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Summer

Independent

Learning

Religion,

Ethics and

Philosophy

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Instructions

A. Introduction to Philosophy - The Cosmological Argument

1. Watch the following videos about the Cosmological Argument.

https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=The+cosmological+argument&&view=detail&mi

d=A95B459BB8DC69EE4C3FA95B459BB8DC69EE4C3F&rvsmid=7FC0C81206E4DCB916C0

7FC0C81206E4DCB916C0&fsscr=0&FORM=VDRVRV

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TgisehuGOyY (just arguments 1-3)

2. Read the “Summer Independent Learning” booklet below (pages 3-10) and complete

all the tasks using your knowledge from the videos and the information provided. You

can complete your work on paper or in the spaces provided.

Your first Religious Studies assessment will be in the first week of term and will be

about the Cosmological Argument – we will have one lesson before the assessment

when we can discuss/clarify your work and understanding.

B. Introduction to Christianity for Philosophy and Ethics

Read the information and more detailed instructions on pages 11- 24 and complete the

4 tasks summarised below.

1. Research on important people and groups in Christianity.

2. Research on key locations in Christianity

3. Timeline of 15 key events in Christianity

4. Write a 10 question quiz on key beliefs in Christianity.

Bring all completed Christianity tasks to your first day in September. You will be

assessed on your work on an introduction of Christianity in a series of 10 question

quizzes and summary activities over the first five weeks of the new term.

C. Introduction to Ethics

1. Watch the video below and write a summary of metaethics.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FOoffXFpAlU&list=PLa_ZSYFNmJvvtaPCcfY-

xQljsJDyhMtWe

2. What do you think makes an action moral?

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Summer Independent Learning – watch the videos first

The Cosmological Argument for the Existence of God

The Cosmological Argument attempts to prove God is the cause of the universe. It comes from the

Greek cosmos meaning world/universe. This inductive (probability not proof) and a posteriori (based on

experience) argument.

The Cosmological Argument is based on our experience that everything has a cause – a posteriori.

It moves on to the assumption that the universe must have a first cause – a priori.

It tries to answer the questions, why is there a universe rather than nothing at all? The universe exists,

so what caused it? How did it come about?

The argument is based on the claim that everything existing in the universe exists because it was caused

by something else; that ‘something’ was itself also caused by something else. However, it is necessary

for something to have started this all off.

That something must be located outside of the universe, it must be an external cause. That external

cause was not itself caused or created and moreover doesn’t even need an explanation. That ‘external

cause’ is God. God does not need an explanation, nor does He have a cause, because God is His own

cause - His existence is necessary.

The cosmological argument of Aquinas -

St Thomas Aquinas’ (1225–74) most significant work is the Summa Theologica or ‘summary of Theology’.

A posteriori – On the basis of experience; used of an argument, such as the cosmological argument, which is based on

experience or empirical evidence

A priori – Without or prior to experience; used of an argument, such as the ontological argument, which is based on

acquired knowledge independent of or prior to experience

Inductive proof – Argument constructed on possibly true premises based on evidence and/or experience reaching a

logically possible and persuasive conclusion

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The first way – motion and change

Aquinas’ first way is referred to as ‘motion’ and ‘change’. Aquinas said that when we observe the

universe, we notice that things tend to be in a state of change or motion. From this observation,

Aquinas noted that things do not do this of their own accord but are instead ‘moved’ or ‘changed’

by something else.

Aquinas said that if we looked back down this sequence of movements/changes we would

eventually have to come to something that started the whole sequence off. Now, as all things in

the universe (that are observable) are either movers or moving, we need to find a point that

started these things. That means, necessarily looking outside the universe – i.e. to something that

has not been moved by anything else and is in fact incapable of being moved/changed by anything

else but is responsible for starting the whole sequence of movement/change.

Aquinas said this was the ‘Unmoved Mover’ – that which all men call God’.

Aquinas was influenced by Aristotle’s idea of a Prime Mover and used Aristotle’s examples and

explanations. Aristotle speaks of things moving from a state of ‘potentiality’ (i.e. something that it

has a possibility of moving/changing into) towards a state of ‘actuality’ (where it actually achieves

or reaches its potential).

Everything that moves is moved by something else, as nothing can move itself, since nothing can be

both mover and moved and yet things are evidently in motion,

The chain however cannot be infinite, as an infinite chain of movers that has no beginning can have

not successive or ultimate movers

Therefore, there must be a first mover that cause motion in all things

This we call God

‘It is certain and in fact evident to our senses that some things in the world are moved.

Everything that is moved, however, is moved by something else, for a thing cannot be moved

unless that movement is potentially within it. A thing moves something else insofar as it

actually exists, for to move something is simply to actualise what is potentially within that

thing. Something can be led thus from potentiality to actuality only by something else which

is already actualised. For example, a fire, which is actually hot, causes the change or motion

whereby wood, which is potentially hot, becomes actually hot. Now it is impossible that

something should be potentially and actually the same thing at the same time, although it

could be potentially and actually different things. For example, what is actually hot cannot at

the same moment be actually cold, although it can be actually hot and potentially cold.

Therefore, it is impossible that a thing could move itself, for that would involve

simultaneously moving and being moved in the same respect. Thus, whatever is moved must

be moved by something, else, etc. This cannot go on to infinity, however, for if it did there

would be no first mover and consequently no other movers, because these other movers are

such only insofar as they are moved by a first mover. For example, a stick moves only

because it is moved by the hand. Thus, it is necessary to proceed back to some prime move

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which is moved by nothing else, and this is what everyone means by ‘God’. St Thomas

Aquinas, Summa Theologica

Infinite regress - Aquinas believed that we would not find the first cause of things by simply going

further and further back into time (‘infinite regress’). He said that there must be a beginning point.

J.L. Mackie gave the example that we would not expect a railway train consisting of an infinite

number of carriages to move anywhere without an engine. God is like an engine. He is not just

another carriage, but the thing that has the power to move without requiring something else to

move him.

1. According to Aquinas who was the Unmoved mover?

2. Write definitions of key terms

Potentiality

Actuality

Efficient cause – the third party that moves potentiality to actuality

Aristotle used the example of a block of marble (potential) becoming a statue (actual) but only

when acted upon by the sculptor (efficient cause).

3. What example was given by?

a. Aquinas

b. Aristotle

4. To explain how things with potential move to actual?

Potential Efficient cause Actual

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In his First Way, Aquinas is seeking to prove the existence of God through motion and change.

5. Write an explanation of Aquinas’s First Way in your own words.

Include direct quotes from Aquinas. Always use examples in your notes and answers - fire and

wood, marble and sculptor - it shows you understand the work and help to satisfy the trigger word

‘Explain’ in a question .

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___________________________________________________________________________________ When explaining the idea of motion in an essay it is worth remembering that the idea of motion does

not necessarily mean movement in terms of velocity and direction; it can mean the motion that an

object has as it changes its state (e.g. H2O molecules are in motion when heated and change to

____________.

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Aquinas’ Second Way

Aquinas’ Second Way deals with the concept of cause and effect. According to Aquinas, everything

observable in nature is controlled by this law, although he thought it was impossible that this

chain of cause and effect could be traced back infinitely. This then leads to the question: ‘What

was the first cause?’ and, for Aquinas, the answer is ‘God’.

The second way is based on the existence of efficient causality. We see in the world around us that there

is an order of efficient causes. Nor is it ever found (in fact, it is impossible) that something is its own

efficient cause. If it were, it would be prior to itself, which is impossible. St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa

Theologica

Aquinas states here, not only the idea that cause and effect is a simple undeniable, law of the universe

but also that it is impossible for anything within the universe to cause itself. (It would be like you being

your own parent – you cannot exist before you exist – you need something else to bring you into

existence.)

Nevertheless, the order of efficient causes cannot proceed to infinity, for in any such order the first is

cause of the middle (whether one or many) and the middle of the last. Without the cause, the effect does

not follow. Thus, if the first cause did not exist, neither would the middle and last causes in the sequence.

If, however, there were an infinite regression of efficient causes, there would be no first efficient cause

and therefore no middle causes or final effects, which is obviously not the case. Thus it is necessary to

posit some first efficient cause, which everyone calls ‘God’. St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica

An example – If you imagine a line of dominoes, the first (efficient cause) is

the one that causes the second (intermediate cause) one to fall, which in

term causes the third (ultimate cause) one to fall. However, the third one

would not have fallen, had the first one not have hit the second one.

Aquinas’ idea of efficient cause followed by intermediate cause and ending

at ultimate cause can seem confusing at first, but, by using the domino

analogy it gives a suitable visual expression of the philosophical idea.

Aquinas states that he rejects the idea of an infinite series of cause and effects existing within the

universe (imagine an infinite row of dominoes – if it was infinite, where would the first domino be to

push all of the others over?) and concludes that it is therefore essential for there to be a first cause to

start everything else off. Aquinas names the first cause God.

Aquinas is seeking to prove the existence of God through efficient cause and can be summarised

as follows:

Everything has a cause; things cannot cause themselves

There cannot be an infinite number of causes as with an infinite chain there can be no first cause

Therefore, there must be a first cause on which all other things depend

God

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6. Write definitions of key terms.

a. Efficient cause

b. Intermediate cause

c. Ultimate cause

d. Infinite

7. Write an explanation of Aquinas’ Second Way in your own words, but include direct

quotes from Aquinas and the domino example – the movement of the dominoes needs a

first cause.

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Third Way

Aquinas’ Third Way deals with the concept of contingency and necessity. Again, Aquinas notes that

everything that exists has the possibility of not existing (i.e. it is contingent) and draws the conclusion

that if this were true of everything in existence then nothing would every have come into existence. This

is because in order for contingent beings to exist there has to be a non-contingent (i.e. necessary) being

that brought everything else into existence. For Aquinas, the necessary being is God.

The Third Way is based on possibility and necessity. We find that some things can either exist or not

exist, for we find them springing up and then disappearing, thus sometimes existing and sometimes not.

It is impossible that everything should be such, for what can possibly not exist does not do so at some

time. If it is possible for every particular thing not to exist, there must have been a time when nothing at

all existed. If this were true then nothing would exist now, for something that does not exist can begin to

do so only through something that already exists. Therefore, if there had been a time when nothing

existed, then nothing could ever have begun to exist and there would be nothing now, which is clearly

false. St Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica

Aquinas explains that all things in nature are limited in their existence. They all have beginnings and

endings. Following this idea to its logical conclusion Aquinas notes that this means at one point in

history nothing existed and that, even now, nothing would exist – which is clearly not the case.

Copleston, another Christian theologian, explained the Third Way using the relationship between a

parent and child. Without the existence of the parent, the child cannot come into existence. The child is

contingent on the parent for its existence.

Therefore, all beings cannot be merely possible. There must be one being which is necessary. Any

necessary being, however, either has or does not have something else as the cause of its necessity. If the

former, then there cannot be an infinite series of such causes, any more than there can be an infinite

series of efficient causes, as we have seen. Thus, we must assume the existence of something which is

necessary and owes its necessity to no cause outside itself. That is what everyone calls ‘God’. St Thomas

Aquinas, Summa Theologica

Aquinas states that the only possible solution to this dilemma is that something must exist that is unlike

everything else in existence – in that it has no beginning and no end, in other words, it has necessary

existence. This necessary existence is needed to bring about the existence of everything else. For

Aquinas this being was God.

Contingent: anything that depends on something else (possible)

Necessary: Non-contingent. A necessary being is the source of all existence for all other

contingent beings

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Aquinas is seeking to prove the existence of God through the concepts of contingency/possibility and

necessity

Individual things come into existence and later cease to exist and are dependent on factors

beyond themselves

Therefore – at one time none of them was in existence

But – something comes into existence only because of something else that already exists

Therefore, there must be a being whose existence is necessary on which all things depend,

God.

8. Write an explanation of Aquinas’s Third Way in your own words but include direct quotes from

Aquinas and include explanations of contingent and necessary.

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Introduction to Christianity for Philosophy and Ethics Components

Some of you will know more than others about the religion that we will be focusing on in this EDUQAS

A-Level course…Christianity. (NCP and NCD only)

Here are some of the bare basics and we will be unpacking many of these themes and more besides,

during Year 12 and 13 (NCP and NCD only). This Introduction will also assist in understanding the

Christian foundations for several topics within the Philosophy and Ethics components common to all

Colleges.

You will be assessed on this material in a review of knowledge in the form of 10 point tests and

summary activities over the first five weeks in college.

WHO, WHERE, WHEN & WHAT?

WHO?

Times are referred to as CE (Common Era) and BCE (Before Common Era), using the Year 0 as a starting point.

Christians use the same system, referring to time as measured BC (Before Christ) and AD (Anno Domini ‘The Year

of our Lord’).

Jesus of Nazareth 4 BCE to 30 CE Conceived out of wedlock to Mary of Nazareth (virginal conception), raised by

Mary and her husband Joseph. A stonemason by trade, embarks on 3 years of teaching and spreading his

message about God’s Kingdom, radical reformulation of Jewish teachings, inclusion of marginalised people…poor,

sick, female, opposition to Jewish leaders and alleged miracles. Executed by Romans at Passover 30 AD. His

followers believed he was raised from the dead 3 days later and appeared to them visibly for 40 days, before

ascending to heaven after which the Holy Spirit (supernatural power of God) was given to the followers at

Pentecost 10 days later, thus beginning the movement known as Christianity. Christians believe that Jesus is the

Son of God, the 2nd person of God the Trinity, the Head of the Christian Church and that he will come again in

glory at the end of time. The historian Josephus affirms the existence of Jesus.

John the Baptist 4 BCE to 27 CE. A possible relation of Jesus who lead a movement of radical Judaism

emphasising repentance and baptism as a sign of a new attitude to life. Seen as a forerunner to Jesus.

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Mary of Nazareth 18 CE to 40 CE? Mother of Jesus outlived him and by tradition died in the care of the apostle

John in Ephesus, Turkey in the 5th decade CE.

The Twelve Apostles: 1st Decade BCE to 7th Decade CE: Selected by Jesus to be his core group of followers: Peter;

James and John, the sons of Zebedee; Andrew; Philip; Bartholomew; Matthew; Thomas; James, the son of

Alphaeus; Thaddaeus, or Judas, the son of James; Simon the Zealot; and Judas Iscariot. Judas Iscariot betrayed

Jesus to the authorities leading to his arrest and execution. Peter became the first leader of the Early Church and

was executed in Rome on the Vatican Hill (site of modern St. Peter’s Rome, by inverted crucifixion…archaeological

discoveries suggest his body is actually buried beneath St. Peter’s). Several other apostles also spread Christianity

to various parts of the early Christian world and were martyred (killed for their faith).

Mary Magdalene 1st Decade BCE to ? One of several important female disciples who though not part of the 12

Apostles were prominent among Jesus’ followers, staying with him even up to his execution and burial. Mary

Magdalene may have come from the town of Magdala or Magdala may be a nickname given by Jesus meaning

‘The Tower’. She was the first person to receive news from Jesus of his Resurrection on Easter morning and was

told to spread this news to the apostles.

Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. The Four Evangelists 1st Decade BCE-8/9thth Decade CE. The names given to the

authors of the Four Gospels. Matthew and John may have been apostles, Mark was a friend of Paul of Tarsus, and

Luke (who also wrote Acts of the Apostles) was a Greek non-Jew. The Gospel’s authorship may have been by one

or several authors, using the name of the evangelist as a patron for the community for whom the gospel was

written.

Paul of Tarsus: 5-64/67 CE Convert from Conservative Judaism to Christianity in 30s CE to become the travelling

missionary responsible for spreading Christianity around the Mediterranean basin in the first decades of the early

Church. Wrote many letters which form part of the Christian New Testament (Bible). Executed by beheading in

Rome.

Irenaeus of Lyons 130 – 202 CE was a Greek bishop noted for his role in guiding and expanding Christian

communities in what is now the south of France and, more widely, for the development of Christian theology by

combatting heresy and defining orthodoxy. Irenaeus will be a key figure in our Philosophy course.

Augustine of Hippo: 354 –430 CE was a Roman African, early Christian theologian and philosopher from Numidia

whose writings influenced the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. A very influential

figure in all three of this course’s components.

Thomas Aquinas (Thomas of Aquino)"1225 – 1274 was an Italian Dominican friar, Philosopher, Catholic priest,

and Doctor of the Church. He is an immensely influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of

scholasticism. Aquinas is very important in all three components.

Martin Luther 1483- 1546 was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk, and a seminal figure in

the Protestant Reformation.

John Calvin 1509 –1564 was a French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant

Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called

Calvinism, aspects of which include the doctrines of predestination and of the absolute sovereignty of God in

salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation.

Karl Barth 1886 –1968 was a Swiss Reformed theologian who is most well-known for his landmark The Epistle to

the Romans, involvement in the Confessing Church, authorship of the Barmen Declaration and especially his five

volume theological summa the Church Dogmatics (published in twelve part-volumes between 1932-1967.

Barth's influence expanded well beyond the academic realm to mainstream culture.

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Tom Wright 1948-present is an English New Testament scholar, Pauline theologian, and retired Anglican bishop.

Between 2003 and 2010, he was the Bishop of Durham. He then became Research Professor of New Testament

and Early Christianity at St Mary's College in the University of St Andrews in Scotland.

Dominic Crossan 1934-present is an Irish American New Testament scholar, historian of early Christianity, and

former Catholic priest who was a prominent member of The Jesus Seminar. His research has focused on the

historical Jesus, on the cultural anthropology of the Ancient Mediterranean and New Testament worlds and on

the application of postmodern hermeneutical approaches to the Bible.

Mary Daly 1928-2010 was an American radical feminist philosopher, academic, and theologian. Daly, who

described herself as a "radical feminist", taught at the Jesuit-run Boston College for 33 years. Daly retired in 1999.

Rosemary Radford Ruether 1936-present is an American feminist scholar and Catholic theologian. Ruether is an

advocate of women's ordination, a movement among Catholic religious persons who affirm women's capacity to

serve as priests, despite official sanction.

Gustavo Guttierez 1928-present is a Peruvian philosopher, theologian, and Dominican priest regarded as one of

the founders of liberation theology.

Leonardo Boff 1938-present is a Brazilian theologian and writer, known for his active support for liberation

theology.

Roman Catholics

The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian Church, with

approximately 1.3 billion baptised Catholics worldwide as of 2017. As the world's oldest continuously functioning

international institution, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western

civilisation. The church is headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope. Its central administration, the Holy

See, is in the Vatican City, an enclave within the city of Rome in Italy.

Orthodox Christians

The Eastern Orthodox Church, officially the Orthodox Catholic Church, is the third-largest Christian church, with

approximately 200–260 million baptised members. It formed after the Great Schism in 1054 when the Eastern

Church separated from The Western Church after centuries of theological and political differences. It operates as

a communion of autocephalous churches, each governed by its bishops in local synods, although roughly half of

Eastern Orthodox Christians live in Russia. The church has no central doctrinal or governmental authority

analogous to the Bishop of Rome, but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople is recognised by all as primus

inter pares ("first among equals") of the bishops. As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world,

the Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and South eastern

Europe, the Caucasus, and the Near East.

Protestant Christians

Protestantism is the second largest form of Christianity with collectively between 800 million and more than 900

million adherents worldwide or nearly 40% of all Christians. It originated with the 16th century Reformation, a

movement against what its followers perceived to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. Protestants reject the

Roman Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy and sacraments but disagree among themselves regarding the real

presence of Christ in the Eucharist. They emphasize the priesthood of all believers, justification by faith alone

(sola fide) rather than by good works, and the highest authority of the Bible alone (rather than with sacred

tradition) in faith and morals (sola scriptura). The "five solae" summarise basic theological differences in

opposition to the Roman Catholic Church.

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Clergy, Religious and Lay People

Most Christian Churches have leaders, some placing more emphasis on them than others. Often these leaders

may be called ‘clergy’. Some Protestant denominations (groups within a broader branch of Christianity e.g.

Methodists are a denomination within Protestant Christianity) have no leaders as such (e.g Quakers), but at a

basic organisational level, even these groups need some leadership structure. Many Christian Churches have a

very organised system of leadership. Local leaders are called Priests, Pastors, Ministers, Vicars etc. who may be in

charge of a parish or smaller geographical area or a particular small community. They may be assisted by Deacons

who share some of their work. A local geographical area may be called a Diocese and this is normally lead by a

Bishop. The most important dioceses in a country are led by an Archbishop. Roman Catholics have a main leader

in the Bishop of Rome called the Pope. A group of about 120 men usually bishops are made into Cardinals whose

main job is to elect a new Pope after the death or resignation of a previous Pope. Orthodox Christians are led by

Patriarchs and some Protestants like the Anglican Communion also have a ‘figure of unity’ e.g. the Archbishop of

Canterbury. In Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity, all leaders are male only. Many Protestant denominations

now have female clergy. Some Christian denominations also have people who live in what is known as ‘religious

life’, living in a community where men are called monks or religious brothers and women called nuns or religious

sisters. The remaining members of a Church are sometimes known as ‘lay people’ and are often nowadays

encouraged to play an active role in supporting and sometimes leading their communities.

Saints

Saints are men and women who have died, that the Christian community believe to be with God in Heaven where

they can act as a role model in the Christian life and for some Christians intercede to God for them.

Task 1 – Research on people and groups

Use a search engine to research five of the main people or groups described above and summarise your research

on to an A4 sheet. Print it off and show at the start of Term to your REP teacher.

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WHERE?

Palestine-Israel in the 1st C CE was occupied by the Romans and administered by a Roman Pro-consul and a

puppet King.

Galilee

Jesus came from the town of Nazareth in Galilee. This northern territory of Palestine was also his most important

area of activity. Apart from the larger towns of Sepphoris and Tiberias Galilee was a country area, and agriculture

was the main occupation. The Lake of Gennesaret was famous for its fishing. Jesus is said to have found his first

disciples among fishermen (Mark 1:16-29). In the time of Jesus Galilee was surrounded by a number of Greek

cities. There was also in Galilee a group of ten Greek towns - the Decapolis. The rest of the area was Jewish.

Nazareth where Jesus lived for 30 years is in Galilee and many of the Gospel stories are set in Galilee.

Samaria

South of Galilee lived the Samaritans, a mixed population resulting from political transfers of population, whom

the Jews did not consider to be real Jews. While the Jewish Temple was situated on the Temple Mount in

Jerusalem, the Samaritans regarded Mt. Gerizim as sacred. They recognized as Holy Scripture only the five books

of Moses, and the textual form they used was different from that in use among the Jews.

Judaea

The name Judaea had two different senses. Firstly, it meant the area surrounding Jerusalem, secondly it meant

the whole area inhabited by Jews, which finally became a Roman province. The mountainous region surrounding

Jerusalem is dry and bare. To the east is the Dead Sea. In the oasis area north of the Dead Sea is Jericho, which is

thought to be one of the oldest towns in the world. Bethlehem where Jesus was born is close to Jerusalem in

Judaea

Jerusalem

To the Jews Jerusalem was the centre of the world, where God dwelt in the Temple. The Jews went there on

pilgrimage at least once a year. It was also the economic, administrative and cultural centre. The Roman

administration of Palestine was directed from Caesarea. Jesus was executed in Jerusalem, buried there and his

followers believe resurrected. The early Christian Church spread from this city.

Lands of Paul’s Missionary Journeys

Undertaken at various times in the opening decades of the Christian Church, Paul and his companions travelled

very widely around the Mediterranean basin and so all of the destinations on the map below are significant to

Christians, as the centres for early Christianity:

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Northern Africa

Many parts of what is now Northern Africa were significant in early Christianity thanks in part to the spread of the

Roman Empire. Hippo in modern Algeria was where Augustine one of the most influential Christian writers,

theologians and philosophers was located. Ethiopia was also a very major centre for early Christianity.

Rome

Rome was the capital of the Roman Empire and Christianity spread readily to this city. Early Christians were

widely persecuted by successive Emperors and Paul and Peter were probably executed here. When the Emperor

Constantine ‘converted’ to Christianity, it became the official Imperial religion and so Christianity became centred

on Rome. Rome is also the modern headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church, where the Vatican (an

independent city state is located). The 2nd Vatican council 1962-1965 was held here, a council which reformed

and revolutionised Roman Catholicism.

Nicaea

Nicaea was an ancient Greek city in north-western Anatolia (Turkey), and is primarily known as the site of the First

(325 CE) and Second Councils of Nicaea (787 CE) (the first and seventh Ecumenical councils in the early history of

the Christian Church), the Nicene Creed (which comes from the First Council).

Constantinople

Constantinople was the capital city of the Roman Empire (330–395), of the Byzantine Empire (395–1204 and

1261–1453), and also of the brief Crusader state known as the Latin Empire (1204–1261). It was the capital of the

Ottoman Empire (1453–1923). In 1923 the capital was removed and the name changed to Istanbul. The city was

located in what is now the European side and the core of modern Istanbul. It was a major centre for Christianity

until the 13th C.

Northern and Central Europe

Germany was where the Protestant Reformation began and from which it quickly spread in 1517 thanks to Martin

Luther from the German city of Wittenberg. It rapidly spread to many other regions in Northern Europe,

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Scandinavia and England, Wales and Scotland and Central Europe. Switzerland became the centre for many

Reformation ideas, particularly those of John Calvin.

Christianity had been present in the British Isles since at least the 4th century. Canterbury was the headquarters

of the English Church, which became the Protestant Church in England under Henry VIII and his successors, and

Canterbury remains the headquarters of the Anglican Communion founded to include all international Anglican

Churches in 1867. The Archbishop of Canterbury is a focus of unity for this Protestant Church and in England the

Queen is the head of the C of E.

Trento

This northern Italian town was the location for the Council of the Roman Catholic Church convened to reform the

RC Church (1545-1563) after the Reformation. Many of its decrees and teachings influenced Catholicism for over

400 years until Vatican II.

Latin America, USA, Africa and Asia

In the 20th and 21st centuries these continents have witnessed some of the most significant changes in global

Christianity which has spread to every corner of the populated world. From Latin America Liberation theology

emerged as a movement to locate Christianity at the core of the experiences of the poor, marginalised and

oppressed peoples of these nations. (In a separate development in the USA, Feminist Theology emerged to bring

Christianity into the experiences of the oppression of women). Meanwhile a much more right-wing/conservative

movement of Christianity has emerged from African/Caribbean culture in the form of Pentecostalism, which in

spreading to Asia and Latin America is currently the fastest growing branch of Christianity.

Task 2 – research on key locations

Read all the information above – it is all relevant. Choose TWO of the following and do some further research to

compile an A4 page of hand-written notes to show what you have discovered about your chosen topics:

The early Christian Church

Paul’s Missionary journeys

The Great Schism

The Protestant Reformation

The Second Vatican Council

Liberation Theology

Feminist Theology

Pentecostalism

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WHEN?

c.2100 BC Calling of Abraham - the Father of the Jewish nation.

c.2000 BC Birth of Jacob, later to be called Israel. The twelve tribes of Israel are named after Jacob's sons.

c.1900 BC Joseph is sold into slavery in Egypt. Israelites eventually become captives in the land.

c.1446 or 1290 BC The Exodus begins. Led by Moses, the Israelites leave Egypt and eventually settle in Canaan.

c.1010 BC David becomes king of Israel, making Jerusalem his capital.

c.970 BC David's son Solomon becomes king. He later builds a temple in Jerusalem to honour God.

c.930 BC Following Solomon's death, the Kingdom is divided into two sections: Northern (Israel) and Southern (Judah).

753 BC Traditional date for the founding of Rome.

722 BC Fall of the kingdom of Israel to the Assyrians.

612 BC Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, falls to the Babylonians.

586 BC Babylonians take Jerusalem and destroy Solomon's temple. Jewish nation is taken into captivity in Babylon (the exile).

c.538 BC Return of some of the exiles. Start of reconstruction of the temple.

c.512 BC Completion of the temple.

c.330 BC Conquest by Alexander the Great. Rise of Hellenism (Greek culture).

c.250 BC Work begins to translate the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek. This is known as the Septuagint or LXX.

63 BC Roman rule of Israel begins.

c.4 BC Birth of Jesus Christ, in Bethlehem.

c.30 AD Death of Jesus Christ.

c.33 Pentecost and the coming of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2).

Sometimes known as the Birthday of the Church.

c.33 Stephen - First Christian martyr (Acts 7).

c.48 Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15).

Gentile Christians accepted alongside those in the Jewish tradition.

c.60 First Gospel published (often thought to be that written by Mark).

62 Martyrdom of James, "The Lord's Brother".

c.67-68 Apostles Peter and Paul* martyred in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero.

70 Jewish rebellion against the Roman empire ends. Destruction of the temple in Jerusalem.

From 70 Centre of Christianity moves to Antioch, Alexandria and Rome.

c.90 Book of Revelation and Gospel of Saint John written.

161-80 Widespread persecution of Christians under Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius.

(Severe persecutions also occurred under the emperors Decius (249-251) and Diocletian (284-305)).

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301 Armenia becomes the world's first country to officially adopt Christianity as the state religion.

312

Roman emperor Constantine receives a vision of a flaming cross with the words

'In hoc signo vinces' : 'By this sign conquer'.

Defeats rival Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge.

313 Edict of Milan issued by Constantine - Christianity becomes a legal religion within the Roman empire.

325

Constantine calls the first ecumenical council at Nicea.

Arian heresy which declared Christ was a created being is refuted. Nicene Creed is drawn up, declaring Christ to be "...Begotten, not made; of one

essence with the Father..."

367 Saint Athanasius is the first to list all 27 New Testament books in his festal letter.

381 Ecumenical Council at Constantinople revises the Nicene creed to its current form.

c.382 Saint Jerome begins a translation of the Bible into Latin.

397 Synod at Carthage ratifies the 27 books of the New Testament as sacred scripture.

431

Ecumenical council held at Ephesus refutes Nestorianism.

(The doctrine that Christ was two persons (one human, the other divine) in one body). Mary is declared Theotokos i.e. 'God-bearer' or more commonly,

'Mother of God'.

449 At Ephesus, Pope Leo I delivers his 'Tome', defending orthodox Christian belief. Leo also asserts Papal supremacy.

451 Ecumenical council at Chalcedon affirms Christ as having two distinct natures united in one person (known as the 'Hypostatic Union').

553 Ecumenical council at Constantinople affirms teaching of previous councils.

563 Columba establishes a monastery at Iona.

589 Insertion of the filioque (Latin: 'and the son') into the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed at a council in Toledo.

597 Following a mission authorised by Pope Gregory I, St. Augustine becomes the first Archbishop of Canterbury.

664 Synod of Whitby ratifies the authority of the Pope in England.

680-81 Ecumenical council at Constantinople rejects Monothelite heresy of one will in Christ.

731 Bede writes his Ecclesiastical History.

787 Ecumenical council at Nicea ends the controversy over the use of icons in worship.

800 Charlemagne is crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire by Pope Leo III.

988 Conversion of Prince Vladimir in Kiev. Growth of Christianity in Russia.

1054 Great Schism - Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic churches separate.

1095 Pope Urban II authorises the first Crusade to recover the Holy Land from Moslems.

1099 Crusaders conquer Jerusalem.

1182 Massacre of Latin inhabitants of Constantinople.

1187 Jerusalem recaptured by a Moslem army led by Saladin.

1189 Third Crusade led by Richard the Lionheart of England.

1204 Sack of Constantinople during the fourth crusade.

1216/23 Papal approval of the Dominican and Franciscan mendicant ('begging') orders.

1266-73 Thomas Aquinas writes his great work of systematic Theology: Summa Theologiae.

1305 Papacy moved to Avignon following a dispute with Philip IV of France.

c.1341 Defence of Orthodox spirituality by Gregory Palamas. Rise of Hesychasm.

c.1376 John Wycliffe writes 'Civil Dominion', arguing for reform of the church.

1378 Following the return of the Papacy to Rome, rival claimants (Antipopes) emerge. Dispute ends in 1417 with election of Martin V.

c.1380 John Wycliffe translates the Bible into Middle English.

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1453 Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Turks.

1517 Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses in Wittenburg, Germany; beginning the Protestant reformation.

1521 Diet of Worms - Luther's final breach with the Catholic church.

1525 William Tyndale completes his translation of the Bible into English.

1534 Ignatius of Loyola founds the Jesuits.

1534 Act of Supremacy passed - Henry VIII becomes supreme head of the English church.

1536 John Calvin publishes his Institutes of the Christian Religion.

1545-63 Council of Trent - Roman Catholic counter reformation.

1549 Thomas Cranmer publishes the Book of Common Prayer in England (later revised in 1662).

1555 Peace of Augsburg ends religious wars in Germany.

1611 Publication of the King James Version of the Bible.

1618-48 Protestant/Catholic conflict in Germany (Thirty Years War).

1730-60 The 'Great Awakening' - A revival movement among Protestants in the USA.

1738 John and Charles Wesley converted. They lead an Evangelical revival in England and form the Methodist church.

1854 Dogma of the Immaculate conception of Mary proclaimed by the Roman Catholic church.

1870-1 First Vatican council. Dogma of Papal infallibility proclaimed.

1906 Azusa street revival in Los Angeles. Beginnings of the Pentecostal movement.

1910 World mission conference held in Edinburgh.

1918 Billy Graham born. Later becomes one of the most prominent evangelists in Christian history.

1948 Formation of the World Council of Churches.

1950 Dogma of the Assumption of Mary proclaimed by the Roman Catholic Church.

1962-5 Second Vatican council. Major reforms in the Roman Catholic church are initiated.

Mutual anathemas of 1054 between Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches lifted.

1997 Death of Mother Teresa of Calcutta - founder of the 'Missionaries of Charity'.

1999 Signing of the Joint Declaration on Justification by the Lutheran and Roman Catholic Churches.

2005 Death of Pope John Paul II, who is succeeded by Pope Benedict XVI.

2006 World Methodist Council adopts the Lutheran/Catholic Joint Declaration on Justification.

2011 Beatification of Pope John Paul II.

2013 Resignation of Pope Benedict XVI, who is succeeded by Pope Francis.

Task 3 – Timeline of 15 key events

There are over 90 significant events detailed above. You may be familiar with some, not very many, or none.

We have identified 7 of the most significant events (in bold) and would like you to use them to create your own

timeline, in addition we would like you to add 8 more events to your timeline that you think seem important. You

may wish to do a little extra research on the events that you consider to be significant. Don’t worry there are no

definitively correct answers and you will discover throughout the course which are the most relevant and

significant events.

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WHAT?

The Bible

The Bible is not just one book, but an entire library, with stories, songs, poetry, letters and history, as well as

literature that might more obviously qualify as 'religious'.

The Christian Bible has two sections, the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is the

original Hebrew Bible, the sacred scriptures of the Jewish faith, written at different times between about 1200

and 165 BC. The New Testament books were written by Christians in the first century AD.

Creeds

A creed (also known as a confession, symbol, or statement of faith) is a statement of the shared beliefs of a

religious community in the form of a fixed formula summarizing core tenets. The earliest creed in Christianity,

"Jesus is Lord", originated in the writings of Saint Paul. One of the most widely used creeds in Christianity is the

Nicene Creed, first formulated in AD 325 at the First Council of Nicaea. It was based on Christian understanding of

the Canonical Gospels, the letters of the New Testament and to a lesser extent the Old Testament. Affirmation of

this creed, which describes the Trinity, is generally taken as a fundamental test of orthodoxy for most Christian

denominations. The Apostles' Creed is also broadly accepted. Some Christian denominations and other groups

have rejected the authority of those creeds.

Teachings

As a Church that is nearly 2000 years old, there is a vast collection of various teachings that to a greater or lesser

extent are influential to modern Christians. Each of the major denominations will have their own method of

communicating these teachings to their followers. It may be through sermons that have been written down,

letters, exhortations, or official teachings sometimes know to Catholics as encyclicals. Most of the sessions of the

Vatican II Council resulted in several major encyclicals. Catholics emphasise the importance of such teachings

more than Protestant Christians who place less emphasis on the authority of Church leaders. However all will

refer to teachings other than the Bible in their day to day faith. The Catholic Church has compiled all its major

teachings into what it calls the Catechism of the Catholic Church or the CCC is a Catechism promulgated (issued)

for the Catholic Church by Pope John Paul II in 1992. It sums up, in book form, the beliefs of the Catholic faithful.

A catechism is a summary or exposition of doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments

traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult converts.

Tradition

Again in 2000 years of history many ideas are carried and expressed in other ways than the Bible. Tradition is the

collective way of describing the customs, structures, teachings and beliefs that have been accepted and

accumulated by Christians over time and in history. Catholics place a good deal of emphasis on tradition, so that it

is seen as equal to the Bible, whereas Protestant Christians value tradition less and will always see the Bible has

carrying full authority.

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Beliefs or Dogmas

There are a huge range of Christian beliefs, many of the core beliefs or dogmas are outlined in the Christian

Creeds (see above). These are a list of the main Christian dogmas/beliefs:

Incarnation

The incarnation of Christ is a central Christian doctrine that God became flesh, assumed a human nature, and

became a man in the form of Jesus, the Son of God and the second person of the Trinity. This foundational

Christian position holds that the divine nature of the Son of God was perfectly united with human nature in one

divine Person, Jesus, making him both truly God and truly man. The theological term for this is hypostatic union.

The Atonement

Atonement describes beliefs that human beings can be reconciled to God through Christ's sacrificial suffering and

death. Atonement refers to the forgiving or pardoning of sin in general and original sin in particular through the

suffering, death and resurrection of Jesus. Throughout the centuries, Christians have used different metaphors

and given differing explanations of the atonement to express how the atonement might work. Churches and

denominations may vary in which metaphor or explanation they consider most accurately fits into their

theological perspective; however all Christians emphasize that Jesus is the Saviour of the world and through his

death the sins of humanity have been forgiven.

Resurrection

This is the central Christian belief that Jesus of Nazareth, having been crucified by the Romans and buried was

raised body and soul from the dead three days later on the first Easter Day, appeared to his disciples for 40 days

and then ascended to heaven after which the Holy Spirit was sent upon the early Christian believers. Christians

also believe that they too will experience bodily resurrection at some point after death, though the timing of this

and the nature of the ‘resurrected body’ is debated.

Trinity

The Christian doctrine of the Trinity (Latin: Trinitas, lit. 'triad', from Latin: trinus "threefold") holds that God is one

God, but three coeternal consubstantial persons or hypostases—the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy

Spirit—as "one God in three Divine Persons". The three Persons are distinct, yet are one "substance, essence or

nature".

Justification

In Christian theology, justification is God's act of removing the guilt and penalty of sin while at the same time

making a sinner righteous through Christ's atoning sacrifice. The means of justification is an area of significant

difference among Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism, with each group disagreeing about whether or not

faith or belief is enough, or whether faith needs to be shown also by the kind of person you are and the ways you

act as a Christian should. Justification is often seen as being the theological fault line that divided Catholic from

the Lutheran and Reformed traditions of Protestantism during the Reformation.

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Christian Worship

In Christianity, worship is the act of attributing reverent honour and homage to God. In the New Testament,

various words are used to refer to the term worship. One is proskuneo ("to worship") which means to bow down

to God or kings. Throughout most of Christianity's history, corporate Christian worship has been liturgical,

characterized by prayers and hymns, with texts rooted in, or closely related to, the Scripture, particularly the

Psalter; this form of sacramental and ceremonial worship is still practiced by the Roman Catholic, Eastern

Orthodox, and Anglican churches, as well as some Protestant denominations such as Lutheranism and

Methodism. In Evangelicalism, worship is viewed like an act of adoration of God, with a more informal

conception. The term liturgy is derived from the Greek leitourgia meaning "public service" and is formed by two

words: "laos" (people) and "ergon" (work), literally "work of the people". Responsorial prayers are a series of

petitions read or sung by a leader with responses made by the congregation. Set times for prayer during the day

were established (based substantially on Jewish models), and a festal cycle throughout the Church year governed

the celebration of Feasts and Seasons like Advent/Christmas and Lent/Easter and holy days pertaining to the

events in the life of Jesus, the lives of the saints, and aspects of the Godhead.

The Sacraments

A sacrament is a Christian rite recognized as of particular importance and significance. The Church of England

prayer book describes a sacrament as 'an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace'. There are

various views on the existence and meaning of such rites. Many Christians consider the sacraments to be a visible

symbol of the reality of God, as well as a means by which God enacts his grace. Many denominations, including

the Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, Methodist, and Reformed, hold to the definition of sacrament formulated by

Augustine of Hippo: an outward sign of an inward grace that has been instituted by Jesus Christ. Sacraments

signify God's grace in a way that is outwardly observable to the participant.

The Catholic Church recognise seven sacraments: Baptism, Reconciliation (Penance or Confession), Eucharist (or

Holy Communion), Confirmation, Marriage (Matrimony), Holy Orders, and Anointing of the Sick.

The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church also believe that there are seven major sacraments,

but apply the corresponding Greek word also to rites that in the Western tradition are called sacramentals and to

other realities, such as the Church itself.

Many Protestant denominations, such as those within the Reformed tradition, identify two sacraments instituted

by Christ, the Eucharist (or Holy Communion) and Baptism.

Prayer

Prayer is an invocation or act that seeks to activate a rapport with God through deliberate communication. In the

narrow sense, the term refers to an act of supplication or intercession directed towards God. More generally,

prayer can also have the purpose of thanksgiving or praise, forms of meditation. Prayer can take a variety of

forms: it can be part of a set liturgy or ritual, and it can be performed alone or in groups. Prayer may take the

form of a hymn, incantation, formal creedal statement, or a spontaneous utterance in the praying person. Most

Christians will pray using a very wide variety of forms and expressions, coloured by and given expression to by the

culture, traditions etc. of their denomination.

Christian Ethics

Christian ethics is a branch of Christian theology that defines virtuous behaviour and wrong behaviour from a

Christian perspective. Systematic theological study of Christian ethics is called moral theology. Christian virtues

are often divided into four cardinal virtues and three theological virtues. Christian ethics includes questions

regarding how the rich should act toward the poor, how women are to be treated, and the morality of war.

Christian ethicists, like other ethicists, approach ethics from different frameworks and perspectives. The approach

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of virtue ethics has also become popular in recent decades. In our Ethics course, but also in the Theology

component you will be introduced to a wide range of ethical ideas and frameworks and some of these will be

explicitly Christian in their origins and application.

Actions (Works)

There is a debate about how Christians should show that they believe other than praying, worshipping, believing

etc. However few Christians will claim that their actions are unimportant and many will see it as essential to

follow the teachings of Jesus by caring for the sick, elderly, suffering etc. and working to alleviate poverty,

homelessness etc. and fight in a peaceful way against oppression and injustice. Christianity has and continues to

be at the forefront in bringing education and healthcare, particularly to regions that lack these. Some would

argue that Christian principles are at the heart of modern democratic principles e.g. the founding of the British

Labour Party, and have shaped movements such as the Abolition of Slavery and the current fight against the

trafficking of people (modern day slavery).

Task 4 – 10 question quiz on key beliefs

Read the information above.

Create a 10 question quiz with answers that you could use to test the knowledge of your fellow students in

September.

e.g. What is a creed?

If you are interested in any of the areas you have read about in this brief introduction you could carry out your

own research to learn more.