relationship between gender and leadership – female leaders in the new century

RELATIONSHP BETWEEN GENDER AND LEADERSHIP – FEMALE LEADERS IN THE NEW CENTURY

RELATIONSHP BETWEEN

GENDER AND

LEADERSHIP – FEMALE

LEADERS IN THE NEW

CENTURY CRITICAL ISSUES IN BUSINESS

Submitted to:

Dr. Holger Siemons

MBA Program Cohort 4

Submitted by:

Nguyen Ngoc Huyen Tran

Student ID: 15422747

Words count: 2.625

University of Northampton’s MBA Student

Ho Chi Minh City, 2016

Table of Contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1

2. Literature review ....................................................................................................... 2

2.1. The development of leadership in 21st century .................................................. 2

2.2. The effect of gender on leadership ..................................................................... 3

2.3. Women leaders in the 21st century ..................................................................... 4

3. Discussion ................................................................................................................ 6

4. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 9

5. Recommendation .................................................................................................... 10

References .................................................................................................................... 11

Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 16

APRIL 2016 PAGE 1


1. Introduction

The success of the company depends significantly on leaders and their leadership in

the organization. For the last 80 years, many studies about leadership had created a

complex web of standards and theories along with a plethora of related skill sets, traits,

and dispositions (O’ Connell, 2014). According to Rost and Barker (2000): “Leadership is

an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that

reflect their mutual purposes”.

Nevertheless, the concept of leadership has changed in this 21st century and leaders

are expected to be more flexible when applying their skills and knowledge to work with

each individual, team and situation (Osborn, Hunt, and Jauch, 2002; Porter and

McLaughlin, 2006). Besides that, the relationship between gender and leadership is

always a question without proper answers (Powell, 2011). Many studies were

implemented to explain how the gender affects leadership styles and how female leaders

or male leaders can use their knowledge to develop their leadership skills.

This paper will provide general and in-depth information about the influence of gender

to leadership. Therefore, leaders can find suitable ways to improve their leadership skills,

especially female leaders. The first section will give readers some information about the

development of leadership in the 21st century. The second section will contain evidences

about the effect of gender on the behavior of the leader and explain how it happens. The

third part will concentrate on female leaders and present some difficulties that they might

face in this new century. The last part is the discussion and reflection of the author based

on real-life situations.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 2


2. Literature review

2.1. The development of leadership in 21st century

In this 21st century, the economic is developing very fast (Smirnova, 2013). The

organization’s structure is changing from a hierarchical to a flatter system that makes the

company’s management style to modify and diversify enormously (Cooper, 2005).

Globalization and new technologies also bring changes to the organization are as well as

the leadership (Drucker, 1991; Hitt, Keats, and DeMarie, 1998; Volberda, 1998).

Nowadays, the leadership is extremely crucial in any kind of organization and the leaders

must know how to use their skills, knowledge, and experience flexibly in their decision

making process (Dess and Picken, 2000).

According to O’ Connell (2014): “The need for leader development has become much

more complex as our organizations, our workplaces, and our global challenges become

more interrelated and unpredictable”. Chin and Sanchez-Hucles (2007) encouraged

creating new advance models of leadership that incorporate diversity and multiple

identities in the formulation of more inclusive leadership theories.

There are two elements to identify great leaders. The first element is a specific set of

skills and competencies (Goffee and Jones, 2006; Higgs and Rowland, 2001; Hogan and

Hogan, 2001; Kouzes and Posner, 1999). These skills and competencies are Envision,

Engage, Enable, Inquire, and Develop (Hogan and Hogan, 2001). The second element

is the leader’s personality which will determine if that leader is effective or not (Collins,

2001; Hogan and Hogan, 2001). There are five personal characteristics that exceptional

APRIL 2016 PAGE 3


executive must have. They are Authenticity, Will to lead, Integrity, Self-Awareness and

Self-Belief (Hogan, 2002; Hogan and Hogan, 2001).

2.2. The effect of gender on leadership

The personality of the leader can have a major impact on their success. Furthermore,

personality and gender have a close relationship; they help leaders to understand how

people evaluate the trustworthiness of others around them. A person usually decides to

trust someone not only base on that person’s facial features but also of their gender and

personality traits (Mattarozzi et al., 2015). A research from Schein et al (1996) also

indicated that the relationship between gender and characteristics should be considered

for leadership success.

Loden (1985) pointed out that men and their masculine leadership style are

“competitiveness, hierarchical authority, high control, unemotional and analytic problem

solving.” Besides that, female with feminine leadership style prefer to lead in the way of

“cooperativeness, collaboration between managers and subordinates, lower control for

the leader, problem-solving based on intuition and empathy as well as rationality.”

Nevertheless, Bem (1974, 1975) and Lewis (1975) had finished a research attracted wide

attention in which they brought out a new concept about the concept of “a combined

personality”. She expressed that femininity and masculinity are not totally opposite

behaviors but they complete each other; an individual of either gender may have both

masculinity and femininity.

Additionally, various kinds of research about leadership styles and gender emerged

from the insight of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire styles of female

APRIL 2016 PAGE 4


leaders and male leaders (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001; Eagly, Johannesen-

Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003). According to Hale et al. (2001) and Eagly (2007),

transformational leaders are people who empower and encourage their subordinates to

develop their potential. On the other hand, leaders have transactional styles try to

influence others who have a good performance by reward or who make mistakes by

punishment. Finally, the last laissez-faire style shows leaders’ frequent nonappearance

and limited participation in crucial situations.

Kark, Waismel-Manor, and Shamir (2012) argued that the popularity of the

transformational leadership and the demonstrated effectiveness in leading are attached

to the growing numbers of women in managerial positions. The women were rated higher

on transformational style and men exceeded women on the transactional style. There are

finding hints that the important factor that define a transformational leadership style are

not depend on gender but also depend on femininity, masculinity or androgyny (Eagly

and Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001).

2.3. Women leaders in the 21st century

In the 20th century, several studies provided a notion that women and femininity are

not as valued as men and masculinity (Powell and Butterfield, 1979). Others discovered

that efficiency of women is evaluated less advantageous than the same efficiency level

of men (Goldberg, 1968; Pheterson, Kiesler, and Goldberg, 1971). Therefore, a pattern

of successful leaders is tilted towards male characteristic (Kawakami, White, and Langer,

2000). Although the effect in influencing their team members to make quality decisions of

male and female leaders are the same, female leaders are evaluated with a lower

capability and less likable than male leaders (Watson, 2004).

APRIL 2016 PAGE 5


Many present statistics shows different meanings to past statistics with more women

appear in management teams of organizations although this number is still low.

Specifically, women hold only 18 percent of managerial and executive positions in the

United States in 1972 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1982). Thirty-four years later, in

2006, this rate had increased significantly and reached 50 percent (Rhee and Sigler,

2015). However, this number had a decreasing trend in later years. In 2007, women took

only 15.6 percent of specialist positions and 14.6 percent of board seats in Fortune 500

corporations. In 2008, 30 percent of management positions of Fortune 500 companies

are women. Then, there were just 12 women chief executive officers left in 2010 (Rhee

and Sigler, 2015).

Female leaders have more disadvantages comparing to male leaders. The truth is that

there are more male leaders than female leaders in today organization. Although

leadership styles of female leaders are indicated as more flexible and more effective than

male leaders’ (Vinkenburg et al., 2011), many of them are still afraid to take the lead and

be at the top level of the company. The potential reason here may be the gender bias in

evaluation process (Heilman, 2001).

Female leaders who do not display feminine attribute or display a non-traditional

woman image are evaluated less favorably than those who do (Costrich et al., 1975).

Negative reactions are also detected when they express behaviors like men. Because the

development in the organization depends not only on capacity assessments but also on

the acceptance of the society, women are limited to prove themselves even though they

are trying their best (Heilman, 2001).

APRIL 2016 PAGE 6


3. Discussion

The definition of leadership has changed many times. Now, in this 21st century, the

opportunity for female leaders in the organization is much higher than it was in the

previous years. In the past, gender diversity is very clear as men leaders always show

their masculinity and female leaders just like to express their femininity. Nowadays, since

the economic is developing very fast and new technologies are being applied, the main

objective of the leader is trying to improve themselves to adapt to a new environment

(Smirnova, 2013; Cooper, 2005). Many researches had indicated that leadership is

influenced by not only gender but also femininity and masculinity (Burke and Collins,

2001; Eagly, 2005; Chaturvedi et al., 2012).The author thinks that the male and female

leaders should apply their masculinity and femininity as well as androgyny flexibly. In

specific situations, leaders need to know what the suitable style to solve the problem is.

The concept of transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire styles has appeared

in many studies about leadership. Although there are many debates about the relationship

between gender and leadership style (Eagly and Carli, 2003a, 2003b; Vecchio, 2002,

2003), the author has the same opinion that leadership styles of leaders are influenced

by not only gender but also feminine, masculine and androgynous personalities. Female

leaders with feminine personality will focus on their subordinates’ need, pay attention,

listen, and help them to develop. In contrast to this, male leaders with masculine

personality may focus on the mistake of their followers, be task-oriented and autocratic.

In short, the author believes that female leaders have a tendency to choose

transformational styles and male leader is more likely to use transactional styles.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 7


There are many good examples about great women leaders in the 21st century that

have transformational styles. For examples, Mrs. Hillary Clinton who is running for the

United State President or Mrs. Angela Merkel, current Prime Minister of Germany, who

was selected to be the World’s Greatest Leader in 2016 by Fortune Magazine. There is

also Mrs. Meg Whitman, former President, and Chief Executive Officer of Hewlett-

Packard Corporation. In reality, they do not use only one specific leadership style; they

flexibly combine many difference styles deal with each particular situation.

In this new era, women work and solve problems in organizations just like men.

Because of this, female leaders have to face more challenges than they did in the past

(Gray, 2003). Eagly (2007) also expressed his opinion that female leaders have to

confront many barriers in the process of claiming their career ladder. Based on real

experience, the author realizes that being a woman and a leader at the same time is not

an easy task. Female leader have more responsibilities on their shoulders than male

leaders. Although they are wives and mothers at home, they are still leaders at their

organization with same tasks and objectives just like male leaders.

Burke and Collins (2001) discovered some surprise facts that the presence of female

leaders in a board of directors has a positive influence on organization’s performance.

They are able to motivate, inspire, understand an individual follower, and apply these

behaviors into their leadership style (Vinkenburg et al., 2011). However, the main point of

the issue is the pessimistic viewpoint of the society on gender and leadership. This

brought many difficulties to female leaders even before they can have a chance to show

their competencies.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 8


Yoder (2001) pointed out that there are two ways to improve this problem by

reinforcing female leaders’ status or by minimizing gender discrimination. That is

individual strategies by using leadership effectively and become closer to their

subordinates, especially male followers (Troemel-Ploetz, 1994). Case studies of

Helgesen’s (1990) illustrated that “Women are in charge by breaking down status

distinctions rather than by adopting a command-and-control style.” In addition, female

leaders in a mixed gender group can become more influence if they apply a new mind-

set that putting the organization’s interest before their own gains (Shackelford, Wood, and

Worchel, 1996).

According to Hollander (1992), female leaders can also become more effective if they

do not try to influence their followers first. When leading a team that has more male

followers, they need to build trust and credibility first in order to compensate for their

original disadvantage (Hollander, 1992). Wahrman and Pugh (1974) also advised women

leaders to wait for their opportunities before trying to make any innovative changes.

Furthermore, another strategy that can help female leaders to lead more effectively is to

become exceptionally competent and powerful. Female leaders who have superior power

or knowledge were proved to be equivalent to a male (Pugh and Wahrman, 1983).

Besides developing by themselves, female leaders also need resources and supports

from their organizations. Therefore, the gap between female and male leaders will be

reduced (Eagly and Johnson, 1990). Organizations may enhance female leaders’ power

by providing necessary resources and rewards equally to male leaders (Shea, 1994). The

equality of gender also need to be increased, gender balance in a group will creates more

chance for women to prove their abilities.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 9


Female leaders are able to develop themselves by many ways: reading books,

continuous study, or attending seminars to get more knowledge and experience from

other leaders. Nevertheless, in the author’s opinion, the core problem is that female

leaders need to realize what are their gaps and where are their positions in the

organization. From this insight, they can have better plan to achieve better results.

On the other hand, we cannot deny the existence of the gender discrimination that

restricted the capability of female leaders. In author’s experience, there are many females

in middle manager positions, but almost senior manager level are males. Female leaders

deal with problems cleverly and get the heart of their followers. However, there are many

difficulties for them to get promotion. These methods above are useful for female leaders

to increase self-confidence of their subordinates as well as their superiors. This may also

get them higher positions in the organization.

4. Conclusion

Leadership is not a new definition with organizations. That is for sure. There are many

documents investigated the relationship between gender and leadership. Obviously, each

genders have their own specific personalities that effect their leadership styles. Many

authors believe that female leaders are “relatively helpful, kind, sympathetic, and

interpersonal” while male leaders tend to act “assertive, ambitious, dominant, forceful,

self-sufficient, and self-confident” (Williams and Best, 1990).

As the result of a meta-analysis, female leaders have higher ranking on

transformational leadership factors and are likely to give reward for followers’ great

performance (Eagly and Johnson, 1990). In contrast, male leaders exceeded female

APRIL 2016 PAGE 10


leaders on laissez-faire leadership and on the transactional style of leadership (Eagly and

Johnson, 1990). Although female leaders are flexible in making decisions and effective in

leading, they occupy minority in top leaders at organizations (Chaturvedi et al., 2012).

From the view of Eagly and Karau (1991), “The women face more challenging

environments in their work-life than do men.” They not only stand at every stage at their

life at working place as difficulties when returning from maternity leave but also stand

social prejudice. Fitzsimmons, Callan, and Paulsen (2014) said; “Women are evaluated

negatively if they are too ‘feminine’ in their leadership style, as well as if they are too

‘masculine’”.

5. Recommendation

In the author’s opinion, female leaders have to face more difficulties than male

leaders, so they should progressively develop themselves by improving their leadership

skills as well as trying to use emotional intelligence in their daily tasks. They need to utilize

their femininity aspect but they also need to be masculinity sometime. Furthermore, they

can consider combining transformational and transactional leadership style in some

specific situations. The author also suggests that female leaders should create close

relationships with their subordinates and peers as well as their upper level managers to

gain their support. Female leaders also need to focus on common goals of their

organizations instead of their personal objectives. Besides that, a reducing of social

prejudice is necessary to help female leaders bring out their competencies.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 11


References

Bem, S. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical

Psychology, 42(2), pp.155-162.

Bem, S. and Lewis, S. (1975). Sex role adaptability: One consequence of psychological

androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(4), pp.634-643.

Burke, S. and Collins, K. (2001). Gender differences in leadership styles and management

skills. Women in Management Review, 16(5), pp.244-257.

Chaturvedi, S., Zyphur, M., Arvey, R., Avolio, B. and Larsson, G. (2012). The heritability of

emergent leadership: Age and gender as moderating factors. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(2),

pp.219-232.

Chin, J. and Sanchez-Hucles, J. (2007). Diversity and leadership. American Psychologist, 62(6),

pp.608-609.

Collins, D. (2001). Organizational Performance: The Future Focus of Leadership Development

Programs. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 7(4), pp.43-54.

Cooper, C. (2005). Leadership and management in the 21st century. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Costrich, N., Feinstein, J., Kidder, L., Marecek, J. and Pascale, L. (1975). When stereotypes hurt:

Three studies of penalties for sex-role reversals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11(6),

pp.520-530.

Dess, G. and Picken, J. (2000). Changing roles: Leadership in the 21st century.Organizational

Dynamics, 28(3), pp.18-34.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 12


Drucker, P. (1991). Drucker in the Harvard business review. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business

School Press.

Eagly, A. (2005). Achieving relational authenticity in leadership: Does gender matter?. The

Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), pp.459-474.

Eagly, A. (2007). Female Leadership Advantage And Disadvantage: Resolving The

Contradictions. Psychol of Women Q, 31(1), pp.1-12.

Eagly, A. and Carli, L. (2003). Finding gender advantage and disadvantage: Systematic research

integration is the solution. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), pp.851-859.

Eagly, A. and Carli, L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the

evidence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), pp.807-834.

Eagly, A. and Johannesen-Schmidt, M. (2001). The Leadership Styles of Women and Men.Journal

of Social Issues, 57(4), pp.781-797.

Eagly, A. and Johnson, B. (1990). Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis.Psychological

Bulletin, 108(2), pp.233-256.

Eagly, A. and Karau, S. (1991). Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis.Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, 60(5), pp.685-710.

Eagly, A., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. and van Engen, M. (2003). Transformational, transactional,

and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological

Bulletin, 129(4), pp.569-591.

Fitzsimmons, T., Callan, V. and Paulsen, N. (2014). Gender disparity in the C-suite: Do male and

female CEOs differ in how they reached the top?. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(2), pp.245-266.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 13


Goffee, R. and Jones, G. (2006). Why should anyone be led by you?. Boston, Mass.: Harvard

Business School Press.

Goldberg, P. (1968). Are women prejudiced against women?. Society, 5(5), pp.28-30.

Gray, J. and Gray, J. (2003). Truly Mars & Venus. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.

Hale, G., Slocum, J., Woodman, R., Roderick, R. and Hellriegel, D. (2001). Study guide,

Organizational behavior. Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South-Western.

Heilman, M. (2001). Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women's

Ascent Up the Organizational Ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), pp.657-674.

Helgesen, S. (1990). The female advantage. New York, N.Y.: Doubleday Currency.

Higgs, M. and Rowland, D. (2001). Is there a relationship between the leadership of change and

emotional intelligence?. Henley: Henley Management College.

Hitt, M., Keats, B. and DeMarie, S. (1998). Navigating in the new competitive landscape: Building

strategic flexibility and competitive advantage in the 21st century. Academy of Management

Perspectives, 12(4), pp.22-42.

Hogan, R. and Hogan, J. (2001). Assessing Leadership: A View from the Dark Side.International

Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9(1&2), pp.40-51.

Hollander, E. (1992). The Essential Interdependence of Leadership and Followership.Current

Directions in Psychological Science, 1(2), pp.71-75.

Kark, R., Waismel-Manor, R. and Shamir, B. (2012). Does valuing androgyny and femininity lead

to a female advantage? The relationship between gender-role, transformational leadership and

identification. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), pp.620-640.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 14


Kawakami, C., White, J. and Langer, E. (2000). Mindful and Masculine: Freeing Women Leaders

From the Constraints of Gender Roles. Journal of Social Issues, 56(1), pp.49-63.

Kouzes, J. and Posner, B. (1999). Encouraging the heart. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass.

Labor force statistics derived from the current population survey. (1982). Washington, D.C.: U.S.

Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Loden, M. (1985). Feminine leadership, or, How to succeed in business without being one of the

boys. New York: Times Books.

Mattarozzi, K., Todorov, A., Marzocchi, M., Vicari, A. and Russo, P. (2015). Effects of Gender

and Personality on First Impression. PLOS ONE, 10(9), p.e0135529.

O'Connell, P. (2014). A simplified framework for 21st century leader development. The


Osborn, R., Hunt, J. and Jauch, L. (2002). Toward a contextual theory of leadership. The


Pheterson, G., Kiesler, S. and Goldberg, P. (1971). Evaluation of the performance of women as a

function of their sex, achievement, and personal history. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 19(1), pp.114-118.

Porter, L. and McLaughlin, G. (2006). Leadership and the organizational context: Like the

weather?. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), pp.559-576.

Powell, G. (2011). The gender and leadership wars. Organizational Dynamics, 40(1), pp.1-9.

Powell, G. and Butterfield, D. (1979). The "Good Manager": Masculine or

Androgynous?.Academy of Management Journal, 22(2), pp.395-403.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 15


Pugh, M. and Wahrman, R. (1983). Neutralizing Sexism in Mixed-Sex Groups: Do Women Have

to Be Better Than Men?. American Journal of Sociology, 88(4), pp.746-762.

Rhee, K. and Sigler, T. (2015). Untangling the relationship between gender and leadership. Gender

in Mgmt: Int J, 30(2), pp.109-134.

Rost, J. and Barker, R. (2000). Leadership Education in Colleges: Toward a 21st Century

Paradigm. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 7(1), pp.3-12.

Schein, V., Mueller, R., Lituchy, T. and Liu, J. (1996). Think manager—think male: a global

phenomenon?. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17(1), pp.33-41.

Shackelford, S., Wood, W. and Worchel, S. (1996). Behavioral Styles and the Influence of Women

in Mixed-Sex Groups. Social Psychology Quarterly, 59(3), p.284.

Shea, G. (1994). Mentoring. New York: AMA Membership Publications Division, American

Management Association.

Smirnova, N. (2013). Local Economic Development in the 21st Century: Quality of Life and

Sustainability, by Daphne T. Greenwood and Richard P.F. Holt. Eastern Economic Journal, 39(2),

pp.256-258.

Troemel-Ploetz, S. (1994). “Let me put it this way, John”: Conversational strategies of women in

leadership positions. Journal of Pragmatics, 22(2), pp.199-209.

Vecchio, R. (2002). Leadership and gender advantage. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(6), pp.643-

671.

Vecchio, R. (2003). In search of gender advantage. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), pp.835-850.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 16


Vinkenburg, C., van Engen, M., Eagly, A. and Johannesen-Schmidt, M. (2011). An exploration of

stereotypical beliefs about leadership styles: Is transformational leadership a route to women's

promotion?. The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1), pp.10-21.

Volberda, H. (1998). Building the flexible firm. Oxford [England]: Oxford University Press.

Wahrman, R. and Pugh, M. (1974). Sex, Nonconformity and Influence. Sociometry, 37(1), p.137.

Watson, C. (2004). The Role of Task-Related Behavior in the Emergence of Leaders: The

Dilemma of the Informed Woman. Group & Organization Management, 29(6), pp.659-685.

Williams, J. and Best, D. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes. Newbury Park, Calif: Sage.

Yoder, J. (2001). Making Leadership Work More Effectively for Women. Journal of Social Issues,

57(4), pp.815-828.

Bibliography

Barling, J., Weber, T. and Kelloway, E. (1996). Effects of transformational leadership training

on attitudinal and financial outcomes: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(6),

pp.827-832.

Canary, D. and Dindia, K. (1998). Sex differences and similarities in communication. Mahwah,

N.J.: Erlbaum.

Carli, L. (2001). Gender and Social Influence. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), pp.725-741.

Frauenheim, E., 2007. Bias study sees few gains for female leaders.Workforce

Management, 86(15), p.12

Higgs, M. (2003). How can we make sense of leadership in the 21st century?. Leadership &

Organization Development Journal, 24(5), pp.273-284.

APRIL 2016 PAGE 17


Judge, T. and Piccolo, R. (2004). Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-

Analytic Test of Their Relative Validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), pp.755-768.

Palmer, I. and Hardy, C. (2000). Thinking about management. London: Sage Publications.

Tischler, L., Biberman, J. and McKeage, R. (2002). Linking emotional intelligence, spirituality

and workplace performance. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), pp.203-218.

Weick, K. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

relationship between gender and leadership – female leaders in the new century

Leadership & Management