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Sufism is the mystical branch of Islam that focuses on reaching God in the present life

rather than waiting for the afterlife. In order to reach God in the present, Sufis rely on concepts

of love and of self-knowledge and understanding. The Sufis believe in the universal truth of all

religions and that mysticism is the path that binds all religions together in unison before God.

This paper will examine the ways in which Sufis interpret the Quran and how their path to God

allows them to see the Divine in other religions. Some concepts that will be discussed are the

following: the Universal Man, Sufi imitation of the Prophet, and their belief in the universal

Reality. In order to reach God in this life, Sufis live a path trying to reach the universal Reality,

which is their unity with God. On this path there is a need to extinguish the self in order to reach

unity with God. This extinguishing of the self allows the Sufi to become accepting of those that

possess differing backgrounds not as the opposite but as the same since we all are of the same

reality. Parallels with Christianity will be examined by looking at similar beliefs shared by Sufi

mystic IbnArabi in comparison with Gregory Palamas. Hinduism will also be examined in the

context of the Indian independence movement as well as similarities between Sufi doctrine and

the renouncing of the ego in the BhagavadGita.

Introduction of Sufism

Before diving into specific Sufi beliefs and practices it would be wise to examine the

general aspects of Sufism and what is central to it. Many have the misconception that because

Sufism looks at Islam in an esoteric manner that it neglects the actual law and virtues as

commonly held. Sufis hold the exoteric beliefs of Islam close to them because they believe

without them there would be no Sufism, ³Sufism without Islam is like a candle burning out in the



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open with no lantern.´1

It is also argued at times that Sufism is not orthodox; this argument is

faulty for two reasons: it is the ³inward´ aspect of the ³outward´ dogma that ³frees itself from

the formal constraints of the dogma from within.´ The second point being that the Sufi path is

derived from the Quran itself, which is the basis of orthodoxy.2 In the Quran, many of the great

figures and prophets of Judaism and Christianity are given importance. Not only is the Prophet

venerated greatly but also Jewish and Christian figures. The Sufis believe that there is an

essential universal truth given by these prophets and that because they all come from God, then

they should be accepted and loved as well.

Love is another important aspect of Sufism and was discussed in detail by the Sufi

teacher and poet Jalal ad Din Rumi. For the Sufis, it is important to recognize the love in all

things. ³Love is a continually expanding capacity that culminates in certainty, in the recognition

that there is nothing in this world or in the next that is not both loved and loving.´3

Love also

plays into the Sufi¶s role in the world. Rather than being detached from the world like in a

monastery, Sufis are to love and serve others in the world. Through actions towards others is the

way to show real commitment to loving others.4

How these concepts play a role in Sufism will

be explained later in greater detail.

Sufism in context of the world of Islam

Sufism and Shia Islam

Shia Islam and Sufi Islam share a rich history together as both have played a role in each other¶s

development. The importance of Ali in both Shiism and Sufism is one example of how

1James Fadiman and Robert Frager, eds. Essential Sufism, (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 4.

2William Stoddart, Sufism, (St Paul: Paragon House, 1985), 42-43.

3 Ibid., 14.4 Ibid., 17.



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intimately the two branches are connected to each other.5Shiism is also concerned with the

spiritual stations of the Prophet, which essentially is the spiritual life of Sufism. The Shia and

Sufis both venerate saints and in Sufism a saint is known as a wali, and sanctity is known as

wilayah. In Shiism, the role of the Imam is synonymous with the word walayat , which comes

from the same root and shares a deep connection.6

Derivative of this concept is the practice and

symbolism of Sufis wearing a cloak and the exchange of it from the master to the student as a

symbol of spiritual teaching being transmitted. This comes from the Shiahadith of the Prophet

passing on his cloak upon his daughter Fatima, Ali, Hasan, and Husayn, which passed on the

sanctity from Muhammad onto them.

7

SeyyedNasr argues that the conception of wilayah and the

symbolism of the cloak is the most important element shared between Shiism and Sufism,

³which is the presence of a hidden form of knowledge and instruction.´8

The function of the Imam in the Shia realm is also similar to that of a Sufi master in

terms of their role as the spiritual guide, ³just as in Sufism each master is in contact with the pole

(qutb) of his age, in Shiism all spiritual functions in every age are inwardly connected with the

Imam«The qutb and the Imam are two expressions possessing the same meaning and referring

to the same person.´9 There is another concept shared by between the two branches, although in

a slightly different form. In Shiism, there is the concept of the ³Muhammadan light´ which is the

concept of the ³primordial light´ that has been passed on from prophet to prophet before

Muhammad and then from Muhammad to the Imams. This is what allows them to be free from

sin and inerrant, and as a result man can be attached to this light through the Imam who becomes

5Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ³Shi¶ism and Sufism: Their Relationship in Essence and in History.´ Religious Studies Vol.

6 No. 3. (Sept 1970), 231.6

Nasr, 232.7

Ibid., 233.8 Ibid., 234.9 Ibid., 235.



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the intermediary of divine knowledge.10

This concept is similar to the Sufi concept of silsilah,

which is the chain that a man needs to become attached to, in which the source of the revelation

is brought to the student. This chain goes back all the way to the Prophet and in this manner

resembles the light of Shiism.11

The relationship between Shiism and Sufism was the most deeply connected during the

period of the first eight Imams of Shiism; many Shia compositions of gnosis served as the

building block of Sufi commentaries in the future centuries.12

The asceticism of the Imams

influenced early Sufis greatly. Before taking the name of Sufi, the early practitioners preferred to

be called zuhhad or ascetic.13 After the period of the Imams, both branches began to become

distinct in their own ways and it wasn¶t until the Mongol invasions that they began associating

with each other again. Further evidence of the re-kindling of relations was the integration of

IbnArabi¶s writings into Shia gnosis.14

Sufism and Fundamentalist Islam

Although Sufism has shared a relationship of mutual respect with Shiism, it has been at

odds with the more fundamental branches of Islam. Because literal interpretation of the Quran is

at the center of fundamentalism, Sufism cannot be tolerated because of its approach to Quranic

exegesis and customs.15

There has been a strong rivalry between fundamentalist Islam and

Sufism, mostly because the Sufis offer the strongest claim to the truth, which would jeopardize

the fundamentalist monopoly on interpretation.

16

The biggest movement at odds with Sufism is

10 Ibid.11

Ibid.12 Ibid., 237.13

Ibid.14

Ibid., 239.15 C. W. Ernst, T he Shambala Guide to Sufism, (Boston: Shambala, 1997), 211.16 Ibid.



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the Wahhabi movement that spawned out of Arabia. They believe the Sufis commit shirk or

association of elements with God. They also condemn veneration of saints as idolatry and do not

consider the shahada or proclamation of faith to be sufficient proof of being a Muslim.17

Essentially a clash between the two is ensured because both groups view themselves as the truth

model of the Islamic ummah or community that existed at the time of the Prophet. However, it

must be noted that the views are radically different; Sufism claims that it is the true Islam in the

sense that Islam is by definition an inclusive religion. Wahhabism, on the other hand, believes

that it is the true form by remaining true to the literal interpretation and that foreign elements

have corrupted Islam thus the need to stick with a fundamentalist interpretation. This comes at

the expense of the inclusion of other religions.18

Sufi Terms

Universal Reality and Fana-Extinguishing of the Self

The concept of wahdat al-wujud or ³oneness of being´ plays a central role in the concept

of Ultimate Reality. The concept is derived from the shahada. According to this belief in

Ultimate Reality not only is ³there no god but God´ but also ³there is no reality except

Reality.´19

Sufism has no theory of its enlightenment but rather provides a path one embarks on.

This path is not contained to a group of those learned in theology but is readily available to those

unfamiliar with its ideas. Not only is Sufism discussed through metaphysics but also through

poetry and the arts, ³in fact, it may often be received more easily by the unlearned than by the

17 Elizabeth Sirriyeh, ³Wahhabis, Unbelievers and the Problems of Exclusivism.´, Bulletin (British Society for

Middle Eastern Studies) Vol. 16 No. 2 (1989), 125.18

Alexander Knysh, ³A Clear and Present Danger: Wahhabism As a Rhetorical Foil.´ Die Welt Des Islams Vol.44 No.1, 6-7.19 Stoddart, 43.



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learned.´20

The concept of Divine Unity or T awhid requires every Muslim to ³witness´ the Unity

of God. This idea is also found in Sufism but for Sufis it means that the Sufi is to ³witness´

nothing short of the knowledge of God.21

In order to know God, one must be able to extinguish the ego, which perceives itself as a

sort of addition to the Divinity. This means that the mental processes that are determined by the

ego such as passions, desires and imaginations must be done away with in order to break down

the veil of selfishness in order to see God. It is said that in order to become aware of God, man

must utilize his heart rather than his brain, ³the heart is the seat not of the sentiments, but of the

Intellect or Spirit, which penetrates to Reality and transcends mental forms.´22 According to

some Sufis there are seven levels of the self that transform until it arrives to union with God.

Once the self has traveled to the highest level possible there is no longer any duality or

separation from God.23

The goal of Sufis is to reach complete union with God and extinguish any

remnant of the self.

Tawhid

The concept of tawhid , is argued to be important to the theme of inter-religious dialogue

in terms of the relation of the self and the other. The lowest form of the self is the most selfish

because it is still concerned with its own passions and desires, which are expressed by the Arabic

word ta¶assub.24

The verb ta¶assaba means binding cloth around one¶s own head which would

signify the self¶s close mindedness and preoccupation with its own interests rather than others.

20 Ibid., 45.21 Ibid.22 Ibid., 45-46.23 Fadiman, 19.24 James S. Cutsinger, ed. Paths to the Heart: Sufism and the Christian East . (Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2002),

144



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The concept of oneness can become a cure to stop extreme ideas and fanaticism that separates

and divides people into groups of ³the self´ and ³the other´, ³The metaphysics of integral tawhid

can be regarded as the most complete and effective antidote to fanaticism insofar as it

undermines this idolatry of the selfhood«´25 Fana or the extinction of the self is the realization

of Sufi spirituality, because it allows one to become free from the idolatry of the self and realize

that there is no other Truth or Reality other than God, ³Thus the greatest of all sins is indentified

by the Sufis not in moral but in ontological terms; it is the sin of one¶s own separate existence.´26

The existence of the self will again come up later when comparing Sufism and the Hindu text the

BhagavadGita.

Shirk and Fana

In this sense even though one may assert that there is no god but God they are avoiding

overt theological shirk which is associating other gods with God; they still are caught in subtle

ontological shirk by keeping the self in relation to God.27

The cure for ontological shirk is the

concept of fana, which allows one to see through the delusion of the self and allows one to come

to the realization that there is nothing but God.28

Once one is able to see the truth then they will

become aware of the nature of Reality as it ³is not subject to finality, cancellation, extinction,

non-being. That which is absolutely real is That which is eternal: it is the Face of thy Lord that,

alone subsisteth. Conversely, all that which is impermanent is, by that very fact, unreal in the

final analysis.´29

There are two lessons from this: that the ego is to be negated as a source of

pride due to the fact that nothing is absolute other than the Absolute, and second, the inclusive

25 Cutsinger, 145.26

Ibid., 146-147.27

Ibid., 148.28 Ibid., 148.29 Ibid., 150.



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reality of God. This inclusive reality is the presence of God that flows through and binds

everything thus giving them their true being.30

Once the ego is extinguished, one does not see the

world in terms of ³You and I´ as separate beings. Seeing the Divine in the other becomes natural

as we face the truth that God is within each and every one of us. When this happens there is no

need to identify other religious creeds as ³the other´ thus allowing the opportunity for pluralism

and inter-religious dialogue.

Certain verses in the Quran reflect this inclusive reality: ³He is with you, wherever you

are (57:4); Is he not encompassing all things? (41:54); God cometh in between a man and his

own heart (8:24).´ IbnArabi wrote that these verses explain that God is with everything because

everything that exists must come from the universal reality yet that reality has nothing common

from anything that exists. ³His oneness both includes and excludes all things; hence the

affirmation of God¶s immanence within the world.´ Because God is in everything, that does not

diminish his transcendence and yet his transcendence does not necessarily mean he is absent in

the world either.31

God also hides Himself from creation through Himself, but also reveals

himself through his creation. Man is the only being that reflects all of God¶s qualities, ³it is for

this reason that man is the valid interlocuter. The receptacle and the mirror of the Divine

qualities, the other to whom and through whom these qualities are revealed.´ The function of

³the other´ is to serve function of knowledge of God, which goes back to the hadithsaying ³I was

a hidden treasure, and I loved to be known, so I created the world.´32

Sufi Practices

The Path

30Ibid.,150-151.

31 Ibid., 152.32 Ibid., 154.



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There are four stages to Sufism: sharia, which is the religious law; tariqah, the mystical

path; haqiqah or truth; and marifah, which is gnosis. The Sufis follow the sharia because it gives

them their developed moral and ethical code on how they should strive to live. The mystical path

is the road of Sufi inner practices. Both the sharia and mystical path go hand in hand, ³The

sharia makes the outer day to day life clean and attractive. The tariqah is designed to make the

inner life clean and pure. Each of these supports the other.´33

From the first two stages comes

Truth, which is a result of following the sharia and mystical path. Once Truth is attained then it

is possible to achieve marifah or Gnosis. This is beyond a great understanding of the inner

practices but it is becoming attuned with God and becoming aware of the knowledge of reality.

34

As stated, Sufis are some of the most observant Muslims of the law. Because of this,

Sufis closely follow and imitate the Sunnah or actions that the Prophet exemplified or excluded.

One of these actions includes the constant recitation of the Quran in order to bring one closer to

God; this is an essential Sufi practice.35

Another important practice is dhikr or the recitation and

remembrance of all of God¶s Names. The reason behind this is to put oneself into the Sacred

Name being invoked in order to become aware of the reality we have been deceived by or ego

into forgetting our true identity.36 The practice of dhikr is designed to remind us of the Absolute

Reality and the importance of integrating all of one¶s being into remembrance. One Sufi dervish

explained, ³ It is not I who have left the world. It is the world that has left me.´ Although some

33 Fadiman, 12.34

Ibid., 13.35

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, T he Garden of T ruth: T he Vision and Promise of Sufism, Islam¶s Mystical T radition. (NewYork: HarperCollins, 2007), 114.36 Nasr, 115.



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Sufis do choose to live a monastic lifestyle it is not required, ³But for most followers of Sufism

the mode of life has been to be in the world but not of the world, as Christ said.´37

Imitation of The Prophet and The Universal Man

Imitation of the Prophet coincides with the concept of the Universal Man.38

Because of

the Prophet; humanity is able to experience the reality of the Universal Man, which is an

androgynous example of the human state that reflects all of God¶s names. The Prophet serves as

³the most perfect of human beings and hence the most perfect human model to be

imitated.´39

The life the Prophet lived is possible to be lived by anyone. Everyone has the chance

to reach the state of Universal Man by reflecting the way of the Prophet in order to achieve fana

and the extermination of the ego.40

One of the most important verses regarding the Prophet is

³Verily in the Messenger of God you have a good model. (68:4)´ Sufis interpret this not only

regarding his outer lifestyle but also the inner lifestyle such as his strictness with himself and his

love and generosity he showed everyone else.41

There are three central virtues of the Universal Man or ³Muhammadan Reality´:

humility, charity, and nobility, which include sincerity and truthfulness.42

These virtues are to be

taken as being intellectually and honestly guided rather than being done out of sentimental

reasons. For example it would not be genuine charity if one did it out of the reason for merely

feeling better about oneself. In order for it to be spiritually healing we would need to give out of

the awareness that the other and ourselves are deeply connected, ³it must be based on the

37Ibid., 118.

38 Ibid., 122.39

Ibid., 122.40

Ibid.,20-2141 Ibid., 124.42 Ibid., 126.



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metaphysical awareness that the other is in the deepest sense ourselves and that in giving we also

overcome the walls of our own ego, which separates us from others«´43

Following these virtues

is the way Muslims imitate the Prophet who is considered the example per excellence. Not only

is imitation of the Prophet important to Sufis, but also a thorough examination of the Quran

Verses

Hidden Nature

There are many verses in the Quran that reveal its hidden nature and that some verses are

meant to be symbolic whereas some verses have fixed meanings. They believe that the Quran

must be reflected on intensely in order to get the most out of the message, ³«there Is no way to

be connected to the best, toward which the Quran guides, except by reflection, thought,

wakefulness, recollection, and the presence of the heart while reciting it.´44

There are three

different levels of those who hear the message of God. The first level concerns those who are

content with remaining in the world rather than submitting to God. These are the people who

believe in God yet they are preoccupied with only the clear verses that stand out to them. They

are led astray because of their desires and do not see the true understanding of the verses.45 The

second level deals with those who listen to God; they are the ones who seek forgiveness, obey

the commandments and strive to grow spiritually. These are the ones who are guided by God and

will receive rewards in the afterlife. Those who know are included in the third level. Those in

this level are intimately connected to the hidden meaning and special knowledge that comes from

God, ³God gives them much knowledge, and He intends for them the implications of the verses

of the Quran, which he intends for no one else. They dive into the ocean of knowledge with

43Ibid., 126.

44Carl W. Ernst, T eachings of Sufism, (Boston:Shambala,1999), 4.45 Ibid., 8.



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understanding, seeking yet more. Reserved hidden treasures of understanding, and marvelous

texts are unveiled to them beneath every letter and word...´46

Means of Interpretation

Sahl al-Tustari argued that the Quran has four different means of interpretations: the

exoteric, the inner sense, limitations, and a lookout point. From this understanding, the recitation

of the verses are exoteric, understanding is the inner sense, limitations are what verses prohibit

and permit, and the lookout is the elevation of the heart.47 Al-Ghazali openly engaged with those

who opposed Sufism and explained that those who believe that only exoteric understanding is the

correct interpretation is thus limiting themselves, ³and therefore is right with regards to himself,

but is wrong in an opinion which brings everyone else down to his level.´48

However, not all

Sufis were as blunt in their affirmation of the hidden meaning within the Quran. Ruzbihan al-

Baqli believed that the separation between the esoteric and exoteric camps was a part of God¶s

plan. He believed that exotericists were necessarily so that the laws and regulations could be

implemented and that the hidden meaning was reserved for those who were the most well versed

in understanding.49

Ala al-Dawla al-Simnani explained that finding the hidden meaning within

the Quran was a process. First one would have to study the exoteric nature in order to become in

tune with the laws and commandments then in order to comprehend the inner meaning of the

Quran the inner self would need to be purified. The final step involves the limitations, ³You

should contemplate the gnosis of its limit in the realm of hearts.´50

Divine Separation

46 Ibid., 8-10.47

Kristin Zahra Sands Sufi Commentaries on the Quran in Classical Islam, (New York: Routledge, 2006),9.48

Ibid., 10.49 Ibid., 10.50 Ibid., 12.



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The Quran indicates that differences between humanity were Divinely willed, ³We have

created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes that ye may know one

another«(49:13)´51

The distinctions here are part of the connection between knowledge of the

self, other and of God. The word used in ³that ye may know one another´ is the Arabic world

ta¶arafu and the word for ³known´ in the hidden treasure hadith is µarafa, which both have a

connection to the word ma¶rifah or spiritual knowledge. This is expressed in the famous saying

man µarafanafsahufaqad µarafarabbahu or ³Whoso knows himself knows his Lord.´ In this

sense the knowledge of the self, the other and of God are part of the spiritual knowledge or

gnosis.

52

The above-mentioned verse is often given as an essential text for establishing dialogue

and while it does establish coexistence and Divinely willed diversity, it also means much more.

It leads to dialogue that is grounded in the desire for greater self-knowledge and knowledge of

God and ³the other´ that will lead to seeing the ³hidden treasure´ mirrored in ³the other´.53

Unity Among Religions

For Sufis, Islam meaning submission is the universal call for all religions to submit to

God. This does not mean that one religion necessarily is above another but that in essence all

monotheistic religions ask the same of their adherents to follow a similar code. Muhammad

Asad, one of the most renowned of translations explains that the word Islam would have been

understood in terms of its universal meaning at the time of the Quran¶s revelation, ³It should be

borne in mind that the µinstitutionalized¶ use of these terms, that is, their exclusive application to

the followers of the Prophet Muhammad represents definitely post-Quranic development and,

51Cutsinger, 154.

52 Ibid., 154.53 Ibid., 155.



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hence, must be avoided in a translation of the Quran.´54

When the first community was

established they would not understood Islam and Muslim in terms of exclusivity but in terms of

returning to the true religion of God, ³He hath ordained for you of religion that he commended

unto Noah, and that which We reveal to thee, and that which we commended unto Abraham and

Moses and Jesus, saying: Establish the religion and be not divided therein.´55

The unity of prophets is affirmed by the Quran in verse 2:136, ³We make no distinction

between any of them.´ The Persian Sufi poet Rumi affirms that there seems to be a ³spirit of

faith which transcends all the forms that religious traditions assume.´56

Frequently it is said to

believe in what was revealed to the prophets such as Abraham, Moses and Jesus, for instance

verse 3:84 declares, ³We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have

submitted.´ This verse coupled with the following, ³And whoso seeketh a religion other than

Islam, it will not be accepted from him, and he will be a loser in the Hereafter (3:85)´ can be

understood as defending Christianity and Judaism because Islam entails both those religions who

brought and affirmed essentially the same message of the Divine as Islam.57

The universal

message is also linked to the knowledge of God that is innate in all humanity and that the soul

needs this remembrance reawakened by revelation. Adam is regarded as not just the first man but

also the first prophet of the Lord because of the spirit God breathed into him. The prophets

starting with Adam are giving the same precedence as in Judaism and Christianity, ³Naught is

said unto thee, but what was said unto the Messengers before thee.´ (41:43)58

54 Ibid., 160.55

Ibid., 161-162.56

Ibid, 166.57 Ibid., 168-169.58 Ibid., 172.



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IbnArabi understood the revelations as being transcendent of each other, the essence of

the religions narrow down to submitting toward what is divinely ruled. To clarify it can be noted

that there is ³such and such a religion´ in terms of that religion is distinct from others that has its

own rituals and rites and that ³such a religion´ can be found within it and all religions. Religion

as such in the sense that there is no exclusivity at all and constitutes an inner substance that

pertains to all religions.59

This allows for the diversity in the sense that is not seen as a hindrance

but rather something to be embraced and cherished. Verse 5:48 explains that God could have

divinely made humanity into a single grouping, but chose not to, ³For each We have appointed

from you a Law and a Way. Had God willed, He could have made you one community.´ Despite

the diversity between the various communities, this does not refute the universal nature of the

message that was revealed to the prophets.60

Islam essentially embodies both ³religion as such´ and ³such and such a religion´.

Because it is unique in its own customs, laws and rituals it can be called ³such and such a

religion´ and yet because its essence is identical to the rest of the religions it is also ³religion as

such´ which effectively makes it the religion.61

One of the most frequently cited verses used to

defend the pluralist nature of Islam is verse 2:62, ³Truly those who believe, and the Jews and the

Christians«whoever believeth in God and the Last Day and performeth virtuous deeds surely

their reward is with their Lord.´62

In Islam and World Peace: Explanations of a Sufi, M. R. BawaMuhaiyaddeen calls for a

return to the understanding that we all are united with one another. He gives the explanation of

the elements and how the natural elements, which are enemies to one another, came together in

59Ibid., 173.

60Ibid., 174.

61 Ibid., 174.62 Ibid., 175.



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unity to establish creation.63

In his writings, Muhaiyaddeen explains that we must embrace each

other, as was custom in the days of Adam before, ³mankind developed more and more

differences and forgot the meaning of Islam.´64

He argues that it is not Islamic that to exclude

others if they belong to a different religion, ³Hindus may call themselves saivam, which means

purity. Buddhists acknowledge purity. And Muslims say that Islam is purity. There are many

different names for purity.´65

He goes on to explain that as Muslims pray in unity that we need to

become aware of the universal unity we all share before God and to embrace that we are

different in many beautiful ways rather than allowing differences come between us.66

Love

Poetry is an important aspect within the Sufi world and none is more respected and loved

than Rumi. A frequent theme in Rumi¶s writings is the theme of love. Love is emphasized

because it is able to overcome the qualities of humanity that are negative in order to bring

humanity back to the unification with God. In this sense, love is able to transcend the self, which

opens up the path to the Divine. ³Only love, among all human experiences, has the universality

and open-endedness to suggest something of the nature of the ultimate transfiguration that is the

goal of human life.´67

Rumi also wrote of the extinguishing of the soul in order to become one

with God as a , ³Pre-condition of admittance to the divine hall of audience, to ascension to

heaven.´68Poetry is used to remind us that love can only be experienced not explained; their

expression of love is sometimes referred to as a spiritual ³drunkenness´ because it allows for

63 M. R. Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, Islam and World Peace: Explanations of a Sufi, (Philadelphia: The Fellowship Press,

1987), 99.64 Muhaiyadden, 103.65 Ibid., 104.66 Ibid., 107-109.67

William C. Chittick, ³The Pluralistic Vision of Persian Sufi Poetry´. Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. Vol.

14. No. 4 (Oct 2003), 42568

Fakhry, Majid. A History of Islamic Philosophy. New York: Colombia University Press, 2004



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sameness to dominate difference. Because love allows for the return to God, Sufi poetry

celebrates Divine unity as well, unity in the sense between humanity and also unity with God.69

³It is not sufficient for the cosmos merely to exist«In order for creation to achieve its

purpose«they must see themselves and all things in the divine context«just as love brings

about separation«so also it brings about union«´70

Love for anything essentially is love for

God. Because all belong to God, as He is the one true reality, God is the supreme lover and the

beloved.71

In Christianity, God is love; in the Quran, one of God¶s names is love or al-Wadud .

Because love comes from God¶s Divine Nature, then the entire universe is penetrated by love.72

Some Sufis believe in a hierarchal system of love, at the lowest point is the love of the

self or the ego. This state of love prohibits spiritual growth and prevents moving on to a higher

level of love.73 Following states of love include: love of others such as humans or other members

of creation; sacred reality such as books, messengers etc; and then the highest level is the love of

God. These varying degrees of love can lead to a higher state of love. Despite the imprisoning

nature of the love of the self, it is possible that becoming aware of the ego¶s deception can lead

to a higher level of love.74

Love itself isn¶t enough to reach the Divine Truth, it needs to be in

conjunction with knowledge, ³In Sufism love is the complement of gnosis and is related to the

reality of realized knowledge«both knowledge and love are always present in any integral Sufi

teaching«´75

Sufism In Comparison With Christianity

69 William C. Chittick, T he Sufi Path of Love: T he Spiritual T eachings of Rumi. (Albany: State University of New

York Press), 194. 70 William C. Chittick, ³The Spiritual Path of Love in Ibn al¶ Arabi and Rumi´ Mystics Quarterly . Vol 19. No 1.

(March 1993), 9.71 Ibid., 11.72

Nasr, 61.73

Ibid., 63.74 Ibid.75 Ibid., 69.



18

IbnArabi and Gregory Palamas

Sufism shares parallels with other religious mystics as well. The other traditions

examined here with are in regards to Christianity and Hindusim.Bewteen Sufism and Christianity

it is helpful to compare the theology of IbnArabi and Gregory Palamas. Palamas was interested

in the spiritual experience of Hesychasm, which was the dedication to contemplation and

continuous prayer. This practice is similar to the Sufi practice of dhikr or the remembrance and

recitation of God¶s names.76

There are many parallels between the two great thinkers, Palamas

even shared similar thoughts on the nature of reality, ³Our religion is not a question of words,

but of realities.´77 Both share similar beliefs concerning the essence of God. Palamas wrote that

God is incomprehensible and that He ³is not only unknowable, but also simple, independent and

self generating.´ IbnArabi similarly wrote that God simply is and that nothing is capable of being

attached to Him as He is the only absolute unity.78

Palamas and IbnArabi, both affirmed the different modalities comprising of God.

Palamas recognized that the Trinity represented its own distinct faces yet comprised the same

God, ³God is not only in three hypostases, but He is also the All-powerful One«The Father, Son

and Holy Spirit are one source«´79

IbnArabi recognizes that it is possible for the Trinity to be

recognized while remaining true to the concept of unity, ³Number does not beget multiplicity in

the Divine Substance, as the Christians declare that the Three Persons of the Trinity are made

one Person in essence.´ It should be acknowledged that the Quranic critique of the Trinity is

mostly concerned with early heretical Christian understanding rather than the developed concept

76Cutsinger, 192.

77Ibid., 194.

78 Ibig., 194-195.79 Ibid., 195-196.



19

later made official.80

God as the All-Merciful is also a shared concept, both refer to the merciful

God who created existence with His own breath.81

The two mystics agree that creation was

brought forth because of God¶s own love. Palamas argues that because God is all-good and was

not content in his own contemplation. Creation was brought forth through the uncreated energy

that was in the knowledge of God who, ³Calls those things which do not exist as though they

did.´82

Sufism shares a similar view in regards to this concept. One can reflect on the hadith of

God as a hidden treasure and see the connection. God saw himself as a treasure to be cherished,

and because of his love he brought creation into existence so that he would be known.83

The properties that lead to spiritual transformation in Sufism and Christianity in terms of

the role Jesus and the Prophet share can also be compared. Transformation of the human spirit

would not have been possible without the incarnation of Jesus into the flesh, ³He was made man,

that we might be made god.´84

In order to become transformed it was necessary that the Law

became incarnate in the form of Jesus. By taking the sacraments humanity is transformed by

purification in baptism and becomes unified with grace and energy through the Eucharist.85

In

contrast, the salvation of mankind comes from the revelation of the Quran through the Prophet,

however it serves the same function as the role of Jesus: guidance towards transformation

through the observance of the Law. The rationale behind this is that unlike Christianity, Islam

considers sin as a problem of forgetfulness rather than original sin.86

Muhammad is to be the

perfect locus of the Divine self-disclosure because of the way he lived his life according to the

Quran. Muhammad and Christ share the same function as the most perfect model of life that

80 Ibid., 196.81

Ibid., 197.82 Ibid., 203.83

Ibid., 204.84

Ibid., 213.85 Ibid., 214.86 Ibid., 215.



20

should be imitated in their respective religions. Similarly to how Jesus said he came to fulfill the

law, it is said of Muhammad¶s life, ³If a person in the community of the Messenger who has not

met the Messenger of God desires to see him, let him look upon the Quran. When he looks upon

it, there is no difference between looking upon it and looking upon God¶s messenger.´87

Imitation of the Prophet is one of the most important aspects of becoming a Sufi and the

relationship between Sufi master and disciple is similar to the relationship between the Prophet

and his followers. The dynamic is similar to how Christians follow Jesus. Surely no Christians

believe that they can follow his divinity or perform miracles such as raising the dead and the like.

Christians seek to imitate Jesus¶ ethics and spiritual life. The same is said of Sufis, rather than

seeking to imitate his politics and military strategy, they turn to his inner life, exemplified by his

emphasis on frequent prayer, fasting and remembrance of God.88 The Prophet like Jesus spoke

often of a life of poverty and stressed that, ³Poverty is my pride.´ This idea extends to the

metaphysical world in terms of all reality is poor whereas God is rich.

Johann Arndt and Sufism

In addition to Gregory Palamas, Johann Arndt shares much in common with Sufi

philosophy. Arndt was a Lutheran mystic who argued that knowledge of Christ was not

sufficient enough, but that one needed to submit to the will of Christ in order for the perfect

union with God. Arndt once wrote ³It is not enough to know God¶s work; one must also practice

it in a living, active manner. Many think that theology is a mere science or rhetoric, whereas it is

living experience and practice.´89

This is in comparison with Sufi imitation of the Prophet. The

model of the Prophet set the ultimate model to live life in order to reach unity with God, because

87Ibid., 216.

88 Nasr, T he Garden of T ruth, 121.89 Bernard McGinn, T he Essential Writings of Christian Mysticism, (New York: Modern Library, 2006), 276.



21

Muhammad reflected the perfect nature of humanity. Arndt quotes Matthew 7:21, which says

that not all those who proclaim the Lord necessarily will get into heaven. Arndt argues there are

two approaches to attaining wisdom and understanding: by reading and debate, and then prayer

and love, which he refers as holy, ³Through the first way you will not find the inner treasure;

through the second you will find it in yourself.´90

Arndt continues to state that the Kingdom of

God is not something that exists in the exterior world, but that it exists within ourselves, and that

we do not require a special sort of knowledge but that were merely need to surrender before God

with a pure heart.91

The goal in Sufism is also the attainment of inner truth, in Arendt¶s view the

Kingdom of God is attained by living with a pure heart and finding God in the inner self. This

too, is the goal of Sufism, ³Sufi psychology has for its goal freedom from the self or the ego.´92

Arendt¶s concept of the transformation of the soul is also similar to the Sufi concept of

fana or the extinguishing the ego or self. He explains the soul becomes at peace once it has been

directed away from the world. He explains that the denial of the self is necessary in order to

reach God, ³«perfection is not as some think a high, great, spiritual, heavenly joy«but it is a

denial of your own will, love, honor, a knowledge of your own nothingness«´93

Arendt¶s idea

right here reflects a couple of Sufi concepts. The first is as previously stated, the concept of fana,

and the Sufi belief in the one true Reality: God. Once the soul is extinguished it becomes

apparent that the only thing that truly exists is God and we acknowledge our own nothingness.

Dialogue Between Christianity and Sufism

90McGinn, 278.

91Ibid.

92 Nasr, Garden of T ruth, 118.93 McGinn, 279.



22

There has also been engaged and rigorous dialogue between the Christian mystics and

Sufis. One example is the dialogue engaged with Thomas Merton with a Sufi student by the

name of Ch. Abdul Aziz.94

Merton was greatly impacted by Louis Massignon¶s influence in

relations between Islam and Christianity. Merton was deeply interested in members of other

religious traditions and did not believe that grace was confined just to Christianity. The manner

in that he engaged with Abdul Aziz clearly reflected the belief he was in dialogue with a fellow

man of God whom would be able to further his own spiritual journey, ³I believe that our

friendship is a blessing from God that will bring much light to us both, and help Him to be made

know through us.´

95

It is shown that is all of his letters; Merton remained inquisitive about new

books and sources of articles to expand his understanding of Sufism. Merton refused to send

Abdul Aziz a copy of his early work Seeds of Contemplation because he felt shameful about

making ignorant and foolish statements especially about the nature of Sufism.96

It is interesting to look at the selection of wording Merton used in one letter sent to Abdul

Aziz in 1960, ³I speak to you from my heart of our obligation to study the truth in deep prayer

and meditation, and bear witness to the light that comes from the All-Holy God into this world of

darkness where He is not known and not remembered«´97 He continues on to wish Aziz luck in

his quest to remind Muslims of God. The fact that he brought up memory and noted the

importance of remembrance is reflective of the Sufi goal of remembering God through their

practice of reciting the names of God. He furthermore disclosed with Aziz of his position

regarding difference of dogma between religions. Merton believed that there was no need to

discuss dogmatic beliefs and whether one was more perfect than the other because that just took

94 Sidney H. Griffith, ³Mystics and Sufi Masters: Thomas Merton and Dialogue between Christians and Muslims.´

Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations Vol. 15 No.3 (July 2004), 303.95

Griffith, 304.96 Ibid., 305.97 Ibid.



23

away from spiritual reality shared equally between the traditions, ³In the realm of realities we

may have a great deal in common, whereas in words there are apt to be infinite complexities and

subtleties which are beyond resolution.´98

Ultimately Merton would proclaim what the Sufis for

so long have believed in and strove towards in their path to the truth, ³At the center of our being

is a point of nothingness which is untouched by sin and by illusion, a point of pure truth, a point

or spark which belongs entirely to God«This little point«is the pure glory of God in us.´99

Sufism In Comparison With Other Mysticisms: Hinduism

The BhagavadGita and Sufism

The text of the BhagavadGita is in the context of a battlefield and Arjuna is tasked with

fighting his kin. Krishna serves as his charioteer and gives advice on what he should do. The

orthodox viewpoint is that the text justifies war and that in some certain instances it is just

impossible to avoid. The mystical view on the other hand, understands the text as an allegory of

the struggle between good and evil. The battle Arjuna faces is not a physical battle but a spiritual

battle.100 In this context Arjuna represents the human soul struggling to overcome evil. The

mystic meaning of the BhagavadGita becomes the struggled for self-realization with Krishna

representing the atman or the fully realized Self.101

Krishna explains to Arjuna that the atman is

the eternal self and the way of reaching the eternal self is by renouncing all attachments.102

Krishna explains that detachment will also lead to a cessation of being motivated by selfish

actions and live in the wisdom that they see themselves in everyone else because the atman is

98 Ibid., 306.99

Ibid., 313.100

Eknath Easwaran, trans, T he Bhagavad Gita, (Berkeley: Blue Mountain Center of Meditation), 75101 Easwaran, 83-84.102 Ibid., 94.



25

he will be free from ignorance and will have attained true knowledge, ³«They see the same Self

in a spiritual aspirant and an outcaste«Such people have mastered life.´111

Nizami and Sufi-Hindu Relations in British India

During the time in which India was trying to throw out the British, there was an Indian

Sufi KhwajaHasanNizami, who was engaged with Hindus in order to create a movement of

Indian nationalism based on mutual respect between Islam and Hinduism. This came at a time

when the relations between the two great religions were becoming increasingly strained as the

thought of partition became more of a viable solution.112

Nizami himself was a prominent Sufi

sheik of the Chishti Sufi order. The Chishti order is especially tolerant and open to spiritual

dialogue and inter-religious cooperation. The Chishtis are considered to be the most Indianized

of all the Sufi orders because of their willingness to allow Hindus into their order without

making them convert to Islam.113

The order would adapt Hindu rituals and blend them into the Islamic rituals; the Hindu

act of rubbing sandalwood paste on idols was adapted and used on Sufi saint¶s graves.114 The

doctrine of the ³Unity of being´ also permitted them to relate more with the Hindu concept of

³all is one´ or the ³everything is Brahman´ concept.Nizami would go on and write on religious

figures such as Krishna, Jesus, the Sikhs and Baha¶ullah.115

He went on to write a biography on

Krishna in a favorable way as to demonstrate to his fellow Muslims of the need for

understanding of other religions, ³«it demonstrates that a prominent Muslim opponent of

111Ibid., 129-130.

112Marcia Hermansen, ³A Twentieth Century Indian Sufi Views Hinduism: The Case of Khwaja Hasan Nizami.´

Comparative Islamic Studies Vol 4. (2008), 157.113

Hermansen, 159, 161.114 Ibid., 161.115 Ibid., 163.



26

politicized aspects of Hinduism«could at the same time have written sympathetically about a

Hindu religious icon.´116

Nizami drew on the Islamic concept of the multiple names of God and how they

represent the qualities of God and made the comparison to the Hindus use of images for teaching

about the divine qualities, ³Everyone knows that in the olden times Hindus made images for the

divine qualities and through these they would teach people about God¶s attributes as in the case

of the feminine principle.´117

Nizami would continue to take Hindu concepts and mold them in

ways that Muslims could understand; he portrayed Krishna as a guide in order of giving him an

appearance of a prophet without outright calling him as such. He also compared Krishna to

Moses and made similar comparisons of the feminine figure Jasudha to Asiya who was

Pharoah¶s wife who found and saved Moses.118 Throughout the biography of Krishna it becomes

apparent that Nizami was trying to make Muslims aware of the connections between Hinduism

and Islam and that together they could forge an united Indian identity, ³that could form the basis

for social coexistence and political cooperation.´119

Summary: How Pluralism Arises Out of The Sufi Path, Concepts and Interpretation

The goal of the Sufi path is experiencing God in the present life. The central concept of

the path is the concept of the Ultimate Reality in the sense that God is the only true Reality.

Because there is only one God, there must be only one true Reality. In order to become aware of

the one true Reality, it is necessary to extinguish the self and discard the idea of a separate

existence from God. This idea allows for the emergence of pluralism in two ways: the idea that

116Ibid., 165.

117Ibid., 165.

118 Ibid., 166.119 Ibid., 167.-



27

we are all inter-connected through the Ultimate Reality; and from the extinguishing of the self in

order to achieve the Reality. Once we are free from the self we can see the Divine in the other

through the understanding that there is nothing but God and God is in everyone. Thus the Sufi

path to Ultimate Reality creates the ability to see the Divine in the other rather than viewing

them as ³the other.´

The imitation of the Prophet is used on the path to the Divine and it is through that

imitation that one will become the Universal Man. This requires being aware of the connection

between us and those who surround us. Following the virtues of the Prophet it is possible to

transcend the ego and the self. Because imitation of the Prophet is based on humility, charity and

nobility, we can then give up our selfish notions and realize the connection between all

humanity. In comparison with Christianity, Christians are instructed to follow Jesus¶ model of

loving others as well. Christians are supposed to act selfless towards others and love all even

their enemies. Love plays an important role in this transformation because not only is loving God

then translated into showing love for all, but love also allows one to transcend the self by

opening the path to the Divine by loving and recognizing God in all of humanity. Once someone

becomes aware of the knowledge of Reality it then serves as a complement to that knowledge.

The Sufi understanding of verses reinforces the notion of pluralism as it explains that

Islam came to reinforce the previous traditions of Christianity and Judaism rather than

repudiating them. The verses explain that there was no distinction between the essence of

Judaism and Christianity because they too were revelations from God, many times in the Quran

it states the importance of Judaism and Christianity as Abrahamic religions. Furthermore the

Quran states the divinely willed separation of different paths to the truth that ultimately contains

the same truth.



28

In terms of its connection with Hinduism, Sufism is similar in the struggle to rid itself of

the ego. In order to attain perfection in Hinduism, the ego is to be overcome by selfless

detachment from the world. By negating the ego it becomes possible to become aware of the

atman or the true Self, which becomes free from delusion of the ego and its selfishness. The

concept of transcending the ego allows Hindus to become one with Brahman or the supreme God

of Hinduism. Similarly Sufis need to overcome their ego and renounce the self in order to

become one with God once they realize there is only one Reality: God. In the BhagavadGita,

Krishna reveals himself as personification of God and that he is present in every creature and

urges Arjuna to see the Divine in everyone including himself. This is the same goal of the Sufis:

to experience God now by extinguishing the ego and seeing the Divine in everyone as a result of

the all-penetrating Reality of God in the universe. A similar theme between the two traditions is

the need to act out of love towards others in a spirit of love. The virtues of the Ultimate Man

require that one acts out of sincerity and love towards others, Krishna advises Arjuna to do the

same in order to find his true inner Self.

Conclusion

There is something to be said about the influence of mysticism as a morality. What is it

about mysticism in terms of its influence on moral action? In Sufism there resides a universal

acceptance of all that extend beyond Islam, ³The universal perspective of Sufism, fully rooted in

Islamic revelation, yields a lived (and not just studied) ethics with the potential to view and

embrace all creatures through a single ethical vision, regardless of religious or other

affiliation.´120

Mysticism goes beyond the confines of each individual religion and recognizes

the unity of all of God¶s creation. In the case of Sufism, it still uses Islamic concepts and

120 Paul L. Heck, ³Mysticism as Mortality: The Case of Sufism´, J ournal of Religious Ethics Vol. 34 No. 2 (2006),

253.



29

principles, but recognizes its equivalent in others. In terms of Abrahamic religion, this is because

of the fact that Islam does not regard itself as a whole new religion that seeks to replace the

others but that it sees itself as a return to the true form thus allowing the others to relate to it.

Regarding other religions such as Hinduism concepts of the ego and self are found in both

religions.

Unfortunately people tend to overlook the mystical aspects of their respective religion

that would allow for a more fruitful and sincere inter-religious dialogue. This paper set out

originally to show in what ways Sufism itself allowed for religious dialogue. As the research

intensified and became more cohesive it became apparent that all mysticisms seem to hold this

principle of transcending the self in order to see the Divine in the other. It must be upheld that all

mysticisms not just Sufism allow for this dialogue as seen in the common principles shared with

the other religions. Mysticism overcomes the shackles of doctrine and creed and allows for a

unity that is applicable to all. The transcendence of the self that is prevalent in all the mysticisms

allow for a cessation of the ego and the self, through this process one is able to see the Divine in

the other rather than applying to them the label of ³the other.´



30

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