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School Psychology

Katalin N. KollárGabriella Pajor

Vera PirosMónika Somogyi

Éva JármiEmese Vágó

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School Psychologyby Katalin N. Kollár, Gabriella Pajor, Vera Piros, Mónika Somogyi, Éva Jármi, and Emese VágóFerenc ŐzeCopyright © 2014 Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem, Pedagógiai és Pszichológiai Kar, Pszichológiai Intézet, Iskolapszichológia Tanszék

Chapters by authors

1. Katalin N. Kollár: School psychology – theoretical issues and practical consequences

2. Gabriella Pajor: Results and implications of current researches in the field of social psychology at school

3. Gabriella Pajor: Current issues and problem areas of educational psychology

4. Vera Piros: Development of psychical functions in learning

5. Mónika Somogyi: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Forth UK and Hungarian Edition - WISC-IV Demonstration

6. Vera Piros – Emese Vágó: Methodology of learning

7. Éva Jármi: Learning disabilities

8. Katalin N. Kollár: Consultation – case studies

9. Emese Vágó: Studying school organizations

TÁMOP 4.1.2.A/1-11/1-2011-0018


Table of Contents1. School psychology ........................................................................................................................... 1

1. First steps to the emergence of school psychology ................................................................ 12. Environmental factors in the progress of school psychology ................................................. 13. What does school psychology mean? ..................................................................................... 14. Conceptual issues in school psychology ................................................................................ 35. Whom school psychologists have to work with? ................................................................... 4

5.1. What is the division of labour among the different professions? .............................. 45.2. Level of prevention .................................................................................................... 45.3. Level of intervention .................................................................................................. 55.4. Is the focus of school psychology on special groups or on all school children? ....... 55.5. Working with individual persons or with groups? ..................................................... 65.6. Organisation of services in school psychology – independent or in-school service? 65.7. Who is the client of school psychologists? ................................................................ 6

6. School psychology in Hungary .............................................................................................. 76.1. First steps in school psychology ................................................................................ 76.2. Number of school psychologists ................................................................................ 86.3. Concept and regulation in 2014 ............................................................................... 10

7. References ............................................................................................................................ 112. Results and implications of current researches in the field of social psychology at school . . . Error: Reference source not found

1. The role of the social context in personality development ................................................... 122. Social support and achievement ........................................................................................... 133. Bullying as a social phenomenon: the role of peer support ................................................. 144. Bystanders' role in the act of bullying .................................................................................. 165. Interpretation of harm in the bullying situation ................................................................... 186. Emotional reactions .............................................................................................................. 197. Social evaluating .................................................................................................................. 198. Moral evaluating .................................................................................................................. 209. Intervention Self-Efficacy .................................................................................................... 2010. Summary ............................................................................................................................ 20

3. Current issues and problem areas of educational psychology ....................................................... 211. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 212. Theories of achievement motivation that dominate current researches in the field of educational psychology ............................................................................................................................... 21

2.1. Self-Determination Theory ...................................................................................... 212.2. Achievement Goal Theory ....................................................................................... 24

3. Activity ................................................................................................................................. 294. Development of psychical functions in learning ........................................................................... 30

1. Methods of prevention ......................................................................................................... 302. Assessment of learning disabilities ...................................................................................... 303. Games which develop physical functions ............................................................................ 354. Secondary problems of students with LD. ........................................................................... 355. Methods and possibilities of intervention ............................................................................ 35

5. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Forth UK and Hungarian Edition ................................. 396. Methodology of learning ............................................................................................................... 40

1. Students' attitudes to learning ............................................................................................... 402. Development of basic psychical functions in learning ......................................................... 40


SCPSY

3. Games to develop cognitive functions ................................................................................. 443.1. Warm-ups, ice-breakers ........................................................................................... 443.2. Developing attention and memory .......................................................................... 45

4. Complex techniques and strategies of learning .................................................................... 455. An example of effective learning technique - Mind map ..................................................... 466. Learning styles ..................................................................................................................... 48

7. Learning disabilities ....................................................................................................................... 491. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) .............................................................. 49

1.1. DSM-5 Criteria for ADHD ...................................................................................... 491.2. Evaluation process ................................................................................................... 501.3. Overdiagnosis .......................................................................................................... 501.4. Epidemiology ........................................................................................................... 501.5. Etiology ................................................................................................................... 501.6. Acquired brain lesions and ADHD .......................................................................... 511.7. Neuroanatomy ......................................................................................................... 511.8. Conceptualizations of ADHD .................................................................................. 511.9. Primary (?) cognitive deficits in ADHD .................................................................. 51

1.9.1. EF-tests ........................................................................................................ 521.10. Two prefrontal networks ........................................................................................ 531.11. Sonuga-Barke: dual-pathway model ...................................................................... 551.12. Therapy .................................................................................................................. 56

1.12.1. Medication ................................................................................................ 561.12.2. Behavioral therapy .................................................................................... 57

1.13. Frequently used objectives for ADHD children .................................................... 572. Developmental Dysphasia .................................................................................................... 57

2.1. Speech (vs. language) impairment .......................................................................... 572.2. Specific Language Impairment (SLI) or Developmental Dysphasia ....................... 572.3. Symptoms ................................................................................................................ 582.4. Late talkers vs. SLI .................................................................................................. 592.5. Developmental delay or disorder ............................................................................. 602.6. Debate over nonverbal ability .................................................................................. 602.7. Epidemiology and Etiology ..................................................................................... 602.8. Educational impact of SLI ....................................................................................... 612.9. Assessment ............................................................................................................... 612.10. Intervention ............................................................................................................ 62

3. Developmental Dysgraphia .................................................................................................. 623.1. Definition ................................................................................................................. 623.2. Interdependence of transcription and generation ..................................................... 623.3. Symptoms ................................................................................................................ 643.4. Subtypes ................................................................................................................... 643.5. Handwriting ............................................................................................................. 643.6. Spelling .................................................................................................................... 643.7. Composition ............................................................................................................. 653.8. DG independent disorder? ....................................................................................... 653.9. Epidemiology and Etiology ..................................................................................... 653.10. Assessment ............................................................................................................. 653.11. Treatment of handwriting difficulties .................................................................... 653.12. Treatment of spelling difficulties ........................................................................... 673.13. Developing composition skills .............................................................................. 683.14. Accomodations ...................................................................................................... 693.15. More tips... ............................................................................................................. 69


SCPSY

4. Developmental Dyslexia ...................................................................................................... 694.1. Definition ................................................................................................................. 704.2. Pseudodyslexia ........................................................................................................ 714.3. Spelling deficit in DL .............................................................................................. 714.4. Epidemiology ........................................................................................................... 714.5. Ethiology ................................................................................................................. 724.6. Warning signs (4-8 years) ........................................................................................ 724.7. Warning signs (Grades 3-8) ..................................................................................... 734.8. Common reading errors ........................................................................................... 744.9. Fundamental Skills Necessary for Proficient Phonologic Processing ..................... 754.10. Subtypes of DL ...................................................................................................... 754.11. Core cognitive processes ....................................................................................... 764.12. Other DL-theories .................................................................................................. 774.13. Assessment ............................................................................................................. 784.14. Intervention ............................................................................................................ 794.15. Prevention .............................................................................................................. 79

5. Developmental Dyscalculia .................................................................................................. 805.1. Dyscalculia is not trouble with math ....................................................................... 805.2. Epidemiology ........................................................................................................... 805.3. Definition of DC ...................................................................................................... 805.4. Concept of numerosity ............................................................................................. 805.5. Biologically primary quantitative abilities (GEARY) ............................................. 805.6. Biologically secondary number, counting, and arithmetic competencies ............... 825.7. Conceptualistions of DC .......................................................................................... 835.8. Mental number line .................................................................................................. 835.9. Four-step developmental model of numerical cognition (Von ASTER and SHALEV) ......................................................................................................................................... 845.10. Subtypes of DC ...................................................................................................... 845.11. MiniMath test ......................................................................................................... 84

5.11.1. Principles of MiniMath test ....................................................................... 845.11.2. Measuring basic number skills .................................................................. 85

5.12. Interventions .......................................................................................................... 865.12.1. Classroom Instruction ............................................................................... 865.12.2. Tutorial Interventions ................................................................................ 865.12.3. The Number Race ..................................................................................... 86

8. Consultation – case studies ............................................................................................................ 871. Description of the problems – case studies .......................................................................... 87

1.1. Case 1. András ......................................................................................................... 871.2. Case 2. Zsuzsa ......................................................................................................... 881.3. Case 3. Eszter .......................................................................................................... 881.4. Case 4. Gábor .......................................................................................................... 891.5. Case 5. The "broken" class ...................................................................................... 89

2. Questions for analysing case-studies .................................................................................... 909. Studying school organizations ....................................................................................................... 92


List of Tables6.1. .................................................................................................................................................... 47


Chapter 1. School psychologyTheoretical issues and practical consequences

1. First steps to the emergence of school psychologySchool psychology is a relatively young field of psychology. However, the first representative was Cyrile Burt working as school psychologist from 1905 in the USA, so we can say with pride that this field has a hundred years history. It is useful to study the events of the international history of this field because there are many similarities or parallel phenomena in it.

In the development of school psychology roughly three main periods can be identified. The first step was the assessment of cognitive abilities. This was the main field of activity in the first half of the 20th century. In the next period emphasis was on individual treatment of pupils, in many cases this meant psychotherapy. Recently school psychology is defined as a more complex job with a larger scope of activities. Psychologists work not only with pupils but with teachers, other school workers and parents too. The field of their interest is not only a learning problem or individual emotional, motivational or behaviour problems but social problems, class management and mental health as well.

2. Environmental factors in the progress of school psychologyThere are several external events inspiring the development of school psychology. It happened several times that a demand of the school system or of the society on the whole on the one hand, and a new chance of the profession on the other hand met. Let us see these examples!

The first step in the development of school psychology was the assessment of intelligence. The construction of the Simon-Binet intelligence test for children allowed the selection of the below average intellectual achievement. At the beginning of the 20th century the attendance of school became compulsory and the demand for the achievement prediction heightened.

One other example of the need for school psychology dates back to France in the 20s and 30s of the last century for two reasons (Marc 1977)1. The first reason for the establishment of the vocational guidance service was that many young people were soldiers in the first word war, and returning to the civil life they needed help to find a profession. At the beginning the advisors were only experts of the labour market, but in the first National Vocational Guidance Centre counsellors were psychologists too, among them very famous personalities like Piéron and Wallon. The other event that facilitated the development was the economic crisis in 1929-1933.

As a further inspiration the Langevin-Wallon plan in France in 1947 can be mentioned. This educational reform was designed by the developmental psychologist Henri Wallon. In this document of educational reform the necessity of school psychologists in all schools was declared. The first step of the development in school psychological service in France was mainly due to this educational reform.

Our fourth example is the grand expansion of child psychotherapy on the field of school psychology after the 2th world war in the USA (Bardon, Bennet 1974) 2. This was fostered by the Mental Health Movement and the rising of emotional and behavioural difficulties among schoolchildren.

3. What does school psychology mean?How can we define school psychology, and why is it necessary to define the topics of this field? Studying the history of school psychology we can consider that the definition of this field has changed from time to time and there are different concepts behind these definitions.

11Marc, P. (1977): Les Psychologes dans l'Institution Scolaire, Coll."Paidaqides", Le Centurion, Paris

22Bardon, J.I., Benett V. C. (1974): School psychology. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey


School psychology

Common feature of the definition is to deal with educational questions, but the detailed scope of duties have changed from time to time and differentiate in different states. In our time there are common trends, however, there is no solid definition for the required tasks in this field.

Guillemard (1982)3 at the beginning of the 1980s described three main directions in the French school psychology: psycho-educational, clinical and socioeconomic direction.

1. The psycho-educational direction

The main idea of this direction is accepted by almost all school psychologists. Their main task is to help schoolchildren adaptation to school, but this adaptation has to be mutual, school has to change too. To help children psychologists assess abilities and discover the reasons of learning difficulties. Their contribution to designing individual development plans and consultation with teachers on educational questions is as important as the efficacy of teacher training.

2. Clinical direction

School psychologists working based on this conception focus on the individual problems of pupils. They are open to personality problems and treat their clients with individual methods like drawing therapy or play therapy. They use only a few tests prefer projective tests as T.A.T. or Rorschach. They are more interested in personality problems and less in learning difficulties or other problems concerning school. They are sometimes called psychotherapist and some of them also agree with this title, however school is not suitable for realizing psychotherapeutic attitude. The need for individual counselling or therapy is extended not only in France but all over the world, but in France a network of child guidance clinics was lacking. So we can understand their orientation toward individual problems of pupils.

3. Psychosocial direction

In the beginning this direction was relatively new, but Guillemard predicted it to spread, and he was right. In this approach attention extend from individual problems to the whole psychosocial environment. There were two main streams within this direction. The first one was mainly a sociological approach, inspired by the investigations of Bourdieu and Passeron. The main problem in the focus was failure at school. The main reason for this problem proved to be economic and social disadvantage. Representatives of this stream believe that school reform is the adequate solution to this problem.

The other stream focuses on the interaction between individuals and their environment. The starting point of this ecological conception can be traced back to Kurt Lewins' environmental concept. Analysis of micro- and macro environments of a schoolchild helps psychologists to understand his problem and find solutions. Their attention reaches the social network of a child like family members and other important persons, and the communicational network too.

In the United States Ysseldyke, Reynolds and Weinberg (1984) 4 identified 16 domains of school psychology: "classroom management, classroom organisation and social structure, interpersonal communication and consultation, basic academic skills, basic life skills, affective/social skills, parent involvement, systems development and planning, personal development, individual differences in development and learning, school-community relations, instruction, legal, ethical, and professional issues, assessment, multicultural concerns, and research and evaluation." (Saigh, Oakland 1989 p. 233.)5

The definition of school psychology is in these days is still an open question. Merrell, Ervin, and Peacock (2012)6 in their book School Psychology for the 21st Century cite two definitions.

American National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) describes school psychology focusing on the outcomes or working areas, partnership and requirements of qualification:

33Guillemard, J. C. (1982): Les psychologues á l'école. Collection Information Permanente, Press Universitaires de France, Paris.

44Ysseldyke, J. E., Reynolds, M. C, Weinberg R. A. (1984): School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice. Minneapolis: National School Psychology Inservice Training Network.55Oakland, Th. D. (1989): School Psychology in the United States of America. In: Saigh, P. A., Oakland, Th.: International Perspectives on Psychology in the Schools. LEA Hillsdale, New York 223-237. pp.66Merrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., Peacock, G. G. (2012): School Psychology for the 21st Century. Foundations and Practice. The Guilford Press New York, London


School psychology

"School psychologists help children and youth succeed academically, socially, behaviourally, and emotionally. They collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments that strengthen connection between home, school, and community for all students.

School psychologists are highly trained in both psychology and education, competing a minimum of a specialist-level degree program (at least 60 graduate semester hours that includes a year-long supervised internship. This training emphasizes preparation in mental health and educational interventions, child development, learning, behaviour, motivation, curriculum and instruction, assessment, consultation, collaboration, school law, and systems. School psychologist must be certificated and/or licenced by the state in which they work. They also may be nationally certificated by the National School Psychology Certification Board (NSCB). The National Association of School Psychologists sets ethical and training standards for practice and service delivery. (NASP, 2010d, paragraphs 1 and 2.)" (Merrell, Ervin, Peacock 2012, p. 2.)

From this definition we can assess two characteristics of the modern approach. On one hand, working areas of school psychology are wide. On the other hand, there are general standards of requirements but there are differences between the requirements among different states in the USA too. In the latest years average level of qualification has become higher, percent of school psychologists having PhD. degree extended, 75% are nondoctoral persons (www.apa.org).

To some extent different definition is given by the Division of School Psychology of American Psychological Association (APA). It focuses more on concrete tasks of school psychologists:

"School Psychology is a general practice and health service provider specialty of professional psychology that is concerned with the science and practice of psychology with children, youth, families; learners of all ages; and the schooling process. The basic education and training of school psychologists prepares them to provide a range of psychological diagnosis, assessment, intervention, prevention, health promotion, and program development and evaluation services with a special focus on the developmental processes of children and youth within the context of schools, families and other systems.

School psychologists are prepared to intervene at the individual and system level, and develop, implement, ad evaluate preventive programs. In these efforts, they conduct ecologically valid assessments and intervene to promote positive learning environments within which children and youth from diverse backgrounds to ensure that all have equal access to effective educational and psychological services that promote healthy development."

(www. apa.org /ed/graduate/specialize/school.aspx, cited by Merrell, Ervin, Peacock 2012, p. 2-3.)

In this definition we can observe the main characteristics of modern approach in school psychology. This leads us to the conceptual issues of school psychology.

4. Conceptual issues in school psychologyDirect or indirect intervention

One of the basic questions of school psychological service is the strategy of problem solving. Traditionally school psychology was defined as a direct service. School psychologists assessed pupils’ characteristics – cognitive achievement, individual traits to identify their problems and find proper methods of intervention or counselling. From different reasons this approach alone was not satisfying. Direct and indirect service delivery together foster children’s wellbeing and an effective educational environment.

Direct service

• early identification• assessment• psychoeducational program planning• intervention• follow-up

Indirect service

• prevention


School psychology

• consultation• training, education, supervision• administration• research

(Reynolds, Gutkin, Elliott, Witt 1984 after Standards for Credentialing in School Psychology)7

5. Whom school psychologists have to work with?In direct service delivery school psychologists work with schoolchildren individually, with small groups of them or with classes. In this case there are also differences in age level of pupils. In many cases school psychologists work with preschool children too, because early identification and early development of cognitive abilities, linguistic competences or a correction of behaviour problems have particular importance.

An example for this early intervention is France where 92 percent of children and almost all children at age 4 or above attend pre-elementary school (Guillemard 1989)8. Early assessment and early identification help to develop special educational programs for these children and school psychologists often contribute in this program planning.

In contrast, in the United Sates minority of school psychologists work with preschool children, only5 % in 1989 (Oakland 1989).

In many cases there is no balanced psychological service, service is not equally available for all age groups. It depends not only on the conception influencing the service delivery but also on available other specialists.

5.1. What is the division of labour among the different professions?This is much more a practical question, however, it has bearing with theoretical questions too. We can find expressive examples for the influence of the presence or shortage of related fields.

In France from the third decade of the 20th century vocation guidance service was available, and the development of this service was dynamic. There was progress in school psychology too, but there was a division of working places. School psychologists worked in kindergarten and elementary schools and vocational counsellors worked in high schools. From the formerly mentioned Langevin-Wallon plan the progress in school psychology and school psychological service became dynamic, but the division of work remained (Guillemard 1982).

Another related field is school counselling. In many country one of the main tasks of school psychologists is counselling, but in USA school psychologists and counsellors work at the same schools. Average ratio of school counsellors to students in about 1:500, and the school psychologist/student ratio about 1:1500 (Fagan, Wise 20079, Merrell, Ervin, Peacock 2012).

5.2. Level of preventionCaplan (1970)1010 designed the frequently cited model of three levels of prevention.

Primary prevention aims at all schoolchildren, school psychologists' goal is to protect help pupils' healthy and harmonic development.

Secondary prevention deals with students with problems, learning difficulties, behaviour problems etc. Early identification and developmental courses are usual methods at this level.

77Reynolds, C. R., Gutkin, T. B.; Elliott, S. N.; Witt, J. C. (1984): School Psychology: Essentials of Theory and Practice. New York, Wiley. Hilldale, New Jersey. LEA.88Guillemard, J. C. (1989) School Psychology in France. In: Saigh, P. A., Oakland, Th.: International Perspectives on Psychology in the Schools. LEA Hillsdale, New York 35-50. pp.99Fagan T. K., Wise, P. S. (2007): School psychology: Past, present and future (3rd ed.). Bethesda, MA: National Association of School Psychologists.1010Caplan, G. (1970): The Theory and practice of mental health consultation. New York: Basic Books.


School psychology

Tertiary preventions’ goal is to reduce secondary symptoms of problem children. Teachers and parents require help when problems occur. Generally there is pressure on school psychologists to deal with actual problems but primary prevention could be prospectively more effective. This model is useful in school psychology but for the use of methods of primary prevention school psychologist have to focus on supportive activity. Primary prevention deals not only with students but with school staff too.

5.3. Level of interventionTraditionally school psychologists work with individual students. The reciprocal determinism model described by Bandura (Reynolds, Gutkin, Elliott, Witt 1984) emphasizes the importance of environmental factors. According to this model it is useful to work with other significant persons as parents, teachers or friends of the client. But in some cases problem solving is effective only on system level. If we consider repeated problems, as bullying or frequent failure at school, it is necessary to make changes on the system level: group organization, teaching methods etc.

Ester Cole and Jane A. Siegel edited the book Effective Consultation in School Psychology (Cole, Siegel 2003)1111. Figure 1 is constructed based on their model for psychological service in school. They categorised the case studies presented in their volume with the help of three categories: the level of prevention, clients of the service and direct or indirect service.

Figure 1.

5.4. Is the focus of school psychology on special groups or on all school children?This question is strongly connected to the previous question, the choice between primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. In the last thirty years integration of handicapped students in schools in Western countries is a general tendency and a consciously undertaken goal of the educational systems. This is a challenge for teachers,

1111Cole, E., Siegel, J. A. (eds. 2003): Effective Consultation in School Psychology. 2. eds. Hogrefe and Huber, Göttingen


School psychology

who are in many cases little prepared for this task. For this reason school psychologists have to deal with problems of integration, but the setting of concrete tasks determine methods as consultation with teachers of handicapped children, or improving their social integration by organizing psychological activities for the whole class can be effective. In some cases direct support to the integrated pupils is also necessary, but the ratio of direct and indirect events is determinant.

Similar problem is the focus of school psychologists’ activity between below average, average and above average pupils. Gifted children get frequently less attention, however, above average abilities can be the final reason of behaviour problems, low motivation or other difficulties if teaching methods are not enough differential.

5.5. Working with individual persons or with groups?Many individual problems of schoolchildren are effectively treated by counselling. For example many students in the last school year need help in vocational choice. Students with similar problems could be helped not only individually, but vocational guidance can be realised in group too, and there are other advantages of these groups out of time saving for psychologist. Group members in similar situation can offer support to each other, and a training in group has possibilities for developing interpersonal skills too.

5.6. Organisation of services in school psychology – independent or in-school service?School psychologists work at school, however, there are two main types of organisations. In some cases school psychologists belong to the school, their principal is the school director, and in other cases school psychologists belong to an independent organisation, a child guidance clinic or an independent school psychological board.

Belonging to one school means that the school psychologist is part of the school staff. The school psychologist is easily available for teachers and pupils, and he/she is integrated in the everyday life of the school. The main difficulty of this model is isolation. Many school psychologists miss contact with other colleagues and need a supervisor.

In France school psychologists work at school, alone as psychologist but in a team called G.A.P.P. (Groupe d'Aide Pscho-Pedagogique) Psycho-pedagogic Aid Group. In these groups three experts work together, one school psychologist, one specialist of psychoeducation and one expert of psychomotor development.

In other cases school psychologists are located in service centres, like a child guidance clinic or a pedagogic board. They work regularly with the same schools, for example in the USA typically with two or three schools, but their relationship with schools is less close than in the one psychologist-one school model. Psychologists profit from this organisational model: the advantages of team work with colleagues and the professional independence. This independence is particularly important in the conflicts discussed in the next section.

Organisation of psychological services is connected to the psychologist/student ratio. In all over the world need for school psychological service is higher than the realised service. However the strategy of the establishment of the service is important. Having a shortage in school psychological service means not only that psychologists can finish fewer tasks in one school but some tasks cannot be realised at all. For example for effective consultation with teachers the trustful relationship among partners is required. If the school psychologist spends only short time pro week in a school and teachers have no chance to make acquaintance with him/her, they will rarely ask for a consultation.

On the other hand in any case (learning or behaviour problems, etc.) the first step is assessment. If there is not enough time, there could be "well-diagnosed" but unattended students, because for the next step we need time not only in the case of direct intervention but in any cases.

There is a minimum of psychologist/student rata that can work effectively, therefore if there is not enough source for a service in all schools (and this is the fact in many countries) it is more effective to establish service in the more problematic schools or problem areas (economic or ethnic problems) and establish the whole system step-by-step.

5.7. Who is the client of school psychologists?


School psychology

Our last dilemma can be discussed from two aspects (Reynolds, Gutkin, Elliott, Witt 1984). One aspect is the extent of clients. According to the conception of reciprocal determinism model or a psychoecological approach clients of school psychologists are not only students in all age groups from age 2 or 3 until the end of schooling but other persons involved in the educational system – teachers, parents, other members of the school staff. At system level school psychologists have to collaborate with agencies out of school and work with the whole school in system level too.

The proportion of the time spent for different tasks and different clients depend on different local factors too (Reynolds, Gutkin, Elliott, Witt 1984).

1. Concept of the psychologist or of the service where he/she works about school psychology2. Competences provided by the training of psychologist3. The school psychologist's idea of preventive mental health4. Legal mandates (law, licence)5. Financial questions (what are priorities in this workplace, in some cases the psychologist is financed by

tenders for special tasks)

The other aspect of this question is much more challenging. There are real dilemmas when there is conflict of interest of different clients at school. The individual child's need differentiate frequently from classmates, he/she needs special attention, extra patience from the teacher, but it requires adaptation from other classmates. In some cases the school as a whole has other interest than the individual child. Not only in the case of a problem child causing problems for the whole school, but in the case of a gifted child too. Talented children bring glory for their teachers or for the whole school, too. If the development of this student would be better in some other special school, their interests are in conflict too. School psychologists have to deal with these dilemmas, too.

6. School psychology in Hungary6.1. First steps in school psychologyAfter some sporadic use of school psychologists in the 1970s and 1980s years the first step to the establishment of school psychological service was a pilot program lad by the Educational and Social Psychological Department of Eötvös Loránd University. The main question tested in this one year program was the usefulness of different methods of school psychology in Hungarian schools. The conception built on these experiences had four characteristics (P.Balogh, Szitó 1987)1212.

It was a one school-one school psychologist model. Psychologists belonged to a certain school, directed by headmasters. Schools size was typically about 500 Student/school. School psychologists were helped from the beginning by a national organisation (Országos Iskolapszichológiai Módszertani Bázis / National Methodological Basis for School Psychology) operating at the Eötvös Loránd University, and for five years by another Basis, The Methodological Basis for School Psychology of South Lowland at the University of Szeged.

The conception for school psychology was the preference of primary prevention. For this they used early identification and educative programs for mental health (preventive program on drug and alcohol, training for the improvement of group cohesion and development of competences of communication, etc.).

Among indirect methods first of all consultation was used instead of direct counselling with pupils with learning or behaviour problems. In direct service group methods were preferred. The overall conception was effectiveness for the improvement of academic performance and mental health of as many pupils as possible.

Psychotherapy was not task of school psychologists. In Hungary a network was established where psychotherapists worked. This network has not been equally available, in big cities there are child guidance services where children with emotional or mental problems would be sent, but in smaller towns child guidance services are missing, too.

Regulation of school psychological services did not exist until 2011. There was only a declaration of the Ministry of Education in 1989 (Hunyady, Templom eds. 1989)1313 as an official document on school psychology. It described the definition of this field of psychology and the principles mentioned before.

1212P. Balogh Katalin, Szitó Imre (1987): Az iskolapszichológia néhány alapkérdése. Iskolapszichológia 1. ELTE Iskolapszichológiai Módszertani Bázis1313Hunyady György; Templom Jánosné (szerk. 1989): Pszichológus az iskolában = Iskolapszichológus. Továbbképzési füzetek 3. ELTE.


School psychology

In the last 28 years there has been a slow but significant development in this field inspired by different influential factors. First, work places have been financed by the ministry of education. There was no law describing nor regulating school psychology before, however, the National Law of Education have permitted the employment of school psychologists in schools and afterwards in child guidance services, too.

From the 90s of the last century there has been a specialization in school psychology at MA level, and nowadays the MA specialisation is on counselling and school psychology. From the beginning of the employment of school psychologists there has been a two year long post gradual course, it is required for specialists working independently in schools.

6.2. Number of school psychologistsSchool psychologists work in schools and in kindergartens too. Majority of schools have no school psychologist at all, but the profession is well known among teachers. In Figure 2 the proportion of schools having school psychological service in year 2012 is presented.

Figure 2. Schools having school psychological service in Hungary in year 2012

School psychologist work only in 20% of schools, but in many cases there is shortage in schools having part-time service, because in the last years in many schools a school psychological service has been opened but it means only a few hours per week. Psychologists work full time only in 4% of schools. We have discussed the problem of part time service earlier.

In Figure 3 we can consider the difference between different types of schools. It is natural that there are differences but the problem presented on Figure 3 is the direction of this difference. On one hand, the positive tendency is that vocational schools and vocational middle schools have more psychologists. Among gymnasiums the relatively better provided schools are the stronger ones. In Hungary school system is selective, and we can consider that in primary schools the shortage in school psychological service is higher.


School psychology

Figure 3. School psychological services in different types of school

The best provided schools are middle schools.

Among gymnasiums the types 5. to 12. and gymnasiums from 7. to 12. grades are in better situation because in these types the proportion of schools having school psychological service is higher (Figure 4)

Figure 4. School psychological services in different types of school

There are differences between the different regions of Hungary, (Figure 5).


School psychology

Figure 5. School psychological services in different regions of Hungary

The situation is better in three university centres, in Budapest, South-Transdanubium and North-Lowland, and school psychological services are missing in the regions where there is no possibility to graduate in psychology.

6.3. Concept and regulation in 2014In the last two years regulation of the school system and of the psychological and special pedagogical services has changed. Regulation has become unified. Public schools and special services belong to the same centralised organisation (Klebersberg Center) and all educational districts will have a special service.

This reform is very large and we are only at the beginning. One of the most important goals is to balance the differences among district areas of Hungary.

According to this regulation school psychologists belong to schools, but until schools will have school psychologists – schools with more than 1000 students a fulltime specialist, schools between 500-1000 pupils a half time psychologist, and smaller schools a psychologist/1000 students, same schools in the neighbourhood - psychologists working in the special services can work in schools as school psychologists.

Conception of the tasks and the working methods have not much changed, only some additional tasks have become required.

One of the most significant developments is the declaration of compulsory employment in large schools. The National Law of Education prescribe the employment of a half-time psychologist for 500 pupils. The realisation of this ratio of 1 psychologist/ 1000 pupils has for instance financial limits, employment is prescribed only in schools larger than 500 pupils, but this is certainly the first step to a country-wide network.

The tasks declared in the afore mentioned law are personality development of pupils, mental health promotion and support of educational work.

Laws referring to school psychologists are available here in original version

In details:

1. support for teachers


School psychology

2. direct service to pupils individually or in groups for integration and healthy social relationship, for successful learning at school, and reducing psychical or mental problems (for example anxiety in connection with school achievement)

3. early identification and assessment (abilities, social relations, motivation, behavioural difficulties, learning problems) – first of all in first grade, then in grades 1. 5. 9. and early identification at age 5.

4. mental hygiene and primary prevention in health promotion, mental health support, conflict management, antibullying intervention

5. counselling in crisis and delegation to psychotherapy6. taking care of gifted children7. vocational guidance8. education and spreading psychological culture

Clients of school psychologists are children alone or in group, teachers and parents.

Cooperation with other specialists and with colleagues in special services is required.

For professional support a coordinator – a team leader – works in special services, who is a professional leader of school psychologists working in their district.

It would be early to weigh the benefits or difficulties of this reform, but we hope that after twenty-eight years school psychology is getting closer to arriving one day in every school.

7. ReferencesBardon, J.I., Benett V. C. (1974): School psychology. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New JerseyCaplan, G. (1970): The Theory and practice of mental health consultation. New York: Basic Books.Cole, E., Siegel, J. A. (eds. 2003): Effective Consultation in School Psychology. 2. eds. Hogrefe and Huber, Göttingen.Fagan T. K., Wise, P. S. (2007): School psychology: Past, present and future (3rd ed.). Bethesda, MA: National Association of School Psychologists.Gutkin,T.B.; Curtis,M.J. (1982): The handbook of school psychology. New York, Wiley.Guillemard, J. C. (1982): Les psychologues á l'école. Collection Information Permanente, Press Universitaires de France, Paris.Guillemard, J. C. (1989) School Psychology in France. In: Saigh, P. A., Oakland, Th.: International Perspectives on Psychology in the Schools. LEA Hillsdale, New York 35-50. pp.Hunyady György; Templom Jánosné (szerk. 1989): Pszichológus az iskolában = Iskolapszichológus. Továbbképzési füzetek 3. ELTE.Marc, P. (1977): Les Psychologes dans l’Institution Scolaire, Coll."Paidaqides", Le Centurion, ParisMerrell, K. W., Ervin, R. A., Peacock, G. G. (2012): School Psychology for the 21st Century. Foundations and Practice. The Guilford Press New York, LondonOakland, Th. D. (1989): School Psychology in the United States of America. In: Saigh, P. A., Oakland, Th.: International Perspectives on Psychology in the Schools. LEA Hillsdale, New York 223-237. pp.P. Balogh Katalin, Szitó Imre (1987): Az iskolapszichológia néhány alapkérdése. Iskolapszichológia 1. ELTE Iskolapszichológiai Módszertani BázisReynolds, C. R., Gutkin, T. B.; Elliott, S. N.; Witt, J. C. (1984): School Psychology: Essentials of Theory and Practice. New York, Wiley. Hilldale, New Jersey. LEA.Ysseldyke, J. E., Reynolds, M. C, Weinberg R. A. (1984): School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice. Minneapolis: National School Psychology Inservice Training Network.www.ispaweb.org


Chapter 2. Results and implications of current researches in the field of social psychology at schoolDuring the development of an individual, environment and personality interact with each other, and the result of this interaction is a unique system of motives, goals, emotions, behaviours, etc. These can change with time and place, as the context changes too. The most important factors of the environment are definitely the others with whom the individual interacts directly: first the members of the family, then teachers, peers, and colleagues. In this chapter first we take a look at school as a social context in general, then we take a closer look at the classroom and the importance of belonging in that particular context, and finally we turn to the problem of bullying.

1. The role of the social context in personality developmentPeople grow up in various social settings that shape their behaviour, emotions, thinking through the ways they interpret and perceive these different contexts. By adolescence children have had many favourable and unfavourable experiences in terms of the support family members, teachers and peers have provided, influencing their emotional, social, cognitive development. Social support "summarizes information that one is cared for, esteemed and valued, and part of a network of communications and mutual obligations" (Vedder et al, 2005)1. Social support contributes to well-being, what is more, perceived availability of it is a better predictor of well-being than actual support given. In school context social support is important as well, because it leads to school adjustment, motivation, cooperation (Vedder et al, 2005).

Students differ in the social support they need. For example in a concrete learning situation, those students for whom performance is very important are more satisfied when they can show how well they have done without any help. In these learning situations help may indicate low competence (see attribution theory), that is why some students object to help while doing school tasks. Those students, who consider social support as important and perceive that support in school, will be satisfied with the school environment. However, those students, who do not feel that they are supported, although they need it, will report low well-being (Vedder et al, 2005).

Based on assessment and the management of learning, educational situations can be characterized as competitive, cooperative, and individualistic. Students evaluate themselves through their successes and failures, and also from other information that the environment can provide. In a competitive environment, where rewards are limited, social comparison is more present. The role of peers is highlighted, because the students' self esteem depends on how he or she performs relative to the others. An individualistic context forces the student to focus on him or herself, every student can be successful regardless of the others' performance. In a cooperative classroom students depend on each other in their successes, failures, development. They are forced to work together, they are forced to view each other as partners, pals. The performance of the whole group influences the individuals' self-evaluation.

If you think back on your school experience, in what kinds of context have you had the chance to study (competitive, cooperative, individualistic)? How did it/them influence your achievement, well-being, friendships?

The educational context influences what pieces of information affect the students' self-esteem. Success is evaluated relative to the social context. In a competition the same performance is valued more than in a non-competitive situation, since it is labelled as a triumph, a victory. In case of a failure the situation is similar, since devaluation is more obvious, compared with the situation where the student performs weaker than usual. In a cooperative context all students-regardless of their usual achievement-are satisfied or dissatisfied with group performance. Competition creates a context in which students differ strongly in their perception of each other, and also how they are perceived by others. For example teachers's evaluation is more extreme regarding high

11VEDDER, P., BOEKARERTS, M., SEEGERS, G. (2005). Perceived social support andwell being in school; the role of students' ethnicity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 269–278.


Results and implications of current researches in the field of

social psychology at schooland low achievers in a competitive classroom than in a cooperative classroom (Ames, 1984)2.

Empirical studies show that the changes of the educational context (from starting school at 6 or 7 until leaving the system as young adults) do not adapt to the developmental changes of students. According to Eccles and Midgley (1989)3 this lack of stage-environment fit peaks in adolescence, when students change school and they go to either middle school or junior high school. The authors highlight some elements that cause this lack of fit between personality development and social and educational context. One such factor is the above mentioned emphasis on competition and social comparison, although as student get deeper into adolescence their need to focus on the self, to understand their own personality, to investigate their identity increases. The educational context offers limited opportunities to decide and choose, although the need for autonomy increases. Also, Eccles and Midgley draw attention to social network that surrounds students: peers disappear with a school change, relationship with teachers becomes more official and less intimate than it was during the first school years.

Although Eccles and Midgley regard competition as a negative context both for the individual and the group, today competition's judgement is less one-sided. One of the most important functions of competition is motivation. Still, it is true that one of the factors that determine classroom climate is the way differences between students are handled. If competition leads to the preference of some students over the others, it can cause interpersonal conflicts beyond the personal. The norms that are connected to competition can build as well as ruin the community in the classroom. If the competition is solely about triumphing over the others, that will certainly lead to conflicts among classmates. If competition is used as a method to help each student in their development, it is more likely to preserve good relationships.

2. Social support and achievementCarol Goodenow (1993)4 studied the connection between motivation and social support in early adolescence. Exploring social support, intrinsic motivation and expectations and values concerning efficacy, she found that perceived teacher support was the strongest predictor of expectations, and expectations were the strongest predictors of intrinsic motivation. No relationship between peer support and efficacy was found. General social support was found to be better predictor of good achievement than intrinsic motivation. This latter result is especially important because the literature on motivation in education without exception agrees on the unique role of intrinsic motivation in effective learning.

Patrick et al (2007)5 studied the role of perceived peer and teacher support in mastery motivation, self-efficacy. Goodenow's results suggest that when students feel the emotional support of their teachers, they get more engaged and are willing to put more effort into learning. It is logical that teacher support increases students' motivation, but what about peers?

In what ways have your classmates, friends, peers supported your learning in school?

From the changes that take place in the development around adolescence it is important to highlight that around the age of 9-10 children rely more and more on their peers, and relationships with adults begin to be more spacing. Therefore perceived peer support can also have an effect on school performance and achievement. Patrick et al (2007) presumed that by increasing self-esteem and reducing anxiety peers help engagement in school work, and as a consequence of that, success in school. Although the authors do not mention, it is important to take norms and values into consideration. Peers can only have such an effect if in that particular context learning, effort and knowledge are positively valued. In case the norms are against learning, peer support leads to the avoidance of school work.

Kathryn Wentzel (1998)6 presumed that social support has a role in adaptation to school, because it helps

22AMES, C. (1984): Competitive, cooperative and individualistic goal structures: A cognitive-motivational analysis. In: Ames, R. E., Ames, C. (eds.): Research on Motivation in Education. Student Motivation. Vol. 1. Academic Press. 177-207.33ECCLES, J. S., MIDGLEY, C. (1989): Stage-environment fit: developmentally appropriate classrooms for young adolescents. In: Ames, C., Ames, R. (eds.): Research on Motivation in Education. Goals and Cognitions. Vol. 3. Academic Press. 139-186.44GOODENOW, C. (1993): Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: relationships to motivation and achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 1. 21-43.55PATRICK, H., ALLISON, M., KAPLAN, A. (2007): Early adolescents' perceptions of the classroom social environment, motivational beliefs, and engagement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 1, 83-98.66WENTZEL, K. R. (1998): Social relationships and motivation in middle school: the role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 2, 202-209.



social psychology at schoolstudents to overcome negative effects of stressful experiences (for example it is much less stressful to give an answer in front of the whole class in a supporting environment), so social support leads to an optimal general functioning. In her study, Wentzel found that teacher support is an independent positive predictor of interest toward school, and interest toward the subject. Peer support predicts only pro-social goal setting (this result can be very important when it comes to bullying intervention programs). Parent and peer support have indirect negative effect on interest through distress. It means that the lack of parent and peer support causes so much stress for the individual that he or she loses interest in school work, which leads to maladaptive behaviours. Still, teacher support may compensate that effect by promoting engagement for students, as Wentzel (1997) 7 found this result in an earlier research. In general, adolescents perceive parents as more important providers of social support than either teachers or peers, but in an educational situation the teachers' role is more important, both with respect to academic achievement and well-being (Vedder et al, 2005)

Lisa Legault (2006)8 and her colleagues studied the question of social support from another perspective. They asked why students are unmotivated in school. They studied the relationships among different variables: amotivation, academic performance, self-esteem, teacher-, parent-, peer support, attachment. They have found that lack of attachment to peers, teachers and especially parents is associated with amotivation due to lack of values. Amotivation is in negative relationship with all kinds of social support. Legault and her colleagues suggest that there should be a shift toward studying emotional support, because their research showed that teacher support has an effect on competency, parent and peer support unfold their effects through attachment. Vedder, Boekaerts, and Seegers (2005), on the other hand, have found that teacher emotional support was important predictor of school adjustment for both Dutch and Turkish/Moroccan students.

So far we have seen that the social context in school is important in at least two ways. On the one hand school is a place where achievement is sought, and the social context is also the context of learning. Therefore it is important to understand how the environment that is shaped both by teachers and the students themselves affects achievement, which is the most evident measure of school adaptation. Here we have seen how competitive, individualistic, and cooperative environments form performance and self-esteem. Also, we have seen how developmental changes and school changes divert, causing a problem of stage-environment fit in adolescence. On the other hand, studies showed that support from parents, teachers and peers help a more adaptive functioning in school. Without social support students do not even try to achieve, therefore their chances for success decrease greatly. In the next part of this chapter we take a closer look at peer support through a phenomenon that is unfortunately prevalent in nearly all school classrooms (Smith and Brain, 2000) 9, and that is bullying.

3. Bullying as a social phenomenon: the role of peer supportSchool is not only a place of the kind of peer support where students help each other in their studies and support each other when somebody is in trouble, but also a place of the kind of peer support where students assist each other in harming others. Often students laugh together at (and not with) one or more classmates, often they exclude one or more classmates from the community, often they participate actively or passively in causing physical or psychological harm to someone. Literature considers peer aggression bullying when three characteristics can be associated with the act: intentionality, harm, unequal power relations. It means that an aggressive action against another student is only considered bullying, when the aggressor intends to harm the other, who is weaker in one way or another (physically weaker, lonely, etc.).

See video: Defeat the Label Anti-Bullying

Researchers tend to approach the phenomenon of bullying from the perspective of the personality and from the perspective of group mechanisms. Before we turn to our main topic and explore the social aspect of bullying, let us consider some aspects of personality. Students often become victims of bullying because they have some external traits that make them different from the others: too fat, too slim, wears glasses, has red hair, etc. The problem with these external characteristics is that they cannot be generalized, because the most important traits that may make a student a victim are internal traits. Victims are socially isolated, have low self-esteem, are more

77WENTZEL, K. R. (1997): Student motivation in middle school: the role of perceived pedagogical caring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 411-419.88LEGAULT, L., GREEN-DEMERS, I., PELLETIER, L. (2006): Why do high school students lack motivation in the classroom? Toward an understanding of academic amotivation and the role of social support. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 3, 567-582.99SMITH, P. K., and BRAIN, P. F. (2000). Bullying in schools: Lessons from two decades of research. Aggressive Behavior, 26(1), 1–9.



social psychology at schoolanxious, cautious, sensitive, and have difficulties with communication. They long to be accepted and be loved.

Bullies have a high need for dominance, low empathy, are impulsive and have low self-control. Social power is very important for bullies they feel satisfaction when they see the victim suffer (Olweus, 1993) 1010. Bystanders belong to different types, basically they have three different attitudes to bullying: some of them support-actively or passively-the aggressor, some support the victim, and some do not care about it. The characteristics of the bully-supporter bystanders are similar to the bullies, they also have high need for social power. The characteristics of the victim-supporter bystanders are high empathy and secure attachment with mothers (Nickerson, Mele and Princciotta, 2008)1111.

Characteristics of personality are only pieces of information with respect to understanding the phenomenon of bullying. According to Salmivalli, Lappalainen and Lagerspetz (1998)1212 a preadolescent's behaviour in a bullying situation is more like his or her peers than his or her previous behaviour in similar context. Several empirical studies confirmed peer role in bullying (see Gini, 2006)1313, and at least six different roles can be taken up by those participating in it: victim, bully, bully reinforce, bully assistant, defender of the victim, outsider.

Salmivalli, Huttunen, and Lagerspetz (1997) have found that group behaviour has a strong influence on an individual1s behaviour in a bullying situation. Research on attitude towards bullying has revealed that generally students disapprove of bullies and sympathize with victims. However, unfortunately as children grow older and reach adolescence, their attitude changes in a more pro-bullying direction (Gini, 2006). Fortunately, in the last decade hundreds of campaigns address the problem of bullying, with the direct and articulated aim of drawing attention to and highlighting the issue.

See video: Cyberbullying PSA

Another social aspect of bullying is intergroup conflict. In order to understand this aspect of bullying, we need to turn back to Tajfel's social identity theory, which proposes that individuals' behaviours, attitudes towards, and perceptions of in-group and out-group members derive from their desire to belong to a superior group in order to enhance their self-esteem. Obviously this leads to a preference of the in-group and the members of the out-group are seen as different, and may be discriminated against. Group members are likely to develop discriminating attitudes, when their identification with the in-group is strong, when the in-group has norms encouraging out-group bullying, when they think their status is increased by out-group derogation, and when they believe that they are threatened by the out-group (Gini, 2006).

1010OLWEUS, D. (1993): Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Blackwell, Cambridge, MA.

1111NICKERSON, A. B., MELE, D., PRINCIOTTA, D. (2008). Attachment and empathy as predictors of roles as defenders or outsiders in bullying interactions. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 687-703.1212SALMIVALLI, C., LAPPALAINEN, M., and LAGERSPETZ, K. (1998). Stability and change of behavior in connection with bullying in schools: A two-year follow-up. Aggressive Behavior, 24(3), 205-218.1313GINI, G. (2006) Bullying as a social process: The role of group membership in students' perception of inter-group aggression at school. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 51-65.



social psychology at schoolGini (2006) explored in a qualitative study perceptions of a physical bullying episode involving their own class against another. Students (average age: 12) consistently preferred the in-group against the out-group, attributed more blame and punishment to the out-group, regardless of the teacher's presence. The author concluded that preadolescents are more affected by inter-group dynamics than contextual factors when they are participants in a conflict which involves bullying.

4. Bystanders' role in the act of bullyingThrough socialization, children learn different patterns of behaviour. They learn how to express feelings, how to react to others' behaviour, how to get into contact with others, and so on. One important mechanism to learn is imitation: they observe the social environment and then imitate what they see. In this process the social environment plays very important role: parents, sisters, brothers, neighbours, friends, teachers, peers, and all the important persons are models who influence attitudes, behaviours, feelings. Besides socially favourable behaviours, aggressive and antisocial behaviours are also subject to social influence, among others, peer influence. Literature on peer selection suggests that aggressive children and adolescence not only influence, therefore encourage each other, but also choose each other as friends (Salmivalli, Voeten, and Poskiparta, 2011)1414. Thomas and Bierman (2006)1515 have found that long lasting exposure to high levels of classroom aggression predicts future aggressive behaviour.

At this point the question may arise: what about those children who do not show aggressive behaviour but are part of the peer group, that is, they are also members of the class. How do they influence aggression within the group? This is a question that literature on bullying started focusing on in the last decade. Bullying "involves incidents that are witnessed by large audiences of normative peers" (p. 669, Salmivalli, Voeten, and Poskiparta, 2011), who do not participate in the act, but indirectly must influence it one way or another. Bystanders may support the bully, agree with the aggressive behaviour, they may object or reprove of it, or they may be totally indifferent about it. The important task is to explore how these attitudes influence bullies and victims. As Salmivalli, Voeten, and Poskiparta (2011) argue, unfortunately not many empirical researches have been done to explore how witnesses or bystanders actually affect bullying, although models of bullying intervention address the idea that it is important to change bystanders' behaviour. Especially classroom-level intervention programs focus on bystanders.

Salmivalli and colleagues (1996)1616 identified different participant roles besides bullies and victims in the bullying process. Assistants of bullies are those students who actually join the ringleaders, take an active role. Reinforcers support the bullies, provide positive feedback, like cheering, laughing, clapping. Outsiders withdraw from the situation, they seem to be indifferent about it. Defenders take sides with the victims, show empathy or make steps to protect or support the victims.

De Rosier and colleagues (1994)1717 observing 7 and 9-year-old boy groups have found that when members of the group sided with the victim, the level of teasing, verbal disagreements increased. Pepler and colleagues (Craig and Pepler, 1997)1818 have done observational studies and found that from the instances when victims were provided support 57% were effective at putting an end to bullying within 10 seconds.

The bystanders' behaviour can function as social rewards or punishments for the bullies. What is more, often bullies select the right place for the attacks, because they want to increase the chance of demonstrating their power, and also show and ensure their prestige within the group. Bandura's social cognitive learning theory (1973) explains this phenomenon by stating that bullies learn to anticipate such rewarding consequences of their behaviour, which leads to the repetition of it more and more often. In contrast, if the bullies are challenged again and again by facing bystanders supporting and protecting victims in the bullying, that will lead to the end of bullying, because bullies experience that this is not the right way to reach social power, status and prestige. The issue of bystander effect is important, because of several potential reasons. On the one hand, their behaviour is

1414SALMIVALLI, C., Voeten, M., Poskiparta, E. (2011). Bystanders matter: associations between reinforcing, defending, and the frequency of bullying behaviour in classrooms. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 668-676.1515THOMAS, D., and BIERMAN, K. (2006). The impact of classroom aggression on the development of aggressive behavior problems in children. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 471–487.1616SALMIVALLI, C., LAGERSPETZ, K. M. J., BJORQVIST, K., OSTERMAN, K. ÉS KAUKIAINEN, A. (1996): Bullying as a groupprocess: Participant roles and their relations to social status within group. Aggressive Behavior, 22. 1–15.1717DEROSIER, M. E., CILLESEN, A. H. N., COIE, J. D., DODGE, K. A. (1994). Group social context and children's aggressive behaviour. Child Development, 65, 1068-79.1818CRAIG, W., PEPELER, D. (1997). Observations of bullying and victimization in the schoolyard. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 13, 41-59.



social psychology at schoolprobably easier to change than that of the bullies. On the other hand, if bystanders are encouraged to support the victim, the social rewards associated with bullying would consequently decrease, or diminish. Yet, it is not clear how these group and interpersonal dynamics work (Salmivalli, Voeten, and Poskiparta, 2011).

One of the first, if not the first, studies to explore the association between reinforcing and bullying was done by Salmivalli, Voeten, and Poskiparta in 2007. Eventually they have collected data from 77 schools, 388 classrooms, 7257 students (grades 3-5, ages 9-11) in Finland. Students filled out Internet-based questionnaires measuring self-reported bullying, bystanders' behaviours, antibullying attitudes and empathy toward victims. They have found that the frequency of bullying in a classroom was negatively associated with defending and positively associated with reinforcing. There was a difference in the magnitude of the effects of bystander behaviour. The study revealed that bullies are more sensitive to the positive feedback provided by their supporters than to the negative feedback provided by the supporters of the victims. However, the authors indicate that this difference may be due to the ways of supporting victims, since there were items in the questionnaire that referred to such defending behaviours as comforting the victim. Some protecting behaviours are not salient and bullies may not be aware of them. Another reason for the difference may be that the reinforcers are not merely peers but also friends, and feedback from them is even more significant. Also, the authors emphasize that defenders, even if their influence is less effective on bullies, have a very important role in indicating that the victim is not alone, which is more favourable than experiencing rejection from the whole class (Salmivalli, Voeten, and Poskiparta, 2011).

The most important implication of the above presented study is that intervention programs should just as well focus on whole groups, especially classes, as individual bullies and victims. Supporter bystanders should be encouraged to use salient forms of protection to make bullies aware of the fact that victims are not alone. Based on the results, reducing reinforcement is most likely to lead to a decrease in bullying in the classrooms. There already is evidence that intervention programs aiming at reducing reinforcing behaviour, enhancing empathy and self-efficacy to defend are successful when whole classes are involved (Frey et al., 2009)1919.

Much has been told about why children become bullies, why they become victims, but less research has been done on why bystanders decide to defend the victim (Thornberg et al., 2012) 2020. From the perspective of social psychology and group dynamics it is much easier to explain why bystanders reinforce the bullies. If the bullies have social power within the group or class-and usually they have that even if they are not the most popular students in the class-they are in the situation to dictate norm and form the structure of the group by selecting the members of the centre and exclude others. Students further from the centre are likely to be afraid of shifting to the periphery, which can lead them to being victims as well. In order to avoid this situation, they are more willing to indicate bullies that they are with them and not against them. The need to belong and the fear to be another victim are strong motives to reinforce bullying in the class.

How do you think reinforcer bystanders can be made to stop reinforcing bullies?

Nickerson, Mele and Princhiotta (2008) have found that students with high empathy are more likely to take the defender role. On the other hand, some socio-cognitive processes, like moral justification of aggression, diffusion of responsibility, blaming the victim, dehumanization have been negatively associated with supporting the victim (see Thornberg et al., 2012). Therefore a student may be emphatic in general, but if he or she feels that the victim deserves the bullying, and because of the context (there are many other students witnessing the act of bullying in the classroom) there is a diffusion of responsibility, he or she will not choose the defending behaviour. Bandura's socio-cognitive theory argues that self-efficacy (belief in the capacity to act successfully) is related to motivation and actual behaviour. Among others Gini et al (2008) 2121 have found that bystanders beliefs in their social self-efficacy (belief that they can influence the act of bullying by defending the victim and stopping peer aggression) were positively associated with protective and negatively with passive behaviour. Not surprisingly, friendship matters as well. If the victim is a friend, bystanders are more likely to take action and defend their fellow student.

Thornberg and colleagues (2012) have decided to gather qualitative data to broaden the current knowledge on bystander behaviour. They aimed at investigating the motives for helping or not helping the victim, and also

1919FREY, K. S., HIRSCHSTEIN, M. K., EDSTRÖM, L. V, SNELL, J. L. (2009). Observed reductions in school bullying, nonbullying aggression, and destructive bystander behavior: A longitudinal evaluation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 466–481.2020THORNBERG, R., TENENBAUM, L., VARJAS, K., MEYERS, J., JUNGERT, T., and VANEGAS, G. (2012). Bystander motivation in bullying incidents: to intervene or not to intervene? Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 13 (3), 247-252.2121GINI, G., ALBIERO, P., BENELLI, B. (2008). Determinants of adolescents' active defending and passive bystanding in bullying. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 93-105.



social psychology at schoolintended to generate a model of bystander motivation in bullying situations. The research method was to use open-ended, semi-structured interviews, the participants were 30 students (aged 9-15) from two schools in a south-eastern urban school district in the United States. As a result they have generated a conceptual framework of bystander motivation to intervene in bullying situations, according to which bystander behaviour towards the victim depends on how he or she evaluates the situation, the social context, and his or her own agency. Figure 2 summarizes the key elements of the framework. Let us see the domains that may influence students' choice to intervene or not to intervene.

Figure 2. Conceptual framework of bystander motivation to intervene in bullying situations (Source: Thornberg, R., Tenenbaum, L., Varjas, K., Meyers, J., Jungert, T., and Vanegas, G. (2012). Bystander Motivation in

Bullying Incidents: To Intervene or Not to Intervene? Western Journal of Emergency Medicine, 13 (3), 247-252.)

5. Interpretation of harm in the bullying situationAggression toward another can be expressed in several ways, from physical insult to gossiping. There are direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal ways of assault. Hiding somebody's book (direct, non-verbal) may not seem harmful, but it is just another means of aggression, if that book is important for its owner. Also spreading a nasty gossip (indirect, verbal) may not even be considered as an aggressive act by students. Thornberg and colleagues (2012) have found that students consider intervention only if the situation seems dangerous. And hiding a book or gossiping are quite hard to see as dangerous, if one does not think about the consequences. Otherwise they



social psychology at schoolare more likely to neglect it. This result implies that intervention programs on the first place should address the meaning of aggression and harm. The authors draw attention to a phenomenon thy call habituation to bullying. It happens when bullying takes place too often and bystanders start viewing it as a routine. Often the victim him- or herself can get used to being bullied, which may lead to the lack of expressing adequate emotions (see next domain), like fear or rage, only indifference. The habituation to bullying phenomenon requires another task for practice: not a single situation of bullying can be left without negative, reprimanding feedback, otherwise the likelihood of intervention on behalf of bystanders gets weaker and weaker. Since the emergence of online social networks like Facebook, it is important to draw attention to cyberbullying as well, in case of which it is even more complicated to judge the harmfulness of a post, a video or a picture. Also, in the case of cyberbullying, when the number of bystanders can actually be uncountable, the diffusion of responsibility is even more obvious obstacle to intervention, not to mention the actual distance between victim and potential supporter, regardless of the virtual distance.

6. Emotional reactionsThe interviews with the students revealed that the act of bullying can evoke different emotions from those participating in it. The most frequently mentioned emotions were empathy, fear, and excitement. High level of empathy has already been mentioned as a key factor in making intervention more probable. Although the authors do not mention, besides considering emotional reactions, it is necessary to consider expressions of emotions on behalf of the victim. Because of the above mentioned habituation to bullying, the victim may not express feelings of pain or exasperation, therefore the bystanders may have the feeling that he or she does not really mind the bullying. Consequently, intervention programs besides focusing on empathy training, have to focus on the emotions of the victim of the bullying: what are those, how and why they change during recurring aggression.

Fear of being victimized has also been mentioned in the literature, and this feeling can be interpreted both on an interpersonal, both on a group level. If we accept that one key motivating factor of bullying on part of the bully is to gain social power, then it is likely that it is not the victim him- or herself who is important for the bully, but having anyone over whom he or she can express power. Therefore bystanders' fear of being victimized is justifiable. Intervention programs should address the issue of gaining social power, especially with the aim of showing bullies ways of getting it by other than harassing others.

Audience excitement when watching the act of bullying refers to the joy that is aroused, but as the authors highlight, it is an issue to be studied more deeply in the future. The examples for this emotional reaction referred to incidents when students were fighting with each other. The question may arise: what kind of harassment triggers excitement? People watch martial arts for fun, and audience excitement belongs to the experience. Also, millions of people like watching action movies and get excited while doing it. However, when it comes to bullying, what the bystanders are not aware of is that the victims have less power than the bullies, so the fight is unjust. This knowledge has of course nothing to do with the level of arousal that has been enhanced, but has to do with the choice to intervene and help the weaker.

7. Social evaluatingSocial evaluating refers to considering relationships and positions when witnessing bullying. On the one hand, friendships were mentioned by the interviewees, indicating that if the student was a friend of the victim, he or she was likely to intervene. However, if the student did not like the victim, or was a friend of the bullies, either supported the latter, or chose not to intervene. This result has already been mentioned in the literature, and can be a very sensitive issue of intervention programs. On the one hand, it is morally justifiable to stand by a friend, on the other hand, it is a moral and social obligation to help the weaker. For a child it must be a hard decision to choose between the two, especially if the other factor of this dimension, social rank, is considered.

It has been mentioned several times in this chapter that helping or not the victim is influenced by the bully's position in the social hierarchy. Students are well aware of the bullies, the victims and their own position in the hierarchy and explicitly state that it affects their decisions of intervention. The lower the bully on the hierarchy is, the more likely the bystander will intervene. Concerning gender difference the results are far from representative, but further questions should be addressed in researches. For example, has the result that girls stand up for other girls to do with the socialization, which in general encourages girls to express feelings, show empathy and compassion, or has it to do with the perception of the act of boy bullying girl, in which case the imbalance of power is more explicit.



social psychology at school

8. Moral evaluatingThe interviews have revealed that students evaluate the bullying act morally as well. One factor in this domain is the belief that bullying is wrong. This domain is very important because it contains "the adult factor", that is a direct instruction or order from a teacher to help the victim.

Evoke experiences from your school years which now you can identify as bullying situations. What roles adults (teachers, parents) played in these incidents? How did they behave?

Often when cases of bullying are discussed, the role of adults is neglected. Unfortunately this is because they actually do not play any roles, they are not even aware of the happenings. The findings of Thornberg and colleagues (2012) draw attention to the important role adults could play in motivating bystanders to intervene and protect the victim. Therefore, when planning a prevention and intervention program, not only students but teachers and parents must be addressed as well. If the teacher is someone the students respect and accept they are likely to listen to him or her. The teacher is therefore a moral reference, and can make a change in students' interpretation and behaviour concerning bullying, especially with respect to intervening.

Another moral aspect of bullying whether bystanders believe they are responsible or not responsible for what is happening. The bystander irresponsibility is supported by the blaming of the victim and the belief in the bully. It means that the students can give a reason for not doing anything. Drawing attention to moral issues like who is to blame, or the justifiability of the harm can be a significant part of getting bystanders stand up for the victim.

9. Intervention Self-EfficacyEven if there is a will on the part of the bystander to take action and support the victim, often he or she does not feel self-efficient enough to actually behave as he or she intends to. The limitations are sometimes physical (the child is not strong enough to stop others bullying), but more often the bystanders lack the power to intervene. Most often students mentioned teachers or other adults who have the potential to be successful in a bullying situation.

As it has been mentioned earlier, taking action is often prevented by the fear of becoming a victim as well. Therefore, once again, the importance of social support has to be highlighted: bystanders just as well as victims need support. This support should come from adults on the one hand, and from peers on the other. An intervention and prevention program has to work on social support, without which students will not feel secure and efficient enough to help each other. Addressing the problem of bullying cannot go without addressing the problem of social support.

10. SummaryBased on Thornberg and colleagues' model (2012), here are the most important cues to enhance motivation to intervene in bullying situations:

1. Define aggression and clarify its various forms2. Always give negative feedback to one student hurting another3. Make students understand the different feelings victims experience (from fear to resignation)4. Help students make friendships5. Emphasize and model the importance of giving help and supporting the weak6. Express with words and behaviour that bullying is morally wrong7. Make it clear that you expect students to help the victim and to condemn the bully8. Draw attention to the reasons of bullying: highlight that blaming the victim is a misinterpretation of the

situation9. Strengthen students' will to help each other10. Show students ways to help each other11. Be available for students


Chapter 3. Current issues and problem areas of educational psychology1. IntroductionThis chapter deals with theories and researches of motivation in education. Although one of the most frequent questions that parents and teachers ask from the scientific community is how to motivate children, providing answers is not easy. Why is it so? Why is it so complicated to tell how to motivate children? One reason for that is the place of motivational research within the huge and broad field of psychological research: from the 50s until the 70s motivation was a dominant field of study, but now it is no longer so. It does not mean that the study of motivation is completely missing from scientific interest only that from a dominant field it has become a peripheral theme (Weiner, 1990)1.

Within the broad field of motivation, motivational research related to education began to flourish in the 70s and 80s. Several theories have addressed the questions of motivation ever since, and in this chapter two of them that survived and rule ever since are presented. Before taking an insight into these theories, let ourselves answer questions related to motivation. Paul Pintrich (2003)2 suggested 7 questions as important directions for motivational research.

1. What do students want?2. What motivates students in the classroom?3. How do student get what they want?4. Do students know what they want or what motivates them?5. How does motivation lead to cognition and cognition to motivation?6. How does motivation change and develop?7. What is the role of context and culture?

The theories under discussion in this chapter have clearly addressed some of these questions.

2. Theories of achievement motivation that dominate current researches in the field of educational psychology2.1. Self-Determination TheoryHow should we deal with the problem of students' declining motivation in school? Or, if we put it in a different way: how should we motivate students to achieve, and to maintain a certain level of achievement? In the dichotomous world of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, the extrinsic side of the world presumed that children have little natural motivation to learn therefore they need extrinsic incentives (eg. rewards, grades) to learn. The intrinsic side of the world presumed that humans are born with the motif to learn, and that motif has to be kept alive. This dichotomous conceptualization of motivation also meant that a student is either intrinsic motivated or extrinsic motivated, not both at one time. Also studies on motivation in school have come to the conclusion that students become less and less intrinsically motivated and more and more extrinsically motivated as the years pass by in school (see Otis et al, 2005)3. Therefore, declining motivation refers only to intrinsic motivation, and the problem is with that innate motif to learn, which means that the dichotomous world of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation clearly prefers the maintenance of the former, and the reduction or termination of the latter.

11WEINER, B. (1990): History of Motivational Research in Education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 4. 616-622.

22PINTRICH, P. R. (2003): A Motivational Science Perspective on the Role of Student Motivation in Learning and Teaching Contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 4. 667-686.33OTIS, N., GROUZET, F. M. E., PELLETIER, L. G. (2005): Latent Motivational Change in an Academic Setting: A 3-Year Longitudinal Study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 2. 170-183.


Current issues and problem areas of educational psychology

However, a multidimensional perspective of motivation emerged with the Self-Determination Theory (SDT, Deci and Ryan, 1985)4. This theory proposes a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is when a student engages in an activity because it is pleasurable, so the incentive to do the task is located in the activity. Extrinsic motivation is when a student engages in an activity for instrumental reasons. What is really original in SDT is that it does not dichotomize motivation, but postulates that different forms of motivation exist, and these represent different levels of self-determination. Therefore extrinsic and intrinsic motivations are just two forms of motivations, beside these two, other forms exist as well. The following figure illustrates the: continuum of self determination.

SDT presumes that through the process of internalization, organisms are able to modify external regulation into internal regulation. According to the theory, individuals have a "natural tendency to internalize and integrate the regulation of behaviours that are socially valued and initially depend on extrinsic incentives" (Otis et al, 2005, p. 171). Also, the theory postulates that self-determination is only associated with regulation through identification, integrated regulation, and intrinsic motivation. There is no self-determination when behaviours are regulated by introjections, externally, or in case of amotivation.

At this point it is needed to clear up how the experience of self-determination has been conceptualized. The concept of intention has been a central construct of cognitive theories of motivation as early as the 1960s (eg. Heider, 1960, Atkinson, 1964, see Otis et al, 2005). Empirical studies on intrinsic motivation has shown that intentional behaviours can be of two types: some of them are regulated autonomously (Deci called these behaviours self-determined), some of them are initiated by coercive external forces (eg. reward determined, guilt determined). The concept of self-determination means more than just doing something for feeling like doing it, it integrates constructs of prior researches on motivation: locus of causality, psychological freedom, perceived choice.

Locus of causality (deCharms, 1968, see Otis et al, 2005) refers to the idea that behaviours can arise from personal or internal causation or from environmental or external causation. Psychological freedom (Rogers, 1969) is the subjective experience of behaving fully autonomously. Perceived choice (Deci, 1975, see Otis et al, 2005) is really the condition to experience internal locus of control instead of external locus of control, and feeling free to do an activity instead of feeling forced to do an activity. The concept of autonomy unites these three experiences, and self-determination is basically the synonym of autonomy.

Let us turn from theory to practice. From the questions cited in the introduction, SDT addresses at least two: What motivates students in the classroom? How does motivation change and develop? In a longitudinal study, Nancy Otis and her colleagues (2005) revealed that through 8th, 9th, and 10th grades all forms of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation decreased. If you look at the diagram, not only the decline in motivation is obvious, but also that identified and external regulations are the most strongly correlating forms of motivation, and also that they were both associated with educational adjustment. One interesting result of the research was that identified regulation was more strongly associated with educational adjustment than intrinsic motivation,

44DECI, E. L., RYAN, R. M. (1985): Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum.



although Self-Determination Theory presumes that intrinsic motivation with the highest level of autonomy should lead to the highest level of school adjustment. If we think about school work, it is not 100% pleasure and fun. Students have to engage in activities, do tasks that are not very interesting for everybody but are necessary to make progress.

If you think back on your school experience, what were the tasks and activities that you enjoyed, and what were those that made you feel bored?

Therefore success in school means accepting that some tasks are important and useful without giving enjoyment. Let us not forget that identified regulation, just as well as intrinsic motivation are self-determined motivations. Therefore we can conclude that self-determined forms of motivation ensure better school adjustment, for example more positive emotions and more interest toward school (Vallerand et al, 1989, see Otis et al, 2005). From a practical perspective, the question for a teacher and a school psychologist is how to increase autonomy in the classroom.

According to Self-Determination Theory teachers' motivating styles can be conceptualized along a continuum that ranges from a highly controlling style through somewhat controlling or somewhat autonomy-supportive style to a highly autonomy-supportive style" (Reeve, J., Jang, H., 2006) 5. However, teachers are not able to give students a sense of autonomy. What they can do is to create a context, classroom opportunities to develop a sense of congruence between their school activities and their inner motivational resources. Empirical research has revealed that students with autonomy-supportive teachers show better functioning in terms of academic achievement, persistence, creativity, classroom engagement, emotionality, psychological well-being, intrinsic motivation. Reeve and Jang (2006) identified several instructional behaviours that either support or obstruct students' perceived autonomy. Let us see first those instructional behaviours that predict positively students' perceived autonomy (the behaviours highlighted contributed unique variance in explaining students' autonomy):

• Time listening (paying attention to what students say)• Asking what students want ("Which task do you want to start with?")• Time allowing student to work in own way• Time student talking• Seating arrangements (letting students sit closer to teaching material)• Providing rationale• Praise as informational feedback (Communicating positive feedback about student's improvement or mastery)• Offering encouragement• Offering hints (frequency of suggestions about how to make progress when the student seemed to be stuck)• Being responsive to student-generated questions• Communicating perspective taking statements (frequency of emphatic statements to acknowledge the

student's perspective or experience)

Now let us see those instructional behaviours that predict negatively students' perceived autonomy (the behaviours in red contributed unique variance in explaining students' lack of perceived autonomy):

• Time holding/monopolizing teaching material• Exhibiting solutions/answers (before students had the opportunity to discover the solution on their own)• Uttering solutions/answers• Uttering directives/commands• Making should/ought to statements• Asking controlling questions (Frequency of directives posed as a question)

These methods are concrete behaviours that a teacher can do to create an educational context in which students have either more or less opportunities to exercise their own sense of autonomy.

Can you think of ways and methods that teachers can apply in the classroom to increase students experience of self-determination?

According to Self-Determination Theory, intrinsic motivation is the highest level of motivation, where the motivation is fully internally generated, and the activity is done for its own, for the sake of enjoyment, without rewards, without control or force. The person does not need a rational to do it, as it may be important in case of identified regulation.

55REEVE, J., JANG, H. (2006): What Teachers Say and Do to Support Students' Autonomy During a Learining Activity? Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 1. 209-218.



What can be the sources of intrinsic motivation in the classroom?

Melone and Lepper (1987, see Lepper and Hodell, 1989)6 collected the four fundamental sources of intrinsic motivation. The first one is challenge. For a task to be intrinsically motivating, it has to be neither too easy nor too hard for the student. The second factor is curiosity. In this case curiosity refers to the information that the task can offer. The authors presume that an intrinsically motivating task offers information that is valuable for the student, and it is not incomprehensible relative to her or his present knowledge. The third factor is control. This factor can easily be associated with self-determination and autonomy. If the student feels that he or she has the opportunity to chose the task or from different tasks, and also feels competent to do it, then it is more likely to be intrinsically motivating. The forth factor in this model is fantasy. Tasks and activities that offer the students an opportunity to play, to use their imagination, to get engaged in a world far from their reality, are more likely to be intrinsically motivating.

2.2. Achievement Goal TheoryIn the last two decades the most frequently explored field of motivational research is the connection between motivation and goals. Today researchers are interested in the goals students set themselves in school. Information about goals helps finding the means to reach these goals, which in the school means choosing the adequate methods and tools. In this part the formation and research questions of Achievement Goal Theory is presented, with a strong emphasis on practice.

If you think back on your school experience from the beginning until now, what goals can you identify that you have been trying to reach?

Three general paradigms of goals can be identified. The most concrete level of researching goals is the task-specific level, where goal setting is explored in connection with a certain activity or task.

When you are writing an essay, what are your goals with it?

General goals can be associated with the traditional research of motivation, in case of which the main question is what motivates behaviour in general. For example the motif to belong can be interpreted on this level. Every person has a basic need to belong to somebody (see McClelland, need for affiliation), which realizes itself in making friends in school. The level of achievement goals is the combination of the former two levels in the sense that achievement goal researches explore both in a general and a specific level, what it is that motivates students (Linnenbrink és Pintrich, 2000)7. For example, most students are motivated by getting good grades, but they are different in their behaviour to reach this goal: for example some just study the day before an exam, others start preparing weeks ahead.

Goals became a field of interest for motivational research as early as the 1980s, and slowly became a ruling paradigm of achievement motivation research on a narrower and school motivation research on a broader level. If we look at the leading scientific literature on achievement motivation, it is hard to find an article or paper that does not build on this paradigm. In order to understand the presently prevailing Achievement Goal Theory (Elliot, A. J., Church, M. A., 1997)8 we need to look back on the 80s, when the first theory of achievement goals was introduced. Dweck and Leggett (1988)9 as a starting point of the social-cognitive model of achievement motivation identified two key patterns of student behavior, critical in terms of achievement. These two patterns theorize the experience that two students with similar abilities show different performance in challenging situations. Challenge is defined by the authors as a situation where the student has to perform after failure. Helpless students react to these situations with anxiety, low performance, lack of motivation. On the other hand, mastery oriented students react to these situations with intrinsic motivation and high performance. The authors asked why students with similar abilities perform in different ways when the outcome is uncertain. The key to the answer to their question was the notion of goals that give a frame to interpret situations and reactions to

66LEPPER, M. R., HODELL, M. (1989): Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom. In: Ames, C., Ames, R. (eds.): Research on Motivation in Education. Goals and Cognitions. Vol. 3. Academic Press. 73-105.77LINNENBRINK, E. A., PINTRICH, P. R. (2000): Multiple pathways to learning and achievement: the role of goal orientation in fostering adaptive motivation, affect and cognition. In: Sansone, C., Harackiewicz, J. M. (Eds.): Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Academic Press. 195-227.88ELLIOT, A. J., CHURCH, M. A. (1997): A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1, 218-232.99DWECK, C S., LEGGETT, E. L. (1988): A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 2, 256-273.



them. Two types of goals were identified in achievement situations in schools. One is the performance goal, in case of which the goal is to get a positive judgment of one's performance. The other is the mastery/learning goal, in case of which the goal is to improve one's abilities.

The next step in building up the theory was to answer, why people set different goals in the same situation. Dweck and Leggett (1988) found the key to the answer to this question in the different implicit theories of ability. According to the entity theory of ability, ability is stable, unchangeable, according to the incremental theory, it is alterable, improvable. The authors presume that in achievement situations helpless students set goals to prove their abilities, because they think abilities cannot be improved. In contrast, mastery oriented students set learning goals to improve their abilities, because they think abilities are improvable. What happens in achievement situations? In the case of performance goals the underlying question is this: "do I have the ability to be successful?" In case of success there is no problem, the student considers him- or herself successful. In case of failure, the diagnosis is low ability. In the case of mastery goals the underlying questions are these: "how can I most effectively solve the problem? How can I improve my abilities?" The explanation of a failure is not enough or not proper effort, strategy. Dweck and Leggett presume that different theories of ability and goal settings lead to different outcomes in achievement situations. Entity theory and performance goals were presumed to be related to maladaptive outcomes, for example lack of persistence, low performance, low level of intrinsic motivation, especially after failure. Incremental theory and mastery goals were presumed to be related to adaptive outcomes, such as high persistence, high performance, intrinsic motivation even in situations of failure.

Studies concerning achievement goals lead to controversial results, since performance goals had not clearly predicted maladaptive, and mastery goals adaptive outcomes (see Elliot, E. S, Dweck, C. S., 1988 1010, Stipek, D. , Gralinski, J. H., 19961111). The biggest controversy concerned performance goals, results indicated a need to modify the social-cognitive model. The theory could not explain the positive effects of performance goals, explored by many studies, especially the correlation between academic performance and performance goals (Cury et al, 2006)1212. Therefore, in 1997 Elliot and Church introduced the hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation.

Experts on Achievement Goal Theory, both theoretical and empirical, considered both performance and mastery goals as appetitive forms of motivation. Elliot and Church (1997) pointed out that this is in contrast with classic theories of achievement motivation (eg. Atkinson, McClelland, Murray), which emphasize that performance in an achievement situation can be aimed to approach success and to avoid failure as well. According to Atkinson's theory of achievement motivation (1993), motives can be classified in two groups: One group of motives are aimed at maximizing certain contentment, they can be characterized by a tendency of approach. The other group of motives is aimed at minimizing pain, avoiding the negative consequences. In terms of achievement the motif to reach success is called achievement motivation, the other is the motif to avoid failure. Elliot and Church, combining the classic theories of achievement motivation with the social-cognitive model, introduced and distinguished the notions of performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals. The new model is based on the idea that goals are manifestations of the more abstract motives, since the authors consider achievement goals cognitive-dynamic manifestations of two competence-related motives (motives of achievement and of failure avoidance). According to the new model achievement motives do not directly influence outcomes, but indirectly, through achievement goals.

Elaborating on the hierarchical model, Elliot and Church (1997) developed the revised paradigm of achievement goals, the 2x2 Achievement Goal Theory. Based on the revised model (Elliot and Murayama, 20081313, Cury et al, 2006) with two dimensions four achievement goals can be identified. The performance-mastery dimension, that is the definition dimension, represents how one defines competence. In case of performance goals, competence is evaluated relative to a normative standard, that is, how one performs compared to others. In case of mastery goals, competence is evaluated relative to an intrapersonal standard, so the person focuses on learning, and development, rather than others. The valence dimension of competence is the base of the approach-avoidance dimension, so competence may be valenced in terms of whether it is focused on a positive possibility to

1010ELLIOTT, E. S., DWECK, C. S. (1988): Goals: an approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1, 5-12.1111STIPEK, D., GRALINSKI, J. H. (1996): Children's beliefs about intelligence and school performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 3. 397-407.1212CURY, F., ELLIOT, A. J., DA FONSECA, D., MOLLER, A. C. (2006): The social-cognitive model of achievement motivation and the 2x2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 4, 666-679.1313ELLIOT, A. J., MURAYAMA, K. (2008): On the measurement of achievement goals: critique, illustration and application. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 3, 613-628.



approach, or a negative possibility to avoid. In case of approach goals the aim is a positive outcome (success), so the individual considers himself to be competent when the problem is solved, or he performs better than the others. In case of avoidance goals the aim is avoiding a negative outcome (failure), so the individual considers himself to be competent when he does not make any mistakes, does not fall behind, or does not perform worse than the others. Therefore the 2x2 paradigm includes four types of achievement goals (see Table 1): mastery-approach (focused on attaining task-based or intrapersonal competence), performance-approach (focused on attaining normative competence), mastery-avoidance (focused on avoiding task-based or intrapersonal incompetence), performance-avoidance (focused on avoiding normative incompetence).

The 2x2 Achievement Goal Theory has changed thinking about goals by making it possible to discuss and study the positive effects of performance goals. Yet the dichotomization of the goals on the level of values still exists. The positive consequences of mastery goals are undisputed, but those of the performance goals are. In order to expand the effects of performance goals, a shift in thinking was needed: the right question is not which goal is the most adaptive with respect to learning, but under certain circumstances which achievement goal pattern leads to the most adaptive behaviour.

Table 1. Interpretation of achievement goals in the 2x2 Achievement Goal Theory



Table 2. Achievement Goal Questionnaire (Elliot and Murayama, 2008)

The new model has elicited debates among theorists as well as researchers. The root of these debates was that since the emergence of the theory goals have been associated with certain values and positive or negative outcomes. Some researchers thought it to be more adaptive for personality development to set mastery goals in school, and not performance goals. The new dimension offered an opportunity to protect the latter, saying that it is adaptive to be better than others (performance-approach goal orientation), but maladaptive if we want to avoid performing worse than others (performance-avoidance goal orientation). Still, despite introducing a more complex theory on goals, preference of goals did not disappear from scientific discussion. The most important question remained which achievement goal orientation is the best, and only a few researches raised the idea that goals have a joint effect.

Carol Midgley (2001)1414 was one of the most influential representative of those who did not accept the positive impact of performance goals. According to Middleton and Midgley (1997)1515 performance-avoidance and –approach goals lead to similar outcomes, therefore it is more important to differentiate between mastery and performance goals. Midgley (2001) overviewed literature on the consequences of performance goals, and concluded that performance-approach goals are adaptive only if the environment is competitive, but in this case fear from failure occurs as well. It is important to see that Midgley did not dispute the validity of the two types of performance goals, only their usefulness.

Most researches in the field of achievement goals are about to explore how different goals affect achievement outcomes. Wolters (2004)1616 argues that it is important to investigate what goals the environment conveys. Based on empirical research he concluded students' perception of the goals structure of the classroom predicts personal goal orientations, especially with respect to mastery goals. Those students who perceived their class as mastery-oriented, and they themselves were mastery-oriented, put higher efforts into school work. On the other hand, those who perceived their class as rather performance oriented, and they themselves were mastery-oriented, put little effort into school work. Wolters concluded that context can change student behaviour (like efforts) which

1414MIDGLEY, C. (2001): Performance-approach goals: good for what, for whom, under what circumstances, and at what cost? Journal of Educational Psychology. 93, 1. 77-86.1515MIDDLETON, M. J., MIDGLEY, C. (1997): Avoiding the demonstration of lack of ability: an underexplored aspect of goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology. 89, 4. 710-718.1616WOLTERS, C. A. (2004): Advancing achievement goal theory: using goal structures and goal orientation to predict students' motivation, cognition and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology. 96, 2. 236-250.



leads to a change in motivation in the long run.

Harackiewicz and her colleagues (2000)1717 studied the long term effects of achievement goals with respect to their role in fostering interest and performance. The researchers hypothesized that performance-approach goals increase school efficiency, because they are consistent with the environment where efficiency is defined relative to others (school). As short term effects they have found that mastery oriented university students show higher interest, performance-approach oriented students get better grades, and the grades are better when the interest is higher. These short term effects continued in the long run. So they concluded that mastery-approach orientation can associated with interest, performance-approach orientation with efficiency. An optimal goal setting has to include both kinds of goals, because none of them alone can predict adaptive outcomes.

The study of environmental effects started as early as the 1980s. Ames (1992) 1818, following a stronger social psychological line of thinking studied the effects of context in goal setting. She analyzed competitive, cooperative and individualistic classroom contexts and their effects. In a competitive setting rewards are limited, social comparison is stronger, and the latter gives information about the students' abilities. If I am the only one who failed, it is because of my weak abilities. In a cooperative setting people have common goals. A low performer can be satisfied, and a high performer can be unsatisfied. In an individualistic setting, efforts are more valuable, therefore task focus is stronger. In this setting reward is dependent upon self-development, achievement can only be interpreted with respect to former one. Self-assessment does not depend on others' performance, but on reaching self-set goals. Ames's goal was to explore which elements of the environment foster mastery motivation. Although her research question reflects the dichotomized standpoint of achievement goals, her analysis includes a new approach: she raised the idea that classroom structure can have different meanings for different students.

The above mentioned studies and their results lead Harackiewicz és Barron (2001)1919 to suggest a multiple goal perspective instead of the ruling mastery goal perspective, which supposes that in an optimal achievement goal pattern both mastery goals and performance goals take part in behaviour management. Also, while mastery goal perspective clearly presumes that mastery goals lead to positive, performance goals to negative outcomes, multiple goal perspective does not have a presupposition about how these goals combine. According to the additive goal hypothesis, mastery and performance goals have independent, positive effects on an achievement outcome. This hypothesis is difficult to prove, since empirical studies have tried to prove differences between goals for years. Pekrun and his colleagues (2006)2020 for example have found that both mastery-approach and performance approach goals predict the feeling of pride, independent of each other.

Interactive goal hypothesis presumes that the effects of different goals interact with each other. Pintrich (2000) 2121

have found that students with high mastery-approach and high performance-approach goals attribute the highest value to a task. Ablard and Lipschultz (1998)2222 have found the same with respect to self-regulation. According to the specialized goal hypothesis goals have effects on different outcomes. Most studies support this hypothesis, since they have studied effects independently. For example, Elliot and Church (1997), and Harakiewicz and her colleagues (2002)23232424 found that mastery-approach goals can be associated with higher interest while performance-approach goals with better grades. Selective goal hypothesis presumes that it is the context that defines the most adaptive goal orientation. Let us see some researches that use multiple goal perspective to explore connections between goals and other variables.

1717HARACKIEWICZ, J. M., BARRON, K. E., TAUER, J. M., CARTER, S. M., ELLIOT, A. J. (2000): Short-term and long-term consequences of achievement goals: predicting interest and performance over time. Journal of Educational Psychology. 92, 2. 316-330.1818AMES, C. (1992): Classrooms: goals, structures and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology. 84, 3, 261-271.

1919BARRON, K. E., HARRACKIEWICZ, J. M. (2001): Achievement goals and optimal motivation: testing multiple goal models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 80, 5, 706-722.2020PEKRUN, R., MAIER, M. A., ELLIOT, A. J. (2006): Achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: a theoretical model and prospective test. Journal of Educational Psychology. 98, 3, 583-597.2121PINTRICH, P. R. (2000): Multiple goals, multiple pathways: the role of goal orientation in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 3. 544-555.2222ABLARD, K. E., LIPSCHULTZ, R. E. (1998): Self-regulated learning in high achieving students: relations to advanced reasoning, achievement goals, and gender. Journal of Educational Psychology. 90, 1. 94-101.2323HARACKIEWICZ, J. M., TAUER, J. M., BARRON, K. E., ELLIOT, A. J. (2002): Predicting success in college: a longitudinal study of achievement goals and ability measures as predictors of interest and performance from freshman year through graduation. Journal of Educational Psychology. 94, 3. 562-575.2424HARACKIEWICZ, J. M., PINTRICH, P. R., BARRON, K. E., ELLIOT, A. J., THRASH, T. M. (2002): Revision of achievement goal theory: necessary and illuminating. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 3. 638-645.



Among others, Darnon et al (2010)2525 have found that in case of students with low initial interest there is no connection between mastery-approach goals and later interest. Therefore it is not true in every case that mastery goals lead to higher interest. Optimal motivation does not depend solely on mastery goals. Hulleman et al (2008)2626 have found that those boys attributed more intrinsic value in a football camp that had either high mastery-approach, or high performance-approach goals, and those with high on both attributed less value. However, those with low initial interest could only increase their level of interest if they were high on both mastery-approach and performance-approach goals.

Murayama and Elliot (2009)2727 studied the joint influence of personal goals and classroom goals structure in Japan. They have found performance-avoidance goals have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation and school self-concept. Mastery-approach goals have a direct influence on intrinsic motivation. Mastery goal structure predicts mastery goal orientation, but performance-approach goal structure does not predict any goal orientation. However, if the perceived classroom goal structure is performance-approach oriented, personal performance-approach goals predict higher intrinsic motivation, and more positive school self-concept. Therefore performance-approach goals are adaptive in a competitive environment. But a competitive classroom has negative effects on students with performance-avoidance goals, by making their self-concept even more negative. So in Japan the self-concept of a student whose motivation is about avoiding performing worse than others is the more negative the more the environment suggests that he or she has to perform better than the others. On the other hand, the student with a motivation to outperform classmates benefits from such an environment, with an increased intrinsic motivation and more positive self-concept.

The results above are important not just for the verification of the theory, but also because of the consequences for practice. Based on the traditions of the social-cognitive model, the best school would be the one with an emphasis on mastery-approach goals, although such an environment is not adaptive in case of students with a strong performance-approach goal orientation. The multiple goal perspective of the 2x2 Achievement Goal Theory suggests that students interact with their environment, which in turn influences their behaviour and cognition depending on what the students bring to this environment. For example, if the student is highly interested from the beginning, and defines his or her competence by comparing it with the others, then a context that emphasises social comparison is the most beneficial.

3. ActivityInstructions:

In this activity you have to decide what kind of classroom goal structure (mastery or performance) the following instructions, feedbacks create. Select those that you think create mastery orientation in the classroom from those that you think create performance orientation in the classroom.

Important! Among the instructions you will find approach- and avoidance-oriented instructions, but this dimension of goals does not play a role in this task.

1. "the first three students to solve the problem get an A"2. "John, that's a really good job. Your solution is much better than it was last time. Congratulations."3. "I wonder when I will see that it's not always Mary and Bill who get the highest points on the test."4. "You will have two opportunities to write your essays: in the first draft I will indicate how to improve your

work, and your grade depends on how you succeed in the improvement."5. "I will give you an A not because it was an excellent work, but because your work is so much better than it

was in the beginning of the semester."6. "I have only three awards for those three who get the highest percentage on the test, so you have to be very

good to get one of them. Good luck and start the work now."7. "Jenny, please do not hurry with task, this is not a competition. I want you to think about it before you get to

the solution."8. "Now I will read out the results of the last test, starting from those who got the highest percentages."

2525DARNON, C., DOMPNIER, B., GILLIÉRON, O., BUTERA, F. (2010): The interplay of mastery and performance goals in social comparison: a multiple-goal perspective. Journal of Educational Psychology. 102, 1. 212-222.2626HULLEMAN, C. S., DARIK, A. M., SCHWEIGERT, S. A., HARACKIEWICZ, J. M. (2008): Task values, achievement goals, and interest: an integrative analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology. 100, 2, 398-416.2727MURAYAMA, K., ELLIOT, A. J. (2009): The joint influence of personal achievement goals and classroom goal structures on achievement-relevant outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology.101, 2, 432-447.


Chapter 4. Development of psychical functions in learning1. Methods of preventionLearning is a very complex process, its success depends upon several factors, such as the ability of appropriate perception, sensory integration, attention, memory, orientation in space, serializing, and proper usage of language. The process of development and maturation of the above abilities can differ greatly depending on the child. Concerning prevention it is important to check the development of these functions from an early age, long before the start of primary school, since the period between ages 3 and 7 is an especially sensitive one. What is most important, is that we choose activities suited for the individual child and that we help them acquire routine, while providing them with a warm and caring social climate. During this period of development, the emotional, motivational, and activation states of the children should be permanently monitored. Regeneration is just as an important part of the process as development.

Main fields of prevention:

Motoric development – i.e. gross motor skills, such as walking, running, jumping, scrambling, climbing, balancing, eye-hand and eye-foot coordination, and fine-motor skills, like drawing, pearl-tacking, etc.Development of the body-scheme – being able to recognize and name different body parts, development of lateralityDevelopment of perception – visual development, that is, being able to perceive forms, figures, visual constancies; tactile development, development of audition and of cross modularity, which means that the child is able to integrate different modalities (for example tactile recognition of an object after seeing it on a picture).Verbal development – being able to name objects, movements, categories (form, colour, quality), being able to make verbal relations in time and space

See how much physical functions are needed to write down a short text after dictation:

• auditory attention (e.g. listen to the voice of the teacher)• auditory memory (e.g. to reproduce the text)• auditory analysis (e.g. to divide the sentences into words and phonemes)• auditory discrimination (e.g. separate similar sounds)• visual memory (refer adequate graphemes to phonemes)• visual discrimination (separate similar graphemes)• visual-motor coordination (write the text to the adequate place)• serializing (to keep the right order of graphemes, words, etc.)

2. Assessment of learning disabilitiesFor successful prevention, and later on, for successful intervention, it is important that we know, which the main areas are, and within these areas the main factors, which may be obstructing a student's learning. Assessments can reveal medical problems (e.g. epilepsy), intellectual abilities, educational characteristics (e.g. succeeding in specific academic areas), emotional and motivational characteristics, social traits, speech and language features, gross-motor and fine-motor skills. Diagnosing the source of the problem, however, is difficult. It is also problematic to choose the best method to identify what kind of LD the child has. The following classification of assessment for eligibility is by W. N. Bender (2008):


Development of psychical functions in learning

Below you see pictures from the Frostig test. These exercises test the following areas of abilities:

1. Eye-hand coordination, fine motor skills



Instructions:

Here is a mouse, a tunnel, and a piece of cake. Help the mouse get to the cake by drawing its way. Be careful, the mouse should not bump into the wall of the tunnel. Draw a straight line. Put your pencil onto the paper.

Take a pencil and get from one house to the other. Keep your pencil on the paper. Try not to bump into anything.

We are walking in a shrubbery. Walk with your pencil from one tree to the other. Try to keep your way in the middle of the road. Try drawing your way without taking your pencil from the paper. Do not go back.

Here is a car. Draw with your pencil its way into the garage. Try not to leave the road or take up your pencil.

This girl wants to get to her friend. Show her the way. Try to stay in the middle of the pavement, without stopping or taking up your pencil.

2. Figure-background (Gestalt-perception)



Instructions:

Here you see two stars. Take your green pencil and outline one of the stars. Try not to take your pencil up from the paper. Now put down the green pencil, pick up the red one, and outline the other star.

Here you see four stars. Outline them with different colours (green, brown, blue, red).

Here you see a ball. There are kites hidden on the ball. Find the kites, and colour them in blue.

Here is an egg. There are ovals on the egg. With your green pencil colour the ovals on the egg

3. Spatial position



Instructions:

Here you see a row of flowers. Put your finger onto the flower in the frame. Now try to find one in the row that looks exactly the same. If you have found it, mark it with your pencil.

Same with snowman, balls and boxes.

4. Spatial relationship, spatial position, eye-hand coordination, fine motor skills



Take a look at this drawing on the left hand side. Try to link the dots on the right in the same way.

3. Games which develop physical functionssee: Chapter VI. Methodology of Learning

4. Secondary problems of students with LD.Most students with learning difficulties have problems with social and behavioural adaptation as well in school, since poor performance has derogatory effect on the student's learning motivation, self-concept, and self-esteem. There is a personal and a social aspect to a person's identity. In the majority of cases, learning disabilities have a negative impact on both of these factors (Burns, Bell, 2011). The students' self–concept is a multi-dimensional, hierarchical structure (Marsh, Hattie, 1996). It consists of two parts: a describing one ("I'm good at reading) and an evaluating one ('It is good, I'm acknowledged in school). Learning disabilities can - but not necessarily - affect both parts negatively. It depends on the expectations and knowledge of the socially important others, how they tolerate (or not tolerate) difficulties, and how they help the student through these hard periods. Concerning learning motivation, students with LD can be classified in 3 main motivational groups (Lepolaa et al., 2005):

• task-orientation (It is suited for intrinsic motivation)

• social dependency orientation (the student permanently needs the control and the help of the others)

• self-protection orientation (the student avoids or devaluates the tasks)

5. Methods and possibilities of interventionThe intervention and correction of learning disabilities is always a complex task. After the assessment of the main characteristics of the learning disability, the co-ordinated work of teachers, special education team, speech therapists and school psychologists is needed for effective help. There are several different methods of intervention. In primary school, the most effective ones are speech therapies, perceptual-motoric therapies,



developing of the cognitive functions, or a combination of these. In secondary school increases the role of the methodology of learning. In secondary school, the role of learning-methodology increases.

• Perceptual-motoric therapies – These therapies focus on the natural development of children. It means that the therapist tries to find that critical moment in the child's development, where something went wrong. The therapy then tries to re-build the non-functioning abilities, building on the well-functioning ones. For example, the therapy doesn't practice reading with dyslexic children, instead it practices gross and fine movements, and stimulates their sensors. The so called Grounding therapy developed by Éva Marton-Dévényi is a good example for this. The therapy follows the natural development of the motoric system of the children, which is the prerequisite of the development of adequate communication skills (language, reading and writing). Motoric development has a strict order, from changing position to changing place. The therapy starts with the gross, proximal movements and goes towards the fine, distal movements, from the moving of the head to the moving of the limbs, from moving limbs on the same side to changed movements (Marton-Dévényi, 2009). A. J. Ayres's Sensory Integration Therapy's (1972) approach to development is very similar to that of the grounding therapy. The difference is – as the name of the therapy shows – that besides motoric development, it also focuses on the integration of the sensory (auditory, visual and tactile) stimuli. During this therapy a lot of tools can be used unlike in the grounding therapy, where the only "tool" is the children's body. Sensory Integration Therapy

A so called therapeutic or normative regression is part of both therapies. In these therapies children are made to practice movements that were the main task of a previous developmental stage, such as scrambling or climbing. Such a regression in movement causes a regression in other areas as well, for instance in the social and emotional life of the children. This is a normative process; nonetheless it makes the therapy more difficult momentarily. The parents, the teachers, and the child itself should be prepared for this; otherwise they tend to get scared of the situation, and drop the therapy. In different ages, the regression has different forms. For smaller children (at the age of 5-6) it is not so conspicuous in consequences, because they are close to the regressed age. The main symptoms are enuresis, baby-like behaviour and plays. At the age of 6-12 the main symptoms are tardiness, provoking or oppositional behaviour, increased attention disorders, and fluctuation of performance. The process of regression is hardest for the adolescents. Their emotional waves become stronger, risk-taking behaviour increases, and the child sometimes "falls apart". The gap between the real and the expected behaviour is the greatest at this stage. The regressive period normally lasts two-six weeks and should be followed by significant improvement. If it is longer than that, it is not normative any more. Cognitive therapies, like the cognitive programme of Brigitte Sindelar (1983) include the main principles of the developmental and the cognitive psychology. The main principle is the re-structuring of cognitive skills, such as attention, perception, intermodal integration, memory, serializing and spatial integration. The basic element of the programme is continuity. The programme lasts 6-10 moths. It starts from the "roots", like perceptual-motoric concepts, and builds up the cognitive skills very accurately (Zsoldos, 2009).

Most of these therapies are combined with speech therapies.

• In secondary school, the students' metacognition about learning becomes an important factor of the development. Chapter 6, Methodology of learning can effectively help students with LD to perform better in school.

• Possible intervention in the classroom. Simultaneously with therapies, there are several possibilities for intervention in the classroom as well. In case of reading disabilities, a lot of teaching strategies were developed in the last decades for enhancing the effectiveness and motivation of the children concerned. The Interactive teaching model (Bos, Anders, 1990) incorporates six teaching and learning characteristics, like activating prior knowledge of the students, integrating new knowledge with old knowledge, cooperative knowledge, sharing and learning, predicting, justifying, and confirming concepts and text meaning, predicting, justifying, and confirming relationships between concepts, and purposeful learning. These recommendations are for older (adolescent) poor readers, just like the recommendations of the so called Carnegie report (Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, Barnes, 2007). The following are the recommendations for enhancing reading comprehension from the Carnegie Report: 1.) Provide explicit instruction in the strategies and processes that support comprehension 2.) Teach comprehension in content areas 3.) Self-directed learning should motivate students to read and write 4.) Support collaborative learning around a variety of texts 5.) Provide intervention in small groups for those who struggle with reading comprehension, writing, and content areas. 6.) Employ diverse texts that range in difficulty level and topics. 6.) Employ diverse texts that range in difficulty level and topics 7.) Require intensive writing in all subject areas 8.) Develop technology as an instructional tool 9.) Provide assessments of the students' progress and of the programme's efficacy. 10.) In secondary school, 2-4 hours of literacy instruction and practice in language arts and content classes is needed



each day. 11.) Provide ongoing professional development in literacy 12.) Evaluate student and program outcomes 13.) Create teacher teams across content areas that meet regularly 14.) Provide leadership from teachers and principals who understand reading instructions. 15.) School districts should have a comprehensive, coordinated literacy plan from preschool to high school that is interdisciplinary, interdepartmental, across grade, and coordinated by outside resources and the community.

Both models emphasize the role of background knowledge, of explicit instruction, the importance of those methods that focus on summarization of texts, the facilitating role of the teacher, and the importance of collaborative teaching strategies. In collaborative strategic reading, four strategies are taught to students: (Vaughn, Klinger, Bryant, 2001) 1.) Preview component to activate background knowledge 2.) comprehension monitoring to identify difficult words and contents 3.) restudying the most important paragraphs 4.) summarization, question asking.

• In the case of writing disabilities, difficulties in both printing and cursive writing can stem from a number of factors, including motor deficits, visual-motor coordination problems, visual memory deficits, and orthographic processing. Most interventions are multisensory, like Gillingham and Stillman's (1965) method. It consists of the following: the teacher models a large letter on the blackboard, writing and saying the name of the letter. The student traces the letter while saying the name. Then the student copies the letter, while saying the name, then writes the letter from memory while saying the name. Nowadays there is a wide range of compensatory tools supporting handwriting, like keyboarding, dictation using a voice recognition system, and word prediction programmes. Nota bene most students with writing difficulties also have difficulty with using the keyboard.

• For mathematics disabilities interventions the following characteristics should be taken into consideration: 1.) The instructions take place in groups 2.) They are directed by the teacher 3.) They are academically focused, 4.) It specifically takes into account individual student needs (Stevens, Rosenshine, 1981). It is of much help for the student, when the explanation is explicit and procedurally clear, there are pictorial representations, verbal rehearsal is possible, and there is enough time for practicing on mixed problem sets i.e. on previously mastered problem types (Fuchs, et al 1997). Problem solving in mathematics is as important as math fact retrieval or algorithmic computation, but little attention has been focused on how it appears in school curricula. For students with mathematical disabilities, three kinds of development are required for more effective problem solving. First, for any given problem type, students must master the problem solution rules. They must practice with similar problems and develop schemas of the problem. Students must be vigilant for the connections between teaching and transfer (Gick, Holyoak, 1980).

• Possible interventions in the classroom - Behavioural support. Students with LD often have behavioural problems in the classroom, this is a problem which is not easy to handle. In this case, the importance of positive behavioural support is worth noting. This support helps handling LD, as well as handling co-existing secondary problems. (Section 4, “Secondary problems of students with LD.”) The most frequently offered positive supports are positive reinforcement, token economies, behavioural contracts, and responsibility strategies (Bender, 2008).

• Positive reinforcement: It is the important, but not always easy, task of the developer (the teacher, in the case of classroom situation, or the parents or psychologists) to find the positive aspects of the student's performance or behaviour. "You could do better, if you tried harder" is not a motivating sentence. The developer's task is to find, to point out, and to reward the real strengths of the student. Positive reinforcement can even decrease disruptive behaviour of students with ADHD (Burley, Waller, 2005).

• Token economy: Token economy is a special way of payment for work or any kind of classroom activity completed (Carbone, 2001). First, the teacher and the students agree on the system of payment, which means that proper behaviour of the students is recognized, and immediately honoured with tokens (token money, stickers, plastic counters, etc.) They agree on what kind of behaviour or what amount of work is required for certain payments. Later the tokens can be changed for rewards of real value.

• The behavioural contract is another effective method of handling behavioural problems of students with LD. It is an agreement between the student and the teacher, which contains tasks, which the student will perform, or behaviours, which the student will demonstrate. It also sets the tasks of the teacher, and the reward to be presented, when the student meets the stated goal (Bender, 2008). The contract is a good way to focus in the particular learning problems.

• Responsibility strategy (Bender, 2003): Many children misbehave, because they don't know how to gain



positive attention, how to act properly. In the case of responsibility strategy, the teacher's task is to recognize the children's strengths, and state them in front of the class or other students. Bender (2003) asserts that the main message of this method is, that "[y]our contribution (i.e. doing this task for the class) is so important, that we need you to do this even when you are having a bed behaviour day" (Bender 2008, p. 310).

In this study case neurologic, perceptuo-motoric and LINGUISTICAL problem can be detected at the same time. We can see the secondary problems as well.

John is a 13 year-old student with LD. He changed his school about half a year ago, because his former school with alterative curricula had been closed. Now he is in 7th grade of an average elementary school.

The teachers' description of John: He is a very slow child, but there is no problem with his classroom behaviour. His general learning performance is poor. His marks vary mainly between 2s and 3s. He is good at manual skills (like handicraft, origami, etc.). He has problems with reading since first class. He often comes to a halt, reads very slowly. He can't repeat the text and can't tell in his own words what it's about. Sometimes he mixes the words or the lines.

About his development: he was born on time with caesarean section. His Apgar 1 score was 6/9. During the birth he was in hypoxic state for several minutes. He was born after his twin brother. His development was slower than his brother's; he was thinner, slower in movements. He didn't scramble during the period of motoric development. He fell a lot, had a lot of accidents. In spite of that, he didn't have any fear of moving actions, he climbed a lot, and fell a lot. He is right-handed. He started to speak words at the age of three, sentences at the age of four. Till the age of six he STUTTERED SLIGHTLY, mainly when he was excited. SPONTANEOUSLY HE TALKS A FEW. When he was small HE DIDN'T LIKE TALES AND READING OUT LOUD, HE STOPPED LISTENING TO IT WITHIN 2-3 MINUTES. Now he writes homework with his mother. She reads the instructions and the longer explanations.

Social characteristics: He has very close connection to his mother. He has no peer friends. Sibling rivalry is common; in most of the cases he gets the worst of it. He is quite unsociable and withdrawn. His parents are divorced.

11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apgar_score


Chapter 5. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Forth UK and Hungarian EditionWISC-IV DemonstrationWISC-IV demonstration helps show our students how to use professionally the popular new version of the well-known Wechsler IQ test battery.

(See the video)


Chapter 6. Methodology of learning1. Students' attitudes to learningEffectiveness of learning depends on the one hand on the state of development of the basic psychological processes, and on the other hand on a suitably high level of self-esteem, self-control, and self-motivation of students. These are the factors that mainly determine the students' attitudes to learning, and their behaviour in school. Children with LD very often have negative attitudes to learning. The first task in methodology of learning is to reduce it step by step. The first step is to recognize this problem. Besides the monitoring of children, there are some direct methods to help them make their feelings explicit:

• Metaphor tests are useful with both younger and older children. The instruction is "If school (or learning) would be an animal (vehicle, object, etc.,) what would it be?" It can be drawn, written, or spoken, and it describes the feelings of the children very well, in a symbolic way.

• "Finish the sentence" –we start a sentence like "I like school, because..." or "I don't like school, because..." This method is more explicit, therefore it is more risky for the children to talk about their true feelings. It is cardinal that the atmosphere where it takes place is calm and trustful.

• "Carousel of words" is a cooperative method for group-building. Three to five children have to work together. They have a sheet of paper, divided by lines into as many parts as many participants there are in the small group. Each rubric is numbered from one to three, four or five (according to the number of participants). The moderator gives a topic to the groups concerning learning or school, such as "my first day in school" or "my typical day". Each child says a sentence about his or her experience in this topic. The others reflect on whether they have or have not the same experiences or feelings in their personal lives, this discussion can last 2 to 3 minutes. Afterwards, they write down the sentence into the proper column of the paper, that is, under the number that is equal with the number of children who have had the same experience. Presumably, there will be some positive or negative experiences that are rather common among the children; we can discuss these with them later on.

• Association chain – The participants throw a ball to each other and say the word they associate to, from the word they heard before (e.g. school-learning-book-reading-Harry Potter- magic, etc.) It can be turned into a proper attention and memory play, if we turn back the line and make the group throw the ball contrariwise, and make them remember the word on that they associated to.

One of the main problems is the lack of the learning motivation. In the case of students with LD, it is very important to notice that this phenomenon is the consequence, not the reason of the problem. There are several techniques and strategies to motivate the students, although not all of these are adequate for every student or class. The most common strategies are (Bender, 2008, p. 256)

• Organization of a token economy. Reinforcements may include privileges and extra time for student-selected activities.

• Counselling in low-motivation situations. It is important to make the relevance of the material to be learned clear for the student.

• A contingency contract may be used with one student to encourage work completion.• Verbal praise should be used to encourage appropriate behaviour. Either teacher or peer recognition may be

used.• Cooperative, team-works. Students with LD will often complete work for the team, for the others, which

would not otherwise be completed.• Attribution training, which focuses on strengthening the student's internal locus of control, also has been

shown to be effective.• Self-monitoring procedures could be effective in increasing a positive motivation.

2. Development of basic psychical functions in learning• Improvement of long-term memory (http://ssa.tn.nic.in/Docu/ALM-MANUAL.pdf) – there are several useful

techniques on how to organize information to read out them from memory. It can be useful for every student, not only for the ones with LD.


Methodology of learning

• o Mnemonics - Most mnemonics rely on linking or association of the to be remembered material, with a systematic and organized of images or words, that are already firmly established in long term memory, and can therefore serve as reminder cues. They act as pegs. E.g.

http://jackiemurphy21.wordpress.com/tag/mnemonics/

• Method of loci - The word "loci" means places. The memory pegs in this system are part of your image of a scene. The scene can be a street, a building with rooms, a layout of a college campus, a kitchen etc. For example, if I want to store all the names of the kings of a dynasty, I may imagine a palace with different rooms and put each king in a uniquely decorated room.



http://blog.lib.umn.edu/farre212/f11psy1001ds1415/2011/10/method-of-loci---a-life-saving-method.html

• Number and letter peg systems – Like in the method of loci, the main idea of these systems is the establishment of a well-organized set of images in the long term memory, to which the to be remembered items can then be linked. In the number system you form an image with the number. For instance a rhyming system can be used for the numbers 1 to 10. One is a bus, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door etc. When you have a list to remember, you can associate the items on your list with your images of the numbers. For example when you have to remember a grocery list-if the first item on the list is coffee, then imagine a cup of coffee along with buns. Letter systems are similar. You can establish mnemonic pegs by forming strong, distinctive images of words that start with the sounds of letters of the alphabet. That gives 26 pegs for association with what you want to remember.



http://litemind.com/improve-memory-speaking-minds-language/

• Chunking - Suppose you want to remember a credit card number - 19141945001. It will help if you break the number into chunks. The first 4 numbers are when the First World War broke out, the next 4 numbers are when the Second World War ended while the last 3 numbers form a chunk that is easy to remember.

• Improvement of attention – There are different subcategories to attention, such as focused attention, which is the ability to focus one's consciousness on an object. Sustained attention is the ability to maintain focus on the object. Selective attention is the ability to keep one's attention on the subject in the presence of distracting factors. Alternating attention is the ability to change mental set. Finally, divided attention is the ability to simultaneously process two pieces of information. Problems can emerge in every subcategory. A lot of well-known traditional methods exist that help improving attention, such as relaxing or meditation, but even modern video games can effectively help this process (find examples here):

http://www.aarp.org/health/brain-health/brain_games/http://www.happy-neuron.com/brain-games/attentionhttp://www.pomindcake.com/game/birds

• Problem-solving thinking – For problem solving thinking, a student needs to be able to evaluate informations and situations, break them into key components, consider various ways for approaching and resolving them, and choose the most appropriate of these ways. There is a six-step model, called "IDEALS", of effective



problem-solving thinking (Facione, 2008) I is for Identify the problem: What is the real question we are facing? D is for Define the context: What are the facts that frame this problem? E is for Enumerate the choices: What are plausible options? A is for Analyse options: What is the best course of action? L is for List reason explicitly: Why is this the best course of action? S is for Self-correct: Look at it again! What did we miss? Three kinds of improvement are required for effective problem solution. First, for any given problem type students must master the problem solution rules. They must practice on similar problems, and develop schemas of the problem. Students must be vigilant for the connections between teachings and transfer (Gick, Holyoak, 1980). Good examples for improving problem solving:

http://www.dol.gov/odep/topics/youth/softskills/Problem.pdfhttp://www.smartestgames.com/game/missionaries-and-cannibals/

3. Games to develop cognitive functionsThe following games are all group ames, we need at least 10-12 children to play them. All of them are perfectly entertaining, moreover, they develop attention and memory functions and some other cognitive functions. They teach children how to behave and collaborate in groups, they also train executive and inhibitory functions.

3.1. Warm-ups, ice-breakersa. The grand old Duke of York: good practice if children are tired or have just returned from break. Originally

it's an english nursery rhyme, often performed as an action song. We accompany the rhyme with following moves:

Oh, The grand old Duke of York,(we show some hills and the crown on our head)

He had ten thousand men;(we show our two open hands way out with 10 fingers, then we unsheathe our imaginary sword)

He marched them up to the top of the hill,(we climb up with our arms and hands as high as we can)

And he marched them down again.(we climb down with our arms and hands until the floor)

And when they were up, they were up,(we are up with our arms and hands)

And when they were down, they were down,(we are down on the floor with our arms and hands)

And when they were only half-way up,(we quickly climb up and down with our arms and hands)

They were neither up nor down.(we fold our hands)

We can repeat the rhyme faster and faster.

b. Rain forest: a very good practice to focus attention

Instructions: We are sitting in a circle. Everybody has to pay attention to his/her left neighbour and imitating what he/she starts doing. It is important that you only have to do what your left neighbour does. The group leader starts to rub his hands, his right neighbour imitates him, and so on. When the round is completed, the group leader starts to clap his hands, his right neighbour imitates him, and so on. It's funny to hear when half of the group is rubbing their hands, and the other half is clapping. When the round is completed, the group leader starts to drum with his feet on the floor, his right neighbour imitates him, and so on. If the group leader wants to enhance the mood, he can imitate thunder as well: he suddenly jumps up, his right neigbour follows him. At the end, we make our forest to calm down as follows: the group leader sits down and restarts



drumming his feet, his right neigbhbour follows him, and so on. When the round is completed, the group leader starts clapping his hands, others following him, and at the end, the group leader starts rubbing his hands again. When this ultimate round is completed, the group leader stays silent, others following in turn.

3.2. Developing attention and memorya. Change 5 things on yourself! – very good for developing attention

Instructions: Ask children to create pairs. The pairs stand opposite each other. Ask them to observe each other in detail. After that, ask them to turn their backs to each other and change 5 things on themselves (for example take off their glasses, pull up the legs of their trousers, etc.). If they are ready to turn opposite again, they can try to find out what has changed. If they enjoy the game you can ask them to change five more things.

b. Apple, Pear, Walnut, Muesli... - very good for developing attention and memory, meanwhile good for practicing inhibitory and executive functions as well

Instructions: Ask the children to sit around. You need one chair less then they are in the game. Everyone gets a name: first child will be apple, second will be pear, third will be walnut and start again: apple, pear, walnut. Muesli means everybody. If the instructor says „apple”, everybody, who has the name "apple" must get up and find a new seat. Others stay where they are. The one who stays standing will be the next intructor. If the instructor says pear, pears must find a new chair, if he says walnut, walnuts must mingle and find a new seat. If he says "muesli", everybody must stand up and find a new chair.

c. Wave from right, wave from left... – a very simple game for being aware which one is our left and right side.

Instructions: Children are sitting around. When the instructor says "wave from right", they must move one seat to the left. When instructor says "wave from left", they must move one seat right. If he says tidal wave, everybody has to mingle and take a new seat.

d. Viking, elephant, palm tree... - a complicated, but funny game, very good for developing concentration, attention and memory.

Instructions: children are standing around, one child is in the centre. He has to point at someone saying "Viking", "Elephant", or "Palm tree". Let's see the three options:

Viking: the viking has to show the frightening horns on the top of his head. His two neighbors have to start row onto their other sides to get far from the vikingElephant: the elephant has to form a proboscis with his hands. His two neighbours have to show on him his huge ears with their armsPalm tree: the palm tree has to throw his arms up to make shadow for his two neighbours, who will be the luau dancers. They have to dance.

If someone do it wrong, he has stand in the centre.

e. Bumm, puff... - a simple and funny game, perfect for developing attention (and to play out aggression)

Instructions: children are standing around, one child is in the centre. He turns around and suddenly points at someone saying "Bumm". That kid has to crouch down, and his two neighbours have to stand opposite each other saying "puff". If someone does it wrong, he has to stand in the centre.

4. Complex techniques and strategies of learningPQRST method

• P means Preview a text - the most important thing is to find out how the chapter is organized. Have a look: what are the major terms in the headings, are they familiar or not?

• Q means Question - Turn the subheadings, under the major headings, into questions that you expect to be answered in that part of the text.

• R means Read the text - Reflect on what you read; put it into your own words. Try to connect what you are reading to things you already know. Try to see if the questions you anticipated are answered.



• S means Self recitation – After reading a small section, try to summarize the main ideas and as many details as you can. When you check, look for important things you omitted or got wrong. Develop your own mnemonics for memorizing major points, or any details that you find confusing

• T means Test – Try to reproduce the materials. Give yourself enough time to forget some of the materials, so that you are forced re-generate them.

http://yes-dreamzland.blogspot.hu/2010/06/study-bored-general-study-tips-1.html

Useful page: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/42230264/HOW-TO-STUDY-A-READING-ASSIGNMENT-USING-THE-PQRST

MURDER method

• M is for Mood – Have a proper state of mind when you start learning, so that you can study efficiently. Select an appropriate time, environment and attitude.

• U is for Understand – Take note of any information you don't understand, and go back to it when you are finished.

• R is for Recall - Check if you can recall what you have studied. Go back again to the topics that you did not clearly get. Try summarizing the material out loud, and write down information with your own words.

• D is for Digest – Go back to what you didn't understand and reconsider the information. Digest what you have just read or studied using your own words.

• E is for Expand - Expand your knowledge. Ask such questions as: What kind of questions would I pose to the author? How could I apply this material to what I am interested in? How could I make this information interesting and understandable to other students?

• R means Review - Go over the material you've covered, Review what strategies helped you understand and/or retain information in the past and apply these to your current studies.

This MURDER study system was adopted from Hayes, John R., The Complete Problem Solver, Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers, Hillsdale, NJ: 1989.

5. An example of effective learning technique - Mind mapMaking mind maps about what we have to do, learn, ideas we should work up is a very useful, funny, even



spectacular way to make our work easier.

Mind map works like a city map: you have no other thing to do, just put your main idea into the middle of your paper in front of you – and put around the ideas connected. The finished mind map helps your brain to process the information as a picture.

There are five main common rules concerning mindmaps:

• The main idea, subject or focus is crystallized in a central image.• The main themes radiate from the central image as "branches".• The branches comprise a key image or key word drawn or printed on its associated line.• Topics of lesser importance are represented as "twigs" of the relevant branch.• The branches form a connected nodal structure. (http://www.mindmapping.com/)

How to make a mindmap in 9 steps? In this section you can learn to make a mindmap, based on a brief story of the well-known Coca Cola.

1. Skim the text and ask some questions!2. Read the text thoroughly!3. Divide the text into larger units and add subtitles to them!4. Find key words in the text!5. Take a sheet of paper (at least A/4) and put it in front of you horizontally6. Place the title in the middle of the paper!7. Put your key-words around it thematically in a web-like pattern!8. Use colours to highlight!9. Use pictures to decorate!

Table 6.1.

Always Coca Cola

"Coca-Cola was invented in 1886 by John Pemberton, an Atlanta, Georgia, pharmacist. Pemberton was actually trying to concoct a headache remedy, but once he mixed his special syrup with carbonated water, and a few customers tasted the result, he realized that he had the makings of a popular soda fountain beverage. The name Coca-Cola was coined by Pemberton's bookkeeper, Frank Robinson, who also wrote out the new name in the expressive script that has become Coca Cola's signature logo. Though the Coca-Cola Company apparently would rather not talk about the origin of its name in detail, it's clear that Robinson derived "Coca-Cola" from two of the drink's ingredients: cola from the cola nut, and extract of coca leaf, also the source of cocaine. Cocaine was a common ingredient of nineteenth-century patent medicines, and by the standards of the day Coca-Cola contained a minuscule amount that probably had no effect on its consumers. Still, by the early 1890s there was a rising tide of anti-cocaine sentiment, and Atlanta businessman Asa Candler, who acquired the Coca Cola Company in 1891, steadily decreased even the tiny amount of the drug in the recipe. Candler's good business sense made the Coca Cola famous by the beginning of the 20th century. There is some evidence that the only reason Candler kept putting even minute amounts of coca extract in the drink was the belief that to omit it entirely might cause Coca Cola, by then besieged by imitators, to lose its trademark. In any event, Coca-Cola was completely cocaine free by 1929."

(Text based on below: http://www.streetdirectory.com/food_editorials/beverages/beverages/a_brief_history_about_coca_cola.html)



6. Learning stylesStudents learn in different ways. However, there is considerable disagreement on what kind of learning styles may exist. Mainly the following categories are differentiated:

• Modality of learning (visual, audial, tactile, and motoric)• Impulsive/reflective style – the tendency to react instantly to stimuli in one's environment, with the

consideration of the result of one's reaction• Environmental attributes – music, noise, comfort, proper place, proper time• Social style – alone, with others• Psychological attributes – global, simultaneous way of processing information; serial, analytic way of

processing information

Activity: What kind of learning style characterizes students with LD? Choose the right ones.

Impulsive, Visual, Reflective, Analytic way of processing information, Eating during study, Study alone, Simultaneous way of processing information, No music, Study with others, Instrumental music, Audial, Motoric, No eating during study


Chapter 7. Learning disabilities1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)See video: Ladybird with ADHD (www.fimota.hu)

1.1. DSM-5 Criteria for ADHD1. Inattention

• Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or with other activities.

• Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities.• Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly.• Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the

workplace (e.g., loses focus, side-tracked).• Often has trouble organizing tasks and activities.• Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks that require mental effort over a long period of time (such as

schoolwork or homework).• Often loses things necessary for tasks and activities (e.g. school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys,

paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephones).• Is often easily distracted.• Is often forgetful in daily activities.

Predominantly Inattentive Presentation(ADD, ADHD-I)

2. Inattention

• Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet, or squirms in seat.• Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected.• Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may be limited to

feeling restless).• Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly.• Is often "on the go" acting as if "driven by a motor".• Often talks excessively.

Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation (HD, ADHD-H)

Combined Presentation (AD/HD, ADHD-C) if enough symptoms of both criteria inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity were present for the past 6 months

In addition, the following conditions must be met:

• <=16yrs: 6 symptoms, >=17yrs, adults: 5 symptoms

• Symptoms have been present for at least 6 months to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for the person's developmental level

• Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 years.

• Several symptoms are present in two or more setting, (e.g., at home, school or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities).

• There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning.

• The symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder. The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (e.g. Mood Disorder, Anxiety Disorder, Dissociative Disorder, or a Personality Disorder).


Learning disabilities

1.2. Evaluation processWHEN

• 6-8 years and 11-12 years – higher academic expectations• advantages and disadvantages of early diagnosis

HOW

• parental interview (and teacher)• rating scales (e.g.Child Behavior CheckList)• tests: IQ, academic skills, neuro-psychological tests (...)• problems of assessment

1.3. Overdiagnosis• Low tolerance level of school/home environment• Consequences of child maltreatment (neglect, abuse): attention problems, irritability, sensation seeking, low

self-control, emotional lability, poor academic achievment...• Classroom activities are boring for creative, gifted children• Consequences of over-stimulating environment: no sustained attention, impulsive cognitive style• Developmental delay

1.4. Epidemiology• 3-5% of school age children, 5-12% of school age boys• More boys (3-9x)• Danger of false positives• Comorbidity:

• Learning disabilities: 50%• Oppositional defiant disorder: 60%• Autistic disorder: severe ADHD• Anxiety disorder: girls, ADD• Depression: comorbide?• Tic: HD• Drug and alcohol abuse: teenagers, untreated ADHD

• Subtypes:• ADD: 30-40%, more girls• HD: 10%• AD/HD: 50-60%

• Prognosis: difficulties in adolescence, ADHD persists into adulthood in about 30–50% - coping mechanisms, subclinical problems

1.5. Etiology• Genetic influences

• Familiality: the relative risk for ADHD is 6-8 times higher among first degree relatives (siblings 30-35% ADHD)

• Twin studies: monozygotic twins 58-82% ADHD• Heritability of ADHD symptoms: 0.73• Candidate genes: DAT1 dopamine transporter gene (see: the therapeutic efficacy of methylphenidate in

the treatment of ADHD), DRD4 dopamine receptor gene BUT inconsistent results• Multiple genes are involved• Endophenotypes = continuous measures of pathophysiological processes that may mediate or moderate the

relation between gene action and the final phenotypic manifestation of the disorder• Influence of shared environment (e.g. ineffective parenting, food additives) NOT significant• The etiology of the hyperactive-impulsive type may be different from the etiology of the combined and

inattentive types



1.6. Acquired brain lesions and ADHDThe dopamine system is exquisitely sensitive to hypoxia, particularly in the fetus or infant. Thus, any events pre- or postnatally that disrupt the flow of blood or oxygen to the brain might set the stage for later ADHD behaviors

• fetal alcohol syndrome• maternal smoking• metabolic disorders of the mother (eg. diabetes)• hyperbilirubinemia (jaundice) in the newborn period• traumatic injury• vearly deprivation

1.7. Neuroanatomy• Brain regions involved in self-regulation (executive function) are smaller in persons with ADHD – changes

are more prominent on the right• frontal lobe• basal ganglia (particularly the caudate nucleus)• cerebellum

Brain structures implicated in ADHD (Bush, 2010)

• Functional neuroimaging studies: dysfunction of the prefrontal-subcortical system, often with greater involvement of areas of the right hemisphere, the pattern of activation is more diffuse

1.8. Conceptualizations of ADHD• 1960s: minimal brain damage (POS, MCD)• Douglas: impairments of self-regulation (poor sustained attention and impulse control, preferences for

immediate reinforcers)• Quay: imbalance between behavioral activating and inhibiting systems (underactivity of the behavioral

inhibition system)• Barkley: dysfunctional behavioral inhibition - impairments of four executive neuropsychological functions

(working memory, regulation of affect–motivation–arousal, internalized speech, and reconstitution)• Nigg and Casey: timing deficit (precise representation of temporal information is needed to predict and

anticipate events, to organize and plan sequences of action, and prepare fast responses)

1.9. Primary (?) cognitive deficits in ADHD• occur in most individuals with ADHD,• persist across the lifespan (albeit with altered expression),• are not shared with other disorders (specificity),• cannot be attributed to comorbid problems



Executive functions around the clock

1.9.1. EF-tests

• Motor planning:• Tower of Hanoi• WISC-Mazes• Rey-Osterreith Complex Figure Drawing Test

Rey-Osterreith Complex Figure Drawing Test

• Motor inhibition:• Stroop Color-Word Test (for preschool children: Day-Night Test)• Simon says... (Go/NoGo task)

• Set shifting:• Wisconsin Card Sorting Task• Trail Making Test-B



Trail Making Test

• Vigilance:• Continous performance tests• Pieron test

• Working memory:• Backwards digit span• Dot Test of Visuospatial Working Memory

See more test: http://www.nasponline.org/conventions/handouts2010/unstated/NASP_EF_Presentation.pdf

1.10. Two prefrontal networks



Classic "cool" executive functions – dorsolateral PFL

Social and cognitive aspects of behavior that determine the emotional significance and social appropriateness of behavior – "hot" executive functions ventromedial/orbitofrontal PFL



1.11. Sonuga-Barke: dual-pathway model



Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara, Damasio és mts., 1994)

Download: http://purl.oclc.org/NET/rgrasman/jscript/IowaGamblingTask

1.12. Therapy1.12.1. Medication

Ritalin (methylphenidate)



• Psychostimulant• Dopamine reuptake inhibitor, which increases the level of this neurotransmitter in the prefrontal cortex• Increases or maintains alertness, combats fatigue, and improves attention BUT no euphoria• Rapid onset of effects (15-30 min.), duration of action 5-6 hours• Dosage can range from anywhere between 5–30 mg twice daily or up to 60 mg a day.• 'Drugholiday' on weekends, during school holidays• While people with ADHD have an increased risk of substance abuse, the use of stimulants generally appears

to either reduce this risk or have no effect on it• Side effects: decreased appetite, stomachaches, tearfulness, trouble sleeping, headache, and a dull or listless

appearance (only 15% moderate/severe side effects)

1.12.2. Behavioral therapy

• Cognitive behavioral therapy: e.g. enhancing self-regulation, motivation in achieving desired goals, teaching effective problem solving strategies, encouraging self-monitoring ('Stop, look, listen and think!')

• Parents and/or teachers training: use a reward system, contingency contract, or token economy to reinforce positive behaviors and deter negative behaviors. Parents set firm, consistent limits and maintain appropriate parent-child boundaries.

• Stimulus reduction ???• Vestibular therapies (e.g. SIT-Ayres) ???

1.13. Frequently used objectives for ADHD children• Identify stressors or emotions that trigger and increase in hyperactivity and impulsivity• Express feelings through controlled, respectful verbalizations and healthy physical outlets.• Use effective study skills on a regular basis to improve academic performance.• Increase the frequency of positive interactions with parents/siblings• Parents reduce extraneous stimuli as much as possible when giving directions to the child.• The parent's maintain regular communication with the school to monitor the child's academic, behavioral,

emotional, and social progress

...and more

2. Developmental Dysphasia2.1. Speech (vs. language) impairmentArticulation

• Developmental verbal dyspraxia: inability to utilize motor planning to perform movements necessary for speech during a child's language learning process

• Disarthria: poor articulation of phonemes because of problems with the muscles that help produce speech• Orofacial myofunctional disorders: tongue thrusts forward inappropriately during speech• Specific speech articulation disorder: articulation and/or phonological disorder (omission, addition, distortion,

substitution of sounds)

Fluency

• Stuttering: disruption in the fluency of speech, repeating sounds, syllables, words or phrases, silent blocks and prolongation of sounds

Voice

• Dysphonia: phonatory disorder (e.g. breathiness, hoarseness, harshness) and/or resonance disorder (e.g. hypernasality)

2.2. Specific Language Impairment (SLI) or Developmental Dysphasia



Child's language does not develop normally and the difficulties cannot be accounted for by

• generally slow development,• physical abnormality of the speech apparatus,• autistic disorder,• acquired brain damage,• hearing loss.

Subtypes:

• Expressive language disorder: use of language• Receptive(-expressive) language disorder: understanding language

2.3. SymptomsA variety of components of oral language may be affected by SLI – heterogeneous population:

• grammatical and syntactic development: short, simplified sentences, difficulties with verb tense, word order and sentence structure (e.g. asking questions without the usual "be" or "do" verbs, dropping the "s" from the end of present-tense verbs)

• semantic development: limited vocabulary (e.g. general 'all-purpose' terms, rather than more specific words)• phonological development: phonological awareness



(See video: Expressive Language Disorder)

Common profile (in English): mild to moderate deficit in lexical skills and a more serious deficit in morphosyntax (use of tense and agreement morphemes) = grammatical SLI

2.4. Late talkers vs. SLI• Good understanding of language, typically developing play skills, motor skills, thinking skills, and social

skills, but has a limited spoken vocabulary for his or her age (24 month olds should use at least 50 words and combine 2 words together)

• 13% of 2 year olds, boys, pretermed babies• 50% of late talkers will catch up to their peers



• Risk factors for a continuing language disorder:• quiet as an infant; little babbling• uses few gestures to communicate• a mild comprehension (understanding) delay for his or her age• a family history of communication delay, learning or academic difficulties

2.5. Developmental delay or disorder

2.6. Debate over nonverbal abilityICD-10 definition, requires that a child has a substantial gap (1 SD or more) between their nonverbal ability and language ability.

This has been criticised on several counts:

• Very few children meet that criterion• A child's response to treatment doesn't depend on whether they have a big or small gap between language and

nonverbal ability• Twin studies do not support the idea of a language-nonverbal gap as defining a coherent group with a

common genetic basis

2.7. Epidemiology and Etiology• 7-8%• More boys (3-4x)• Genetic basis

• Familial aggregation: the relative risk for SLI is 7-10 times higher among first degree relatives (siblings 50-70% SLI)

• Twin studies: monozygotic twins 70-96% SLI• Multiple genes are involved

Theories

• low-level problem with auditory temporal processing (TALLAL)• deficit in a specialised language-learning system (van der LELY)• deficits in specific aspects of memory: verbal WM, procedural memory (GATHERCOLE, CONTI-



RAMSDEN,)

2.8. Educational impact of SLI• Children with SLI are at high risk of educational failure, especially when SLI persist beyond the age of 5

years, and where comprehension as well as expressive language is affected• Serious reading difficulties:

• 67% of children with expressive SLI• 88% of children with receptive SLI

• Attentional problems, social difficulties (e.g. 36% bullied), psychiatric problems

2.9. Assessment• Three strands to assessment:

• Information from parents/caregivers/teachers• Direct observation of the child in a natural setting• Formal assessment using standardized tests – PPVT, TROG

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) - Which is laughing?



Test for Reception Of Grammar (TROG)• Evaluating

• how well the child constructs sentences and keeps words in their proper order (grammar)• the number of words in his or her vocabulary• the quality of his or her spoken language (narrative)• expressive and receptive composit

• EpiSLI database (TOMBLIN)• score at/below 10th percentile or lower on two or more language composites

2.10. Intervention• Carried out by speech and language therapists• Enhancing development of language structure: 'milieu' methods, in which the intervention is interwoven into

natural episodes of communication, and the therapist builds on the child's utterances (and more)• TALLAL: Fast Forword ???• Literacy instruction should be delayed until having a critical level of linguistic skill

(See video: Teach Your Child (with Language Impairment, SLI or ASD) how to Answer Questions)

3. Developmental Dysgraphia3.1. Definition• Dysgraphia not equal with bad handwriting• Written expression disability: trouble organizing letters, numbers and words on a line or page.

• Poor handwriting• Problems with spelling, impaired orthographic coding• Problems of composition (expression of ideas at the level of text)

• Transcription (production of letters and spelling) and/or generational (ideas translated into language representation that must be organised, stored and retrieved from memory) component of writing can be involved

3.2. Interdependence of transcription and generation



Problems with hangwriting and spelling constrain composing:

• cognitive resources are allocated to the mechanical aspects of the writing process• misinterpretation of the author's meaning• negative perceptions about the writer• avoidance of writing

8.5 year old boy with dyslexia

"The worst storm I have been in is probably Hurricane Katrina. It was a disaster. Everything went everywhere. It was so difficult. The garbage went everywhere and our garbage can flew in the middle of the road. When we woke up, we saw it and a lot of other garbage can, and there was hail banging on our windows. It almost broke the window and it was big hail, the size of a golf ball. The end".

DC signs:

• Mixing capital and lower case letters• Inconsistent spacing,• Little use for punctuation,• Forming the same letter differently in different places,• Relying mostly on phonetic spelling,• Many erasure marks



3.3. Symptoms• Unusual pencil grip, often with the thumb on top of the fingers (a "fist grip")• Young children will often put their head down on the desk to watch the tip of the pencil as they write• The pencil is gripped so tightly that the child's hand cramps. The child will frequently put the pencil down

and shake out his/her hand.• Writing is a slow, labored, non-automatic chore.• Child writes letters with unusual starting and ending points.• Child has great difficulty getting letters to "sit" on the horizontal lines.• Unusual spatial organization of the page. Words may be widely spaced or tightly pushed together. Margins are

often ignored.• Copying off of the board is slow, painful, and tedious. Child looks up and visually "grabs" just one or two

letters at a time, repeatedly subvocalizes the names of those letters, then stares intensely at their paper when writing those one or two letters. This process is repeated over and over. Child frequently loses his/her place when copying, misspells when copying, and doesn't always match capitalization or punctuation when copying—even though the child can read what was on the board.

• Child has an unusually difficult time learning cursive writing, and shows chronic confusion about similarly-formed cursive letters such as f and b, m and n, w and u. They will also have difficulties in remembering how to form capital cursive letters.

DG children tend to

• avoid writing whenever possible• write everything as one very long sentence, not understand that a sentence has to start with a capital letter and

end with punctuation• be confused about what is a complete sentence versus a fragment• misspell many words - even though they often use only very simple one-syllable words that they are "sure"

they know how to spell = revelsal, inversion, transposition• take an unusually long time to write• have nearly illegible handwriting• do not notice their errors when "proofreading". They will read back what they wanted to say, not what is

actually on the page.

3.4. Subtypes• Writing = complex problem-solving process• Multidimensional nature of the writing process – multiple-cause models for deficits in writing• Subtypes will emerge based on the stage/component of the writing process at which a breakdown occurs

• Both fine motor and linguistic deficits• Predominantly visual-spatial deficits• Attention and memory difficulties• Sequencing problems

3.5. Handwriting• Handwriting is more than a motor act – knowledge of orthography and planning abilities• Predictors of handwriting:

• Speed of sequential finger movement – fine motor skills• Automaticity in the retrieval and production of alphabet letters• Rapid coding of orthographic information

• Inability to copy – difficulty in transducing visual information to the motor system, which stems• Motor deficits• Visual-motor coordination problems• Visual memory deficits• Orthographic processing deficits

3.6. SpellingPredictors of spelling:



• Language skills: phonological and orthographic mapping• Motor skills: visual-motor integration

Phonological DG: can write familiar words, cannot write pronounceable nonwords (+ phonological DL)

Orthographic/surface DG: can write easy words (like 'dog'), cannot write words in which phonology not equal with spelling (e.g. 'busy' = 'bizzy')

3.7. Composition• Complex form of communication requiring a number of cognitive abilities

• Language skills, reading• Executive functions: planning, organizing, fluency, inhibition, WM

• Deficits in deploying strategies during production of written text (organizing text at the sentence and paragraph level, reviewing punctuation, grammar or the body of their text to increase clarity)

3.8. DG independent disorder?Most children with LDs have problems with at least one academic skill in writing

• Dyslexia:• word reading disorder + spelling problems are linked by phonological processing deficit• reading comprehension + composition problems are influenced by similar metacognitive processes

• ADHD: role of executive functions in planning and organizing written expression• Specific Language Impairment

BUT only moderate correlation among listening comprehension, oral expression, reading comprehension and written expression

3.9. Epidemiology and Etiology• 10% of the school age population

• 1.3-2.7% handwriting• 4% spelling• 1-3% composition

• More boys (1.5x)• Problems are persistent certainly in children with DL, SLI• Genetic basis

• Strong heritability of spelling abilities (only): 0.76• Locus for spelling (and reading) on chromosome 15

3.10. AssessmentNot well developed

• Handwriting: qualitative assessments of legibility of writing sample• Spelling: tests involving dictation of single words, or scoring spelling errors in context• Composition: evalueted through coding system that requires judgments about specific components of the

written narrative (e.g. Test of Written Language)• Process Assessment of the Learner – Test Battery for Reading and Writing (PAL-RW, BERNINGER):

Writing Subtests• Alphabet writing: writing lower-case letters of the alphabet from memory in 15 sec.• Expressive coding: shown a word for 1sec. – writing the third letter• Note-taking: listening to a story and taking notes as it is read• Copying: a sentence/paragraph as fast as possible• Finger sense: repetition, succession, localization, recognition

3.11. Treatment of handwriting difficulties• Multisensory intervention methods



• Verbal mediation• Visual cuing of letter formations• Writing letters from memory with increasing delays• Orthographic training• Explicitly teching handwriting is more beneficial than simply teching different components (Focus the child's

attention on the critical features and demands of the task and provide adequate support for the child to enjoy success until independent mastery)



Typical instructional unit for the handwriting treatment (GRAHAM)

3.12. Treatment of spelling difficulties• Systematic and explicit spelling instructions (similarities and differences of spelling patterns)



Typical instructional unit for the spelling treatment (GRAHAM)

• Compensatory devices:• Keyboarding: BUT typing is slow• Dictation using a voice recognition system: producing more material• Word prediction programs: significant impact, especially when comorbid difficulties with WM and

attention

3.13. Developing composition skills• Developing writing practice also impacts reading ability• Sentence combining• Metacognitive intervention: increasing students' awareness of writing as a problem-solving process ???• Cognitive-behavioral intervention: Self-Regulated Strategy Development (GRAHAM and HARRIS, 1996) –

structured, explicit, systematic approach to writing instruction (see more)



Self-Regulated Strategy Development

3.14. Accomodations• Extra time for writing assignments.• Not judging timed assignments on neatness and spelling.• Alternate focus of writing assignments (neatness, spelling, grammar or organization of ideas).• Assessing knowledge with oral reports or visual projects.• Assistive technology: portable keyboard, spell checker, note-taking software, and speech-to-text dictation

programs.

3.15. More tips...• Using paper with raised lines, comfortable pen,• Proper grip, posture and paper positioning for writing,• Starting writing assignments creatively with drawing, or speaking ideas into a tape recorder,• Checklist for editing work, complete tasks in small steps instead of all at once, list of keywords,• Reducing amount of copying,• Proofreading work after a delay.

see more...

4. Developmental Dyslexia



4.1. DefinitionExclusionary (DSM-V.) vs. Inclusionary approaches of definition

• Reading disabilities• word recognition (word-level reading disability, WLRD)• reading fluency• reading comprehension

• Difficulty in single-word decoding leads to a profound disturbance of reading for meaning (comprehension).• Developmental disorder vs. developmental lag• Dyslexic people are visual, multi-dimensional thinkers, have a unique learning style – DL is a gift?



4.2. PseudodyslexiaDyslexic is not equal with a child that the local public school could not teach to read

• Vision problems (e.g. astigmatism), hearing loss• Poor instruction, look and say/whole language method vs. phonics method to teach reading,• Mismatch between cultural expectations and school expectations for literacy: vocabulary, experience with

print, value of reading in low SES families...• Not appropriate books for learning to read: loss of interest in reading• Lack of reading practice: fluency problems, no automatization• Slow readers: faulty habit of attention and concentration, fear of losing comprehension, regression, efforts to

remember "everything" that is read

4.3. Spelling deficit in DL• Difficulty to decode words AND to encode (spell) words either in isolation or in context.• Same phonological processing difficulties in the background BUT dissociation:

• Spelling problem and word recognition OK• Languages that have more transparent relationship between phonology and orthography (e.g. German,

Hungarian)

4.4. Epidemiology• Historically generated prevalence estimates of at least 5-10% of the school age population• Less common in populations that use languages which have direct and transparent correspondence between

graphemes and phonemes• Most common form of LD: 80-90% of children served in special education programs• More boys (1.5-2x vs. 3-4x reported by earlier studies – clinic and school settings were subject to referral

bias).• Higher prevalence in children of low SES - language and literacy environment between 4-7 years



4.5. EthiologyGenetic factors

• Family aggregation: parent with DL – risk in the offspring 8x• Concordance rates for monozygotic twins: above 80% (dizygotic twins: 50%)• Heritability 0.6 for reading disability AND ability• Generalist genes hypothesis

• Most commonly identified locus on chromosome 6p (DCD2, KIAA0319), polygenic deficit involving multiple genes, no sex-linked component

• Does phenotypic variance reflect genetic variance?

Shared environmental factors significant: language and literacy environment (parents with DL read less frequently, have fewer books) + quality of reading instruction

4.6. Warning signs (4-8 years)Troubles with language

• Learning to speak (delayed compared to his peers).• Learning the alphabet, numbers and days of the week.• Naming people and objects.• Speaking precisely and using a varied, age-appropriate vocabulary.• Staying on topic.• Getting or staying interested in stories and books.• Understanding the relationship between speaker and listener.• Pronouncing word correctly (Example: says "mazagine" instead of "magazine").• Learning and correctly using new vocabulary words.• Distinguishing words from other words that sound similar.• Rhyming words.• Understanding instructions/directions.



• Repeating what has just been said.

Troubles with reading

• Naming letters.• Recognizing letters, matching letters to sounds and blending sounds when speaking.• Learning to read as expected for his/her age.• Associating letters with sounds, understanding the difference between sounds in words.• Accurately blending letter sounds within words.• Recognizing and remembering sight words.• Remembering printed words.• Distinguishing between letters and words that look similar.• Learning and remembering new vocabulary words.• Keeping ones place—and not skipping over words—while reading.• Showing confidence and interest in reading.

Example

Troubles with writing and others

• Learning to copy and write at an age-appropriate level.• Writing letters, numbers and symbols in the correct order.• Spelling words correctly and consistently most of the time.• Proofreading and correcting written work.• Sense of direction/spatial concepts (such as left and right).• Performing consistently on tasks from day to day.

4.7. Warning signs (Grades 3-8)Troubles with language

• Understanding instructions or directions• Repeating what has just been said in proper sequence.• Staying on topic and getting to the point (gets bogged down in details).• Naming people and objects.• Speaking with precise, accurate language, proper grammar and a varied vocabulary.• Distinguishing between words that sound similar.• Pronouncing words correctly.• Speaking smoothly, without much halting or use of "filler words" (like "um").• Rhyming.• Understanding humor, puns and idioms.

Troubles with reading

• Reading age-appropriate content with good fluency.• Reading aloud or silently with good understanding.• Feeling confident and interested in reading.• Remembering sight words and other printed words.• Learning and remembering new vocabulary words.• Accurately analyzing unfamiliar words (tends to guess instead).• Reading words and letters in the correct order, seldom reversing or skipping over them.• Understanding word problems in math.

Troubles with writing and others

• Mastering spelling rules.• Spelling the same word consistently and correctly.• Writing letters, numbers and symbols in the correct order.• Proofreading and correcting self generated work.• Expressing ideas in an organized way. (older children)• Preparing/organizing writing assignments. (older children)



• Fully developing ideas in writing. (older children)• Listening and taking notes at the same time.• Learning/remembering new skills; relies heavily on memorization.• Remembering facts and numbers.• Sense of direction/spatial concepts (such as left and right).• Performing consistently on tasks from day to day.• Applying skills from one situation to another.• Learning new games and mastering puzzles.

4.8. Common reading errorsDL: Abnormal frequency of common errors!

• Whole Word Errors: the student is attempting to visually recognize entire words as a unit instead of processing the print by sound. Often the words look similar to words the student has already learned as sight words.

• Word Guessing Errors: the student only looks at the first letter and then guesses a word. Recently used word will be used or a word will be guessed from an illustration.

Evaluating errors, identifying common patterns in the errors -> establishing an effective remediation plan

• Tracking Errors: student appears to be attempting to sound out words. However, they are not properly tracking left-to-right

• Lack of Code Knowledge/Difficulty with Complexities: th, sh, ow, mispronunciations where the sounds of vowel combinations are sounded out separately

• Attention to Detail Errors: the student misses bits and parts of the word, missing details with plural words (inaccurately leaving off or adding /s/ /es/, changing or missing other endings (such as ing, ed)

Examination of fluency and comprehension is necessary!

• Consonant Cluster Errors: the student will insert the blended cluster sounds into words even when it is NOT present (s-st, st-str, d-dr, c-cl, c-cr, t-tr, g-gr, f-fr, ending clusters p-mp, and d-nd)

• Letter Confusion: visually similar letters b - d - and p (print/font style can create additional difficulty



• Difficulty with Multisyllable Words: missing or changing parts of the word, dropping or adding sounds inappropriately, difficulty putting the words together

• Blending Difficulty: choppy or segmented sounding out

• Slow Processing: the reader is relying on indirect processing to phonologically process the print

4.9. Fundamental Skills Necessary for Proficient Phonologic Processing

Overview

• Phonological Awareness: understanding words are made up of sounds and being able to hear, recognize and manipulate the individual sounds that form the word (example /"Demystifying Dyslexia" movie part 17:31-18:41/)

• Knowledge of Complete Phonetic Code: more than knowledge of the basic alphabet, 26 letters and 44 sounds

• Directional Tracking: looking at and processing all the letters in order from left-to-right• Blending: blending individual sounds smoothly together into words without choppy pauses between the

sounds• Attention to Detail: carefully looking at all the letters/sounds in a word

4.10. Subtypes of DLDerived from the dual-route framework of reading

Dual-route model of reading

• Phonological DL: impairment in the sublexical system (in which phonological rules relate graphemes to phonemes)

• Surface DL: impairment in the lexical system (visual-orthographic system in which meaning is directly addressed)

• More recently: surface DL is an unstable subtype with a transient delay in the development of word recognition skills vs. phonological DL represents a long-term deficit

• Empirical subtyping:• Impairment of phonological awareness + rapid naming (RAN) + verbal short-term memory• Impairment of phonological awareness + RAN



• Impairment of phonological awareness + verbal short-term memory + lexical/spatial skill• Rapid naming difficulties – only fluency and comprehension problems

4.11. Core cognitive processesPhonological processing hypothesis of DL

Phonological processing hypothesis of DL

• Phonological awareness – understanding of alphabetic principle – word recognition – automaticity + comprehension

• Rapid automatized naming of letters and digits: can constitute a second, etiologically distinct source of variance in reading skills (especially fluency)

• Phonological memory (independent?)

Neurobiological background



Typically developing children

Children with DL

4.12. Other DL-theoriesRole of sensorimotor deficits?

• (Visual-perceptual theories)• Magnocellular theory – low level sensory deficits• Low level auditory processing – perception of rapidly changing stimuli



• Cerebellar hypothesis – failure of adequate automatization mediated by the cerebellum• Peripheral vision hypothesis

4.13. AssessmentTesting phonemic awareness

• Starting Sounds (words with blended consonants e.g. smile, drop, play)• Rhyming• Segmenting phonemes in a word• Putting sounds together• Sound changing

• deleting beginning sounds (e.g. /r/at, /b/old, and words with blended consonants /b/ring, /t/rain)• deleting ending sounds (e.g. mu/d/, gra/ss/, and words with blended consonants los/t/, cam/p/)• manipulating individual sounds within words (e.g. cut-cat, rug-mug)

The Abecedarian Reading Assessment

Reading

• Achievement tests: Woodcock Johnson Psychoeducational Battery-III, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Peabody Individual Achievement Test, Woodcock Reading Mastery Test

• DL-Screening: 3DM Test• Word recognition (common words, unusual words, nonwords)• Spelling• Phoneme deletion• RAN (letters, digits, objects)• Grapheme-phoneme conversion• Verbal WM• Spatial WM



• Simple reaction time

Reading Assessment Database

4.14. InterventionIntervention principle for students with DL

• Training in motor, visual, neural or cognitive processes without academic content does not lead to better academic outcomes!

• Fast ForWord programs ???• Sensory Integration Therapy ???• Coloured filters ???

Remediation

• Difficult to bring students with DL up to grade level if the intervention begins after grade 2• Improvement most apparent in word recognition, transfer to comprehension, fluency gains are often smaller• More intensity (lenght of instruction)• Multisensory methods ??? (example /"Demystifying Dyslexia" movie part 06:29-08:00/)• Effective programs:

• explicit• oriented to academic content• teach to mastery• provide scaffolding and emotional support• monitoring progress

See: FAIR

4.15. PreventionEarly intervention may reduce the number of students who are at risk for reading difficulties: children with DL as well as who are economically disadvantaged and poorly prepared to read!

• Classroom-level programs or tutoring (1:3)• Systematic phonics instruction, phonemic awareness instruction with a letter component• In kindergarten and first grade (not for low-achiewing readers in grades 2-6)• In small groups or class+PALS (peer-assisted learning strategies)• Teachers or computer• Prescribed lesson plans• Other components: fluency (repeated reading with modeling), vocabulary, comprehension, writing



5. Developmental Dyscalculia5.1. Dyscalculia is not trouble with mathLow mathematics achievment may be due to

• Low IQ (generalised poor learning capacity)• Cultural deprivation• Inappropriate teaching• Lack of motivation (to practice)• Temporary learning problems• Mathematical anxiety• Developmental delay• Neuropsychological deviance

5.2. Epidemiology• 3-6% of school population (criterion-dependent)• No gender differences• Comorbidity

• 30% ADHD -> DC secondary to ADHD?• 17-65% DL -> no qualitative difference between DC+DL and DC children, no quantitative difference on

simple number tasks• Genetic basis

• Familiality (the relative risk for DC is 5-10 times higher among first degree relatives), but "generalist genes"

• Subjects with genetic disorders (Williams Syndrome, Turner's Syndrome) are severely disabled in arithmetic

5.3. Definition of DCDefinition of DC (UK Department for Education and Skills):

"Dyscalculic learners may have difficulty understanding simple number concepts, lack an intuitive grasp of numbers, have problems learning number facts and procedures. Even if they produce a correct answer or use a correct method, they may do so mechanically and without confidence."

5.4. Concept of numerosityUnderstanding

• one-to-one correspondence principle;• that sets of things have numerosity and that some manipulations of these sets affect the numerosity

(combining sets, taking subsets away), and that one set has the same/greater/smaller numerosity;• that sets need not be of visible things (audible/tactile/abstract things);

and recognising small numerosities – sets of up to about four objects – without verbal counting.

See: Piaget's conservation of number task

5.5. Biologically primary quantitative abilities (GEARY)• Numerosity

• Preverbal counting



• Ordinality

• Simple arithmetic



Karen WYNN: addition and subtraction by 4-5 month old infants

Basic features of these competencies

• universal, modular• our numerical heritage: evidenced during human infancy• provide the skeletal structure for the emergence of more complex number, counting, and arithmetic skills• many of the associated activities emerge without formal schooling

Number Sense (DEHAENE)

5.6. Biologically secondary number, counting, and arithmetic competencies• Number and counting: learning number words, understanding the base-10 system, transcoding• Computations: memorization of basic arithmetic facts and computational procedures for solving complex

arithmetic problems• Word problems: identifying problem type, translating and integrating the verbal representations into

mathematical representations, multi-step problems

Basic features of these competencies

• culturally determined, although built from more primary system;• school-taught: acquired by deduction or by learning from others;



• effectiveness of this learning process is determined by general intellectual abilities, and by educational and instructional practice

5.7. Conceptualistions of DC• BUTTERWORTH: defective number module hypothesis = domain-specific theory• GEARY (mathematical disability) = domain-general cognitive deficits

EXAMPLE: Difficulty in the representation and retrieval of arithmetic facts from long-term semantic memory

5.8. Mental number line• Model of analogue representation of quantity (DEHAENE)• A nonverbal semantic representation of the size and distance relations between numbers, which may be

category specific – gives meaning to numbers• Size- and distance effect, SNARC-effect• Comparison, estimation, subtraction



Triple code model (DEHAENE)

5.9. Four-step developmental model of numerical cognition (Von ASTER and SHALEV)

Adult's mental number line presupposes an intact inherited core-system representation of cardinal magnitude (ANS), but also requires several domain-general competencies, such as the development of language, attention, and working memory, which makes the construction and automatization of a spatial image of ordinal numbers possible.

5.10. Subtypes of DC• Pure DC (1,8%) step 1 fails to be established appropriately, because of genetic vulnerability. Symptoms are:

serious and persisting delay in mathematical development, as well as atypical mistakes, inadequate ways of number processing and of arithmetical problem solving

• Comorbide DC (4,2%) disfunction of domain-general sub-systems (language, attention) of the number processing network. Indicator of this DC subtype is intact processing of magnitude in tasks with non-symbolic stimuli, which doesn't require counting.

5.11. MiniMath test5.11.1. Principles of MiniMath test

Created by Jármi Éva, Soltész Fruzsina, Szűcs Dénes, Csépe Valéria



Programmed by Magyar Tímea

• What to measure• Scientific basis• Basic counting abilities• Non-numerical abilities

• How to measure• Computerized test• Reaction time (msec)• Methodological approach

• Goal of measurement• Screening• Early identification (5yrs)• Identification of sub-types

• Design• Playfulness, framework story• Adaptivity

5.11.2. Measuring basic number skills

• Quantitative judgement tasks include non-symbolic stimuli, e.g. they require enumerating sets including different items, and completing various operations with them: Counting, error-detection in counting, comparing quantities of sets, number conservation, and informal understanding of fractions/division.

• Arithmetic facts – number knowledge tasks require the knowledge and retrieval of information relating to numbers: Transcoding, understanding quantity-words, parity judgement, retrieval of addition and multiplication facts, verification of additions and multiplications, and facts of everyday life relating to numbers.

• Number concept - the meaning of numbers tasks require the knowledge of ordinality related to number pairs (comparing numbers) and to number sequences: Recognition and formation of number sequences, Numerical Stroop, estimation of number-to-position and position-to-number on the 0-1000 number line.



Video 1. Recognition of number sequence: 1-9• Arithmetic algorithms – basic operations tasks require the conceptual understanding of the four basic

arithmetic operations and the knowledge of their procedure: Execution of addition, subtraction, multiplication up to 1000, algorithm inversion (e.g. A+B-B vs. A+A-B), knowledge of the operation signs, and semantic elaboration of the operations.

5.12. Interventions5.12.1. Classroom Instruction

• Highly structured lessons involving frequent teacher question and student answer• Explicit instructions targeting procedural skills and conceptual knowledge, peer-mediated practice• Strategy training• Self-instructional strategy techniques

5.12.2. Tutorial Interventions

• Explicit, procedurally clear, conceptually based explanations• Systematic, scaffolded instruction on problem solution rules and on enhancing transfer• Pictorial/concrete representations of the math• Verbal rehearsal with gradual fading• Intensive timed practice on mixed problems• Cumulative review of previously mastered problem types• Broadening schemas and evoking independent searches for connections between novel and familiar tasks• Self-regulation strategies: graphing and monitoring performance and goal setting

See video: Dyscalculia - A Parent's Guide

5.12.3. The Number Race

Scientifically tested, created by WILSON and DEHAENE

• Strenghten the brain mechanisms of number processing: comparing numbers encourages processing quantity and transforming the numbers from their symbolic representation to the quantity representation

• Establish the mental number line: linear, numbered, board game• Teach and practice counting: reinforcing addition facts, e.g. if a player is on square 7, and wins 3, the game

tells them "7 + 3 = 10" as their player is moved forward• Teach and practice early addition and subtraction: comparing the results of addition/subtraction/both,

estimating or exact calculation• Encourage fluency/automatic processing: level of difficulty is adjusted according to the player's performance,

and maintains an average success rate of 75%.

The Number Race: Download


Chapter 8. Consultation – case studiesOne of the most interesting question in the field of school psychology is the problem solving strategy of the school psychologist. Usually there are two possible directions for problem solving, the direct and the indirect strategy of intervention. It is very useful to use consultation with teachers and other staff in this process.

We describe some problems for group work on a seminar. These are case studies, based on real happenings in Hungarian schools, but we have changed in all cases the original data, the accordance with real events is occasional.

Working at school we can meet similar problems. The main goal of a seminar dealing with problem analysis should be to improve the problem solving potential of students by extending the set of solutions. In any cases there are different possibilities. In a case analysis we can consider strengths and weaknesses of the alternatives.

1. Description of the problems – case studies1.1. Case 1. AndrásAndrás goes to Year One. He started going to school at the age of 6 years and 10 months. The class has 25 pupils. Their teacher in the morning is an experienced 50 year-old lady, while in the afternoon a young and enthusiastic teacher takes care of them. The morning teacher is popular and many parents want their children enrolled in her class. András didn't have any visible issues with school in the first week, however by the second week he threw a great tantrum when ran out of time in doing a task: he cried, shouted, sat under his desk and was not willing to come out.

The teacher tried to calm András down in a calm voice, however she was not successful. András spent the entire break sulking, and did no work during the next lesson. From there onwards, the conflicts became more frequent. Any sort of difficulty elicited an extreme reaction from András. If he feels that his classmates are hurting him – be it a small comment, or someone standing in a place where he would have liked to stand – he starts shouting and fighting. He frequently disrupts the lessons, and does not stick to the rules. For instance, if he knows something, he shouts it out. At other times, he leaves his place and starts walking at random, looking at other people's exercise-book.

The teacher and the nursery nurses of the nearby nursery are on good terms with each other, so the teacher enquired about their experiences with András. The nursery nurses described similar difficulties at nursery, right from when András started going there at the age of three. The nursery nurses tried to let the parents know about the problem, but without success. They had little contact with the parents; András was mainly taken to and from the nursery by his pensioner grandmother, sometimes in the company of his sister, who is seven years older than him.

The teacher then tried to contact the family, but she could only speak with András' paternal grandmother, who is always the one taking András to school and taking him home. She learned from the grandmother that the father is often away for days due to his job, and his mother does variable shifts as a saleswoman.

The teacher asked the parents for a meeting. After two months' wait the teacher managed to sit down with the mother to talk about András' issues. This was before the Christmas break. The mother realized that help is needed, and sought the help of the child guidance service, where she was received first at the end of January.

András' performance in class is variable. He has problems with letters and reading, and his pencil grip is too tight. However, he is very good and motivated during physical exercise. He has the same violent emotional outburst when he fails at a task as when he has conflicts with other pupils. This often means that teaching has to be suspended during these periods. He is good at expressing himself: he likes – and is good at – telling stories, which he injects with a lot of fantasy. The teacher is patient with him, and would like to give him enough time to overcome his issues and learn to obey the class rules.

The children, on the other hand, are increasingly afraid of András, who is strong and physically well-built. The


Consultation – case studies

parents keep complaining to the teacher. For them, the last straw came in mid-February, when András pushed a kid so hard that he hit the edge of the radiator. This caused a bleeding wound on the kid’s head and he had to be taken to the doctor. As a consequence, five parents went to the head teacher and declared that if András was not removed from the school (or at least from the class), they would take their own kids out of the school.

1.2. Case 2. ZsuzsaZsuzsa goes to a secondary vocational school, she is in year 10. Zsuzsa is a quiet girl, not a prominent member of the class consisting of 33 students. She is a poor student, but her classmates do not perform much better than her. This is a catering school, half of the pupils study to become waiters, the others to become cooks.

In October the class teacher became aware of Zsuzsa being late more and more, often arriving at the end of second period. The girl takes the bus to school from a village 20 km away, she says there were difficulties with the transport. At a conversation with the teacher, she says there isn't any problem, she promises to be on time and continues to be late.

The class teacher tried to get in contact with the family. Zsuzsa's foster parent is her dad's cousin. The class teacher did not know the foster parents. Last year Zsuzsa's grandmother attended the parent evenings. The grandmother lives in the same village as Zsuzsa. This year the grandma did not attend the parent evening.

The class teacher first sent a note to the foster parents to get in contact with him, then she tried to reach them by phone, without success. Then she sent a text message, and then sent a registered letter to no avail. Only once she got hold of the foster father who also mentioned the difficult situation with the transport, and claimed that there is nothing wrong with Zsuzsa. The strange thing was, that Zsuzsa has not been to school for three days then, and the class teacher got the feeling that the foster father did not know of it, but he instantly said that the girl was sick.

Two months have passed with this without any improvement. Before Christmas, the class teacher became aware that Zsuzsa is a lot thinner that before. At this point she referred the problem to the school psychologist and she also reported the problem to the child protection officer because Zsuzsa was absent from school unexcused more than allowed and they had to report it to the clerk.

1.3. Case 3. EszterEszter is in year 9 at secondary school. Her young Maths teacher has noticed that Eszter always sits at the front, alone. She is very quiet and never says anything to anybody. When she calls her to the blackboard, she protests that she does not like to be in the spotlight as she is too nervous. The girl lives in the school dormitories with two of her classmates, the other two girls are on very good terms with each other.

Eszter's test results were very poor. After one of the lessons, when she again had not been willing to answer at the blackboard, the maths teacher talked with her about what the problem was. Eszter asked her to help her with maths because she does not have a clue about the material. The teacher offered to help her once a week after class. As they got to know each better, Eszter shared more of her problems with the teacher, and the extra lessons started to be more about her problems than about the maths. Eszter used to be a good pupil at primary school.

She has no siblings. Her father died of cancer one and a half years ago, and her mother found a new partner, with whom Eszter is on bad terms. About half a year ago the partner moved in with them.

Eszter spoke about her many fears to the mathematics teacher. She is so nervous when she has to speak in front of the class that she fears she ma faint. She sleeps unwell and often wakes up to dreaming about his father calling her.

The extra lessons took place continuously from November. By the end of February the maths teacher felt he has to include the class teacher in the problem at hand, since Eszter started speaking more and more about wanting to die and had referred to her fantasies about this.

The class teacher determined that Eszter is at risk and reported the case to the headteacher. The headteacher called Eszter's mother on the telephone and by referring to her educational problems suggested that it would be better if the girl continued her studies at home under the supervision of her mother. The mother reacted that she does not think there are any problems. "Her girl always finds it hard to adapt to a new situtation, these are initial



problems, and the school should not interfere with family affairs"-was her reaction.

The headteacher then directed Eszter to the school psychologist. Eszter went at the appointed time. Although in a very reserved manner, but she spoke about her problems, like she did to her maths teacher.

1.4. Case 4. GáborThe teacher visited the school psychologist after the case in question because he was not sure he handled it well.

Gábor is in his class in year 11. He has been Gabor’s class teacher for three years. Gabor is 17 years old. This is the teacher's first class. He is close to his pupils, he thinks they trust him, which is easy because he is close to their age.

On Saturday, the class had to take part in a compulsory school event. Gabor told the teacher in advance that he will not be able to attend because he is going away with his parents. During a break in the school event, the teacher went out to the street to smoke with a colleague. He saw Gabor on the street going somewhere. Monday morning he confronted Gabor about it. Gabor became very embarrassed. He said that it was true that his parents had gone and he wanted to make use of that and call his friends to do what they liked.

Then the teacher asked the friend as well, who confirmed that the two had spent the Saturday together: they hung out on the net, went to the cinema, etc.

Then the teacher called the parents on the pretext of asking about how many days they think the school excursion should be, and he found out that they had gone away for the weekend and suggested a good tourist house for the class to stay in. The teacher had not told the parents that Gábor had not been at the school event. He then made Gábor promise he will not lie again and then let the matter rest.

The reason the teacher asked the pyschologist's advice was not Gábor's behaviour but the fact that he becomes embarrassed every time he meets Gábor, even though he feels he had done everything in his interests.

1.5. Case 5. The "broken" classA primary 4 teacher had sought the help of the school psychologist about the following problem. The teacher is very enthusiastic, who takes care of the pupils individually. She organizes a lot of programmes for them, such as taking them twice to a forest camp, as well as numerous Saturday excursions. She sometimes feels that the parents expect too much of her, even shedding some of their responsibilities of bringing up the children onto her.

Up until now she felt that the class atmosphere was good and that the children are on good terms with each other. Since the beginning of the current year, however, she feels that there is an increasing amount of tension among the pupils. The pupils have begun ostracizing 4-5 pupils from a disadvantaged background, started calling them names, and have also shown serious prejudices against each other in general. They started picking on each other for not wearing branded clothes, for instance.

Many of the pupils' parents are divorced, many do not take proper care of their children. Some of the parents even argue among each other in front of the children.

After the teacher's meetings with the psychologist, the two agreed to hold three joint guidance classes for the pupils. During the next two meetings, the two developed the main framework of the classes: the focus was to be understanding fellow pupils from many different viewpoints and accepting them, and talking about the problem of ostracism. On their last meeting, they talked about concrete tasks and what roles each of them would take during these guidance classes.

Just before these guidance classes, the teacher strained her ankle and it was certain that she would be on sick leave for at least a couple of weeks.

Questions:

Should one make use of the fact that because of the absence of the teacher, the pupils now have a lot of spare time? Should the psychologist carry out the activities she had planned jointly with the teacher or should she wait until the teacher comes back?



2. Questions for analysing case-studiesWhat are the problem areas?

• Learning problems• learning disabilities

• dyslexia• dyscalculia• dysgraphia

• other:• Attention disorder• Emotional problems

• conflicts within the family• lack of motivation• low self-esteem• depression

• Social relations with schoolmates and adults• isolation• aggression• provocative or attention seeking behaviour• conflict with peers• conflict with adults

• Communication problems• lack of communication between the touched persons• communicational disorders (misunderstanding)• lack of information

• Other problem:..............................

What are the boundaries of "normal" development and what behaviours or symptoms are to be considered as real problems?

Is any information lacking from the anamnesis? What is missing from the case description? Who would the best information source for you?

What kind of assessment do you need as a school psychologist for problem solving?

Who are affected in the situation (persons involved in the problem)?

• One boy (schoolboy)– one girl (schoolgirl)• One other boy/girl of the class• other classmates• teacher• class teacher• mother of the child• father of the child• parents of other children in this class• director• somebody else:..............................

Who can potentially be of help in this situation?

• One boy (schoolboy)– one girl (schoolgirl)• Other boys of this class - Other girls of the class• The other classmates• teacher• form master• mother of the child• father of the child• brother or sister of the child• grandparents



• other family members• friends, neighbours of the family• other parents in this class• director• school psychologist• special educator(s)• private teacher (helping as coach)• psychotherapist• physician• others:..............................

As a school psychologist draw a plan of invention!

What are the potential directions in problem solving of this situation?

What is your favourite direction? Why have you chosen this solution? What are the advantages of this plan?

How much time is needed for the problem solving (or at least reduction)?

What is the task of the school psychologist in this case? How many time do you need for this? What methods are needed?

Could we use consultation with teacher(s) as method of problem solving in this case?

Is it necessary to take an external service into the problem solving? If yes, what service (child guidance, psychiatry, local government, etc.)?

Is this problem a special case or does is occur as a frequent problem in this institution (this school)? If it is a common problem, is it possible to manage progress at system level? How can a school psychologist facilitate this change?


Chapter 9. Studying school organizationsThis work is for helping studying school organizations. Information is spaced into different topics. Help contains aspects for observation and interview topics. We have worked out topics and questions based on the following works:

• Serfőző, M. (2002): A nevelési-oktatási intézmények, mint szervezetek. In: Trencsényi, L. (szerk.): A szervezet kultúrája, a kultúra szervezete. Módszertani Füzetek. Okker, Budapest. 47-85.

• Serfőző, M.(2002): A szervezeti kultúra fogalmának, modelljeinek értelmezése az óvodában, iskolában. In: Mészáros A. (szerk.): Az iskola szociálpszichológiai jelenségvilága. (átdolgozott kiadás) ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, Budapest, 495-525.

• Serfőző, M., Somogyi, M.(2004): Az iskola, mint szervezet. In: N. Kollár, K. – Szabó, É. (szerk.): Pszichológia pedagógusoknak. Osiris, Budapest.

• Serfőző, M.(2005): Az iskolák szervezeti kultúrája. Iskolakultúra, 10. 70-83.

1. Organizational environment

a. Aspects for observation

• Where is the school located? How many buildings belong to the organization? How far are those buildings from each other?

• Who are the clients of the school? How many clients are there? How old are they? On average how much students travel to school and back home daily?

• How many workers does the organization have?

• Who/what institution sustains the organization? Which documents regulate the working of the school?

b. Interview topics

• Interview with the head of the institution

• In which areas he/she can decide alone about the institution?

• How has the financial system changed in recent times, has it changed at all?

• What does he/she feel influences the efficiency of school?

• What is the relationship between the other similar institutions nearby? Are there any common ideas, goals?

• How is the relationship with the parents? How much can the parents have their say in the school's life, happenings?

2. Organizational culture

a. Aspects for observation (directly visible signs of organizational culture)

• Visual, material manifestations

• How do the building of the school, the equipments, the arrangement look like?

• Where can you find the teacher's room? (Is there only one teacher's room, or more? If there are more, than how are they situated in the building?) Where is the headmaster's office? What do the arrangement


Studying school organizations

and equipment of classrooms, teacher's room look like?

• Do teachers, pupils have personal space? Do they have any possibilities to set up their own environment?

• What kind of objects, relics are placed in the building?

• What kind of decoration does the school have? Do the objects placed at/on corridors focus on the past or the present?

• How do the school herald and logo look like? Does the school have a unitary image?

• Is it required to wear any kind of uniform?

• Visual, material manifestations

• What is the name of the institution?

• Local curriculum, pedagogic program, health promotion program, policy – what are they contain, how are their style?

• Which similes, metaphores are used for the school?

• Who are the significant people of the institution? What stories are told about them, what message they include?

• Behavioural manifestations

• What holidays are observed by the school? Are they mandatory for teachers? Are there any excursion for teachers? Do they celebrate birthdays? Are the school holidays open for parents?

• Do the school have day to day rituals? How does an average day start in the school?

• How much attention is paid to the psychological, social support?

• How are they keeping contact with parents?

b. Interview questions for teachers

• What is more important for them: being a good teacher, or being a loyal worker of the institution?

• How are those efforts of the teachers supported which are aimed at personal development? What is the basis of teacher training: is it based on their individual needs or aspirations of the institution?

• What are they thinking of the headmaster as a leader?

• How independent is a teacher in his/her job? Which areas are needed to be consulted?

• How important is it to keep the rules? What are the consequences of someone not doing well the job he/she is responsible for?

• Are there any performance-based recognitions?

• How can you get involved in a discussion with the headmaster? Is it possible to openly explain another point of view than what the head support? Does the head take part in conflict management between colleagues?

• Do you have any visions about the school's future?

3. Individuals and groups in the organization

• Belbin's group members questionnaire: http://www.belbin.com/rte.asp?id=400 (you can test yourself for free, but don't forget to send them the answers)


Studying school organizations

• What kind of regular formal groups are in the institution? How many? Are there any temporary formal groups?

• How does the physical fragmentation (more teacher's room) affect the teaching staff's cohesion? Are there any gangs?

• Is cooperation between different groups quite efficient?

• Do they make decisions together?

4. Leadership (Interview questions)

• To the leader:

• How is an average day look like for him/her?

• How is his/her past in the organization, when did he/she start working here, when did he/she become headmaster, etc.

• How can he/she define his/ her job?

• How is the relationship he/she keeps with his/her colleagues?

• Does he/she have a relationship with similar institutions nearby? If yes, how is this relationship?

• - Does he/she have a relationship with a delegate of the sustainer?

• Is his/her door open?

• How can he/she define the easiest and the hardest thing in his/her job?

• Topics for teachers (recommended to talk with them about the leadership; if they don't want to talk about it, that's informative for us as well)

• personal relationship with headmaster

• how is his/hers conflict management

• how well does he/she know the teachers

• how does he/she taylor tasks he/she gives

5. Organizational communication (Aspects for observation)

• How does the leadership communicate with the staff? Is there any message board in teacher's room?

• Do they use modern tools for institutional communication?

• How typical is the cooperation with colleagues from other institutions on organizational level?

6. Organizational conflicts (Interview questions)

• Can you give an example of a recent conflict? What was the outcome, if there was any? What helped to solve the problem? Who were the participants? What was the cause of the conflict?

• Is there a long-standing, unresolved conflict in the organization? If so, what is the reason? Has any help been requested by the organization to solve the problem? What do you think would be the way to solve the problem? How do you think the conflict will end?


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