived from senseB

e8periences.

+irtue Ethics

The simplest way to understand virtue ethics is to split it into the 3 sections it concerns itself

with: -ho am #, -ho ou(ht # to become, How do # (et there,

Mini*lossary: udemonia C the final (oal of all human activity% wellbein(% happiness% A

human flourishin($ Kirtue C Habitually doin( what is ri(ht + bein( (ood reuires the practice

of certain )inds of behaviour$ =ardinal Kirtues: 5ri(inated with 7lato + 7rudence% Justice%

Temperance% =oura(e + 3 Kirtues of faith% hope and charity.

Plato and Birtue:

• =entres around the achievement of man0s hi(hest (ood% involvin( inner wellbein(and his eudemonia or happiness. %he Cardinal +irtues:

Temperance =oura(e 7rudence Justice

• 6ot all of the ncient >ree)0s a(reed with this% and ristotle is the leadin( thin)er.

(ristotle and Birtue:

• ristotle saw there were two types of virtue:

1. )ntellectual Birtues: -hich are developed by trainin( and education.

2. Moral Birtues: -hich are developed by habit.

• ristotle didn0t disa(ree with 7lato but e8panded on his cardinal virtues.

• He came up with the -*olden Mean. which is the medium within his virtues and is

)ey.

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• *or e8ample% ristotle e8presses the importance of selfBlove% which means selfB

respect. This is (ood but only within reason. #n e8cess it becomes arro(ance and a

deficiency in this would be servility. Therefore it is important to find the />olden

mean0.

• ?eason is practical and involves understandin( and respondin( C 1. Teachin( → 2.

?eflectin( → 3. @nderstandin( → 4. ?eflectin(Ethin)in( yourself → . 7ractice of

Kirtues.

*! E! M! (nscom%e:

• 1NQ paper% /;odern ;oral 7hilosophy0 B ;odern moral philosophy is mis(uided by

as)in( if there can be any moral laws if there is no >od + what do ri(ht and wron(

mean without a law(iver,

• Su((ests the answer is the idea of eudemonia and human flourishin( which doesn0t

depend on any >od. antian ethics and utilitarianism don0t depend on a >od but are

both act based.

• She says actBbased doesn0t ma)e sense because it i(nores a belief people no lon(er

hold% and in stressin( the principle of autonomy ne(lects community aspect ofmorality.

Philippa 3oot:

• ttempts to modernise ristotle0s virtue ethics. ?eco(nises the importance of own

reasonin(% and claims the virtues benefit the individual by leadin( to flourishin( and

the virtuous person does far more than simply conform to the conventions of society.

• Kirtue doesn0t operate as a virtue when turned to a bad end. Fou need coura(e to

murder.

• Kirtues are (ood for us% helpin( to correct harmful human passions and temptations.

(lasdair Mac)ntyre:

• He focuses on moral problems in am)in( the most of an entire human life.• He emphasises the importance of moral (oods rather than ideas such as the obli(ation

of a moral a(ent or the conseuences of a particular moral act.

• see metaBethics ;ost people0s attitudes today are based on emotivism.

• ;orality should be seen in terms of human purpose% but felt it wouldn0t be possible to

restore ristotle0s theory of unction% so he attempts to ma)e human function and

therefore virtue depend on community.

• The virtues evolve and improve throu(h time and there is a difference between the

Homeric Birtues e.(. Stren(th% coura(e% honour and (ristotelian Birtues e.(.

9ustice% temperance.

Rosalind Hurthouse:• Kery ristotelian framewor)% but she doesn0t a(ree with all his conclusions.

• Defends that virtues are virtues because they helpa person achieve eudemonia and

therefore livin( a virtuous life is a (ood thin(.

• ein( virtuous is the most reliable path to flourishin( + no other path is reliable.

• ddresses the criticism: 7rovides us with no (uidance% by showin( how a virtuous

person will thin) about a moral dilemma.

Michael "lote:

• Kirtue ethics is mostly based on commonBsense ideas and intuitions in cate(orisin(

virtues.

•

@ses the word /admirable0 rather than /(ood0 or /e8cellent0 which reuire e8plainin(.

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• Describes virtue as /an inner trait or disposition of the individual0 so virtue is a )ind of

balanced carin( between those close to us and people in (eneral.

3eminism and Birtue: $(nnette aier&

• ;en often thin) morally in terms of 9ustice and autonomy% which could be seen as

masculine traits% whereas women thin) in terms of carin(% nurturin( and selfB

sacrifices.

• dvocates ta)in( account of our natural biases.

Critical Ealuation:

"trengths:

+ voids havin( to use a formula e.(. (reatest (ood for the (reatest number% to wor) out

what we ou(ht to do% focusin( on the )ind of person we ou(ht to be.

+ @nderstands the need to distin(uish (ood people from le(alists + 9ust because one

obeys the lawsErules% doesn0t ma)e one a (ood person.

+ Stresses the importance of: motivatin( people to want to be (ood$ the importance of

education in showin( (ood actions are their own reward and who0s how we acuire

and learn virtues by imitatin( others.+ Tells us how we learn moral principles and involves our entire life + every moment

even the most mundane% is an opportunity for developin( a virtue.

+ nables us to inte(rate many aspects of life into our ethical reflection$ loo)s at what is

ri(ht or wron( in a particular situation or moment in our lives. Doesn0t re9ect

emotions but includes them% and is more in tune with how we react to ethical

dilemmas. ?elates ethical choices to the bi((er picture.

+ =onsidered (ood to be biased in favour of family and friends% unli)e ant or

@tilitarianism.

+ Doesn0t pretend to be able to tell us what to do in every situation% but encoura(es us to

be more li)e a person who doesn0t need decisions made for us.Aea,nesses:

− 5ne ma9or difficulty is identifyin( the virtues. re they culturally relative,

− Ro%ert 'ouden: how do you apply it to moral dilemmas, Doesn0t help us as it doesn0t

(ive clear rules for action. 6o concrete answers & so is it any use,

− Seems to praise some virtues that we mi(ht see as immoral e.(. coura(e in war.

− 'ouden also points out it is difficult to decide who is virtuous + many appear virtuous

on the outside but mi(ht not have (ood virtues% and vice versa.

− 6o room for basic concepts such as ri(hts and obli(ations% so incapable od dealin(

with bi( issues + doesn0t always have a view on what ma)es an act ri(ht or wron(.

− Depends on some final end which (ives shape to our lives + there may not be one and bein( virtuous may not affect it anyway.

Applied Ethics – Ethical Recap

4atural Moral 'aw:

1. 7reservation of Life + Don0t commit suicide$ don0t switch off life support machines.

2. ?eproduction + 7ermits #K* and surro(acy$ contraception is wron(.

3. ducatin( the Foun( + ducation is free$ schoolin( is compulsory.

4. Livin( in a Society + uild more homes$ encoura(e communal activities.

. -orshipin( >od + Set one day a wee) aside for worship$ whole school chapel

services.

antian Ethics:

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• The Categorical )mperatie: ;oral commands% don0t be(in with an /if0. Tells

everyone what to do and doesn0t depend on anythin(. ccordin( to ant% they apply

to everyone because they0re based on /ob9ective a priori0 laws of reason.

Maims:

1. @niversali!ation: /Do not act on any principle that cannot be universalised.0 #f it is

wron( for one person then it is wron( for all people.2. Treat Humans as ends in themselves: /6o use of an individual for the sa)e of many.0

-e should not promote one person0s happiness if it prevents another0s.

3. ct as if you live in a in(dom of nds: ct as if somebody is always (oin( to be

obeyin( a rule. Fou cannot act on a rule that assumes others do not treat people as

send. ;a)e your decisions based on assumin( everyone will be actin( morally.

tilitarianism:

(ct:

• Jeremy entham + 7rinciple of utility: />reatest (ood for the (reatest number.0

•

n action is ri(ht if it delivers more pleasure than pain.• =alculated usin( the Hedonic =alculus:

1. #ntensity of the pleasure$ 2. Duration of the pleasure how lon($ 3. =ertainty of the

pleasure$ 4. ?emoteness of the pleasure nearEfar$ . =hance of succession$ O. 7urity

of pleasure$ P. The e8tent of the pleasure universal.

Rule:

• John Stuart ;ill + Ruality of the pleasure% rather than uantity. lso a hedonist.

• ;odifies entham0s approach to which is more uantitative. Some pleasures are

(reater than others which ma)e ;ill0s more ualitative.

• bsurd not to consider uality with uantity:

B ach person desires their own happiness → ach person ou(ht to aim at their

happiness → therefore ou(ht to aim for the happiness of everyone.

• -e should promote common (ood in search of (reatest happiness.

Pre#erence:

• Jud(es morality accordin( to whether they fit in with the preferences of the

individuals involved. /-hat would # prefer,0

• The (reatest (ood for the (reatest number but consider preference of others to achieve

this.

• ual consideration of preferences + everyone is wei(hed eually.

(eual Ethics

tilitarianism:

• The conseuentialist nature of utilitarianism and its focus on the pleasureE pain which

arises from an action% leads us to analyse se8 in a way of merely considerin( how

pleasurable it is. *or e8ample% traditional utilitarianism% entham0s uantitative

outloo)% may say it is /(ood0 for one to masturbate over a picture of a rape victim if it

brin(s about pleasure as the victim will never )now therefore she cannot feel any

pain.

• However% developments in the utilitarian movement have accounted for this flaw in

the theory. *or e8ample% Hare0s focus on preferences in utilitarianism now considers

what the victims preferences would have been% thus forbiddin( the action which we

clearly feel is /bad0 anyway.

• -hen considerin( the issue of homose8uality the failin(s of Hare0s preference theory become evident. *or e8ample% in the deep south of merica where conservative%

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pre9udiced opinions are dominant% homose8uality would almost certainly be declared

wron( if a cross section of beliefs were considered. However% if an opinion poll was

ta)en in 6ew For) then the more liberal population would conclude that same se8

marria(e is acceptable or /(ood0. This is a fault in Hare0s theory as we view some

people0s opinions as simply wron(% for e8ample% should a paedophile0s preference be

ta)en into account 9ust as a heterose8ual who was attracted to people hisEher own a(e.Some people would disa(ree with this analysis. # mi(ht feel that my views are more

important than those of lessBeducated people% racist or homophobic people% but the

idea of democracy is that everyone has a ri(ht to their own opinion. #t may in fact be

stren(th of Hares theory that it considers all preferences. -hat results is a relativist

theory B homose8uality was unacceptable years a(o but is now acceptable.

• 5n the issue of consent% whether a person consents to se8 does not seem relevant to a

utilitarian. #f one was to be involved in a se8ual act without their consent but they (ot

pleasure from this act% then consent was not necessary or /(ood0. However% this view

is induced from entham0s theory and by usin( an act utilitarian stand point. *or

e8ample% if one as)ed a utilitarian whether it was (ood to have se8 with someone who

has not consented then the overwhelmin( opinion would be that it was not. This is

because utilitarianism has evolved and most utilitarianists are what we call rule

utilitarianists as they support the formation of rules which brin( about the (reatest

(ood for the (reatest number.

• #n (eneral utilitarians consider issues surroundin( se8 in a way which e8amines

outcomes not moral imperatives. lthou(h differences arise in act v. rule

utilitarianism% uantitative v. ualitative utilitarianism% preference v. traditional

utilitarianism the (eneral principle of utility remains and we do not loo) at acts but

their outcomes.

antFs Ethical Theory:

• ant believed that masturbation was satisfyin( an animal ur(e% and in doin( so onewould be usin( ones self merely as a means to an end. Similarly% havin( promiscuous

se8 would be usin( ones self and another person merely as a means to an end.

• ant would loo) for a universal law that could be applied to all instances of se8.

7ossibilities may include: 5nly have se8 with someone if you are prepared to have a

child with them.

• This may run contrary to the will. Some people may be unable to have children% and

yet would want to have se8 as it deepens a relationship% brin(in( two people closer

to(ether.

• 5ther antians may su((est: 5nly have se8 in a committed relationship by mutual

consent and not merely to satisfy lust.

• -ere ac)nowled(in( here that people can have meanin(less se8 which can leave

them feelin( cheapened and used. However% some people have se8 in a way that

fulfils them and involves them on a spiritual level that is not merely usin( themselves

as a means to an end.

4atural 'aw:

• The popular =atholic response to masturbation usin( natural law is that it is bluntin(

>od0s purpose and is usin( the penis or va(ina in a way that >od did not intend.

• This position can be maintained by =atholics as that every se8ual act should have the

possibility of endin( in pre(nancy 6 the church0s position on contraception.

• However% pro(ressive =atholic theolo(ians may point to the need for a structured

society as a way of permittin( masturbation and even contraception% as se8 can beunitive as well as used merely for reproduction.

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• The absolute nature of the secondary precepts drawn from the primary precept

see)in( reproduction% however% satisfies most =atholics that contraception and

masturbation are evil.

"ituation Ethics:

• -hen considerin( issues surroundin( se8% Situation thics does not brin( the

ri(idness of a 6atural Law or antian approach. #t reco(nises that% whilst rules cane8ist they are not deontolo(ical or immovable as love is the only norm rule and is

(ood in itself. #n other words whilst rules can be bro)en in certain circumstances to do

the most lovin( thin(% the will to do the most lovin( thin( cannot be.

• #n the case where a man is loc)ed in 9ail and his wife comes to visit ;idni(ht

8pressU% it would be considered by Situation thics absurd to forbid this man to

masturbate and thus share a se8ual e8perience with his wife simply because a rule

would be bro)en. =learly the most lovin(% positive thin( to do is to allow

masturbation and to brea) the rule forbiddin( it. This decision can be 9ustified also by

the pra(matic nature of the theory.

•

-hen considerin( homose8uality% situation ethics also provides a satisfactory answeras% for e8ample% althou(h it may be held that heterose8ual relationships should usually

be encoura(ed because of the reproductive possibility% to deny homose8ual couples

the ri(ht to build relationships% (et married and have se8 is wron( as in a situation

where a man is (ay% the possibility of him havin( a reproductive relationship is not

(reat nor is it desirable. 7ersonalism% which tells us you need to put the people first%

7ositivism% which means to do the most lovin( thin( and the 7ra(matism of the facts%

which are ?elative to the case% show us that love% not the rule% is absolute.

Birtue Ethics:

• Kirtue theory focuses on our telos% purpose and how we should act to be useful and

potent in society. *or e8ample% when considerin( masturbation we do not loo) out our

telos in the same way in which natural law would. #nstead of viewin( that it isunnatural or a(ainst >od0s will and our purpose% we view masturbation in terms of its

virtue.

• person who does not masturbate is li)ely to become se8ually frustrated and

therefore may leap into a relationship with another when they are not ready or

committed to this relationship$ or alternatively frustration can lead to an uncontrolled

desire% rape.

• However% someone who masturbates too freuently and does not lead a normal life or

pursue a relationship because of this also contributes ne(atively to society% or does not

contribute at all.

•

-hat we may loo) for usin( virtue theory is a (olden mean% one may usemasturbation when one0s se8ual needs are not bein( fulfilled in a relationship%

however% masturbation should never be used as a substitute for the see)in( of a

committed% se8ually fulfillin( and child bearin( relationship.

• -hen considerin( the issue of homose8uality the parallels between 6atural Law and

Kirtue theory become evident. s both ethical systems were founded by ristotle they

have a focus on the telos of human bein(s% althou(h this may seem to su((est that a

conservative line may be ta)en to topic of homose8uality this is not necessarily the

case. #f a person is (ay then they will not have children% ta)in( this into account it

seems that both theories would prefer it here for relationships between two men or

two women to be allowed as this way the couples can play a role in society which is

structured and similar to strai(ht couples.Christian Ethics:

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Contraception:

• =hristians approach to se8 is that it unites a couple and e8presses one another0s love

towards each other. -hen loo)in( at natural laws view they would feel that the

purpose of se8 is to reproduce% this causes issues with contraception.

• #f contraception is used then it may cheapen a person as se8 is merely bein( used for

pleasure not reproduction. Therefore contraception will be (oin( a(ainst (od0s purpose for us.

• ny se8ual activity% which isn0t open to reproduction% is also viewed as unnatural.

They view that acts such as masturbation are wron( and a sinful act to do.

Homoseuality:

• -hen loo)in( at the issue of homose8uality a traditional =hristian0s response would

be that it is morally wron(% as there will be no possibility of a life from the act.

• ny se8 outside marria(e is impermissible. #t can also be viewed as an unBnatural

thin( to do. s it states in the bible sameBse8 acts are "dishonorin( their bodies'

therefore you are merely usin( yourself.

• #t also states that "you shall not lie with a man as with women: that is anabomination'.

Consent:

• =hristian would view that se8 should only be permissible if a person is in a

committed relationship married as it unites the couple. This brin(s in the issue of

consent. #t is not ri(ht to have se8 with a person who cannot consent.

• However it is hard to decide when both people in the relationship have matured.

;any countries view differently upon this in the @. the a(e of consent is 1O and in

7eru the man must be over the a(e of 14 and the female must be over the a(e of 12.

Mastur%ation:

•

-hen loo)in( at masturbation the =hristian church teaches that se8 should only beused as a practice for those who are in a committed relationship. cts such as

masturbation are wron( as there will be no possibility of a life from the act as a result

and it is seen as a sinful act to do. This view is also shared with the ?oman =atholics.

Ethical Responses to the En)ironment

tilitarianism:

• The ori(inal theory was based on pleasure and pain% so 7eter Sin(er e8tended its

bounds to nonBhuman animals who were sentient capable of e8perience and could

therefore feel pleasure and pain. "-e should (ive the same respect to the lives of

animals as we do to the lives of humans.' #t is unclear whether the theory can be

e8tended to include nonBanimal entities. #t would need either a redefinition of

pleasure and pain% or a chan(e to the central principle of utilitarianism. Sin(er sees a problem in tryin( to ima(ine the interests of a plant + if we put ourselves in the place

of a plant% we wouldn0t mind what happened to us as plants cannot e8perience

positive or ne(ative effects.

• 5nce we have decided which aspects of nature to include in our calculation% and

whether to wei(h up pleasureEpain or preferences or interests% we can do a calculation.

This could (ive us (eneral rules to liverule utilitarianism by e.(.: Development must

be sustainable$ *armin( should be or(anic etc.

• lternatively% utilitarianism allows for a fle8ible approach% carefully wei(hin( up the

conseuences in each situation. *or some people in the developin( world%

development will save many lives. The same development in urope or merica

would merely be a convenience.

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antFs Ethical Theory:

• *or ant% the environment has no intrinsic value. ven nonBhuman animals lac)

inherent worth. ant sees human bein(s as inherently valuable because of their

rationality.

• However% ant0s ethics are lar(ely based on the idea of doin( (ood for its own sa)e

and re9ectin( selfBinterest. The cate(orical imperative would not allow us to dama(ethe environment% as it would mean that all people were morally reuired to act in this

way. ant would support conservation and preservation.

• ant0s theories could be stretched to include not treatin( animals or the environment

solely as a means to an end% but ant himself would have resisted this.

4atural 'aw:

• 6atural Law thin)in( can be applied a number of ways here. The central principle is

to do (ood and resist evil% so it would encoura(e conservation and re9ect the abuse of

the environment.

• However% humans as conscious bein(s have a hi(her purpose than the environment%

and observin( human nature could lead us to a(ree with humans ta)in( control overthe environment.

• Some 6atural Law thin)ers would focus on the purpose or telos of the natural world%

(ivin( the environment intrinsic worth.

"ituation Ethics:

• Situation thics is built on the principle of a(ape + selfBless love to all man)ind.

lthou(h this principle could be e8tended to include the love of animals and of

nature% in reality we are faced with choices that mi(ht involve helpin( people or

helpin( nature.

• Situation thics would support cuttin( down a forest to build a hospital as it teaches

compassion for people who are sufferin(.

Birtue Ethics:

• ristotle believed in a hierarchy in nature% with humans at the top. This su((ests he

would support a conservationist approach to environmental ethics B loo)in( after the

environment because it benefits humans.

• 7ut another way% environmental dama(e% pollution% (lobal warmin( etc. has no place

in a eudemonia state.

• The theory itself focuses on the virtues. ;oral virtues are developed by habit. #n the

same way% we may develop (ood habits in the way we treat the environment e.(.:recyclin($ wal)in(Ecyclin( when possible$ carBsharin($ conservin( ener(y.

• ristotle also held that the ri(ht de(ree of coura(e% )indness% temperance etc. was the

(olden mean. #t is important to be )ind% but you can be too )ind. The answer for the

environment may be to ta)e the middle path B not usin( too much ener(y% not overB

indul(in(% not consumin( an e8cess of food. This allows us to live happily and be

fulfilled without doin( too much dama(e to the environment.

"usiness Ethics Applied

Birtue Ethics:

Ahat is it5

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• ristotle + business can0t be separated from society + business is part of the overall

community. #n business an individual cannot be ethical in a vacuum% but always as

part of the ethical community.

• This applies to the employers and employees who must show the virtues of character

such as honesty% prudence% fairness and coura(e. #f there is conflict between virtues

such as honesty and loyalty% you should use your reason to find the most virtuousthin(.

• The virtues of coBpreparations seem to triumph over competition% meanin( a virtuous

businessman would be the (ood corporate citi!en rather than the hi(h flyer.

• ;anuel Kelarue! merican 7hilosopher + lists the ualities an e8ecutive of a firm

should have: coura(e% compassion% fairness% faithfulness% (enerosity% honesty%

inte(rity% prudence A self + control. virtuous mana(ement director ou(ht to have

eual re(ard for those who wor) for the company as the shareholders and stoc)

holders.

Critical Ealuation:

+ Kirtue ethics is very fle8ible and is applied instinctively.+ ncoura(es businesses to thin) about the bi((er picture.

+ ncoura(es businesses to be (enerous and ta)e into account everyone involved.

− Doesn0t ta)e into account the profit motive underlin( all businesses in capitalist

economies.

− #nvestors ta)e ris)s and would prefer profit to virtue as a return on their investment.

Does it wor,5

#f you apply the >olden ;ean then virtue ethics is very applicable to business. #f it does

thin(s within reason then it wor)s and you can be profitable and moral at the same time.

4atural Moral 'aw:

Ahat is it5• 8amines the nature of business in terms of the telos of virtue and human prosperin(.

• Therefore certain industries will be considered contrary to the achievement of this

telos. Li)e ma)in( money by e8ploitin( others e.(. arms industryEse8 industry.

uinas was opposed to usury lendin( money at hi(h rates of industry.

• >oes a(ainst livin( in a harmonious society precepts% =atholics led to the idea of

natural ri(hts% >od >iven% to protect wor)ers and consumers.

Critical Ealuation:

+ =oncept of human prosperin( is focused upon% in terms of economic and moral

betterment.

+ =oncept that wor) should be upliftin(% wor)place ou(ht to be a moral environment%

what sort of wor) is moral and what0s not,

− -or) has no intrinsic moral basis$ 6atural ;oral Law cannot be applied to business

ethics.

− #t is impossible to create a society where every 9ob is inspirin(.

Does it wor,5

#n theory it is a (reat theory but in practice it is simply not achievable. However% removin(

the precept of see)in( union with >od% the primary precepts provide a very stron( basis for

business% such as not hinderin( the education of the youn( #ndian Sweatshops% selfB

preservation% livin( in a harmonious society% and usin( the idea of reproduction: e.(. do not

wor) for any contraception company% but then there could be conflict as they are preventin(

se8ually transmitted diseases. antian Ethics:

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Ahat is it5

• =ate(orical imperative which says you have to have universal rules% which means you

should only create rules in business which can be universal. #s it o)ay for me, 5)ay

for everyone,

• 7eople should not be used as means to an end: ny business decision that e8ploits

anyone is immoral.

• ant0s theory implies you have to do your duty% you have to do them for the ri(ht

reasons% you have to )eep promises% and adhere to rules and trust.

• #f someone is honest to (ain a reputation% then he is not moral because he is doin( it

for the wron( reasons. He believes in duty rather than conseuence.

• ant0s universali!ation in business would abolish bribery and corruption.

Critical Ealuation:

− >lobalisation is fundamentally different from ant0s view of the new world order.

The fundamental problem is that (lobalisations tarts from a utilitarian premise. #t is

(rounded on practical economic matters and doesn0t start from a priori moral truths.

− =onflictin( duties: an employer has a duty to the employees% but also to theshareholders.

− -hen a sense of duty the environment is included% this creates further contradictions.

tilitarianism:

Ahat is it5

• =onsiders the ma9ority affected by a certain action + (eneral welfare is important and

often seen as (ood business policy: the (eneral (ood of the or(anisation is more

important than that of the individual.

• However% the best business transactions are the ones in which the best result is

achieved% when everyone involved has benefited. This means when ma)in( decisions

all options need considerin( + no one can 9ust act on intuition if they wish toma8imise utility.

Critical Ealuation:

+ conomically% would seem to be a (ood ethical approach.

− However% it isn0t as simple or clear cut as that. .(. closin( a pollutin( factory may be

(ood for the environment but bad for the local community who will lose 9obs.

− -hatever the business does is (oin( to upset one (roup of people or another.

@tilitarianism doesn0t always help here.

Christian:

• The 5ld Testament contains laws and in9unctions about the fair treatment of

employees% e.(. Leviticus 1N:13$ about 9ustice and honesty and fairness in business.• 7rotestant social teachin( pulled in two different directions: first% the individualistic

approach was concerned with the individuals callin( and personal inte(rity% so a

businessman could be praised for his charity$ and second was about the competitive

individualism of capitalism and the (reat social ineualities it brou(ht about.

• =atholic thou(ht was never individualistic and centres on wor)ers0 ri(hts. The idea of

the common (ood is a =atholic basis and lead to it to criticise both communism and

free mar)et capitalism which acts a(ainst the poor and leads to the selfish pursuit of

wealth.

religious ethics for a2.doc

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