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Alternative Crop Production Strategies

Pepó, Péter

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Alternative Crop Production StrategiesPepó, Péter

TÁMOP-4.1.2.A/1-11/1-2011-0009

University of Debrecen, Service Sciences Methodology Centre

Debrecen, 2013.


TartalomTárgymutató ......................................................................................................................................... 11. Week 1: IMPORTANCE OF CROP PRODUCTION AND NEW CHALLENGES IN IT ............. 2

1. Crop production: evolution, short history, challenges ............................................................ 22. Brief overview of the crop production in the world and in Hungary ..................................... 43. Challenges of field crop production in countries of different developmental levels .............. 74. The importance of agricultural (plant) products ..................................................................... 95. Problems in the Hungarian crop production ........................................................................... 96. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 10

2. Week 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF CROP MODELS .................................... 111. Elements of the crop production process, alternative development possibilities ................ 112. The role of agro-ecological factors in the alternative crop production systems .................. 123. The role of biological bases in the alternative crop production systems .............................. 124. The role of agrotechnical elements in the alternative crop production systems .................. 145. Alternative crop production models ..................................................................................... 146. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 17

3. Week 3. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CROP PRODUCTION AND SUSTAINABILITY 191. Land use – crop production models ..................................................................................... 192. Sustainable crop production ................................................................................................. 213. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 23

4. Week 4. ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION ............................................ 241. Ecosystems – alternative crop production systems .............................................................. 242. Hungary’s weather with respect to crop production ............................................................. 263. The soils of Hungary with respect to crop production ......................................................... 274. Ecological regions of Hungary ............................................................................................. 285. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 29

5. Week 5. AGROECOSYSTEMS – ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES ........................................... 301. Alternative crop production systems as artificial ecosystems .............................................. 302. Agro-ecological conditions of alternative crop production systems .................................... 313. The roles of biocoenoses in agro-ecological systems .......................................................... 374. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 38

6. Week 6. ENERGY AND MATERIAL FLOW IN AGROECOSYSTEMS ................................... 391. Material and energy processes in the agro-ecosystems ........................................................ 392. Energy processes in the alternative crop production systems .............................................. 393. Material flow in the crop production ecosystems ................................................................ 424. Energy utilization in the alternative crop production systems ............................................. 445. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 45

7. Week 7. ROLE OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS AND GENOTYPE IN CROP MODELS ........... 461. The role of biological bases in alternative crop production systems ................................... 462. Variety/hybrid use in the most important field plant species ............................................... 503. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 53

8. Week 8. GM FIELD CROPS IN DIFFERENT CROP MODELS ................................................. 541. GM plants in field crop production ...................................................................................... 542. The potential risks of GM production .................................................................................. 573. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 59

9. Week 9. ALTERNATIVE CROP MODELS .................................................................................. 601. Crop production models ....................................................................................................... 602. Elements and characteristics of crop production models ..................................................... 62



3. Possibilities to increase efficiency in the alternative crop production models ..................... 634. Alternative models of sustainable crop production .............................................................. 665. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 68

10. Week 10. AGROTECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE CROP PRODUCTION I. ... 701. The role of agrotechnical elements in the alternative crop production models .................... 702. The role of tillage in the alternative crop production models .............................................. 733. The role of sowing technology in the alternative crop production models .......................... 764. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 77

11. Week 11. AGROTECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE CROP PRODUCTION II. .. 791. The role of nutrient supply in the alternative crop production models ................................ 792. The role of the water supply in the alternative crop production models .............................. 843. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 87

12. Week 12. AGROTECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE CROP PRODUCTION III. 891. The role of plant protection in the alternative crop production models ............................... 892. Plant diseases and the protection against them in crop production ...................................... 903. Animal pests and the protection against them in crop production ....................................... 934. Weeds and the protection against them in crop production .................................................. 935. The role of harvest in the alternative crop production models ............................................. 966. Questions .............................................................................................................................. 97

13. Week 13. ALTERNATIVE AND RENEWABLE ERENGIES FROM CROP PRODUCTION . 981. Alternative functions in crop production – energy production ............................................ 982. Questions ............................................................................................................................ 104

14. Week 14. PRECISION CROP PRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1051. Alternative functions in crop production – precision farming ........................................... 1052. Questions ............................................................................................................................ 113

15. Week 15. ORGANIC CROP PRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1141. Alternative functions in crop production – ecological crop production ............................. 1142. Questions ........................................................................................................................... 1213. References: ......................................................................................................................... 122


Az ábrák listája1.1. Figure 1. ........................................................................................................................................ 31.2. Figure 2. ........................................................................................................................................ 31.3. Table 1. .......................................................................................................................................... 41.4. Table 2. .......................................................................................................................................... 51.5. Table 3. .......................................................................................................................................... 61.6. Figure 3. ........................................................................................................................................ 92.1. Figure 4 ....................................................................................................................................... 112.2. Figure 5. ...................................................................................................................................... 132.3. Figure 6. ...................................................................................................................................... 152.4. Figure 7. ...................................................................................................................................... 162.5. Figure 8. ...................................................................................................................................... 163.1. Table 4. ........................................................................................................................................ 203.2. Figure 9. ...................................................................................................................................... 213.3. Figure 10. .................................................................................................................................... 223.4. Figure 11. .................................................................................................................................... 224.1. Figure 12. .................................................................................................................................... 254.2. Figure 13. .................................................................................................................................... 284.3. Figure 14. .................................................................................................................................... 284.4. Figure 15. .................................................................................................................................... 295.1. Figure 16. .................................................................................................................................... 305.2. Figure 17. .................................................................................................................................... 315.3. Figure 18. .................................................................................................................................... 355.4. Figure 19. .................................................................................................................................... 355.5. Figure 20. .................................................................................................................................... 376.1. Figure 21. .................................................................................................................................... 396.2. Figure 22. .................................................................................................................................... 406.3. Figure 23. .................................................................................................................................... 416.4. Figure 24. .................................................................................................................................... 426.5. Figure 25. .................................................................................................................................... 436.6. Figure 26. .................................................................................................................................... 446.7. Figure 27. .................................................................................................................................... 447.1. Figure 28. .................................................................................................................................... 497.2. Figure 29. .................................................................................................................................... 507.3. Figure 30. .................................................................................................................................... 517.4. Figure 31. .................................................................................................................................... 517.5. Table 4. ........................................................................................................................................ 527.6. Table 5. ........................................................................................................................................ 527.7. Figure 32. .................................................................................................................................... 538.1. Table 6. ........................................................................................................................................ 558.2. >Figure 33. .................................................................................................................................. 558.3. Figure 34 ..................................................................................................................................... 568.4. Table 7. ........................................................................................................................................ 578.5. Figure 35. .................................................................................................................................... 589.1. Table 8. ........................................................................................................................................ 619.2. Figure 36. .................................................................................................................................... 619.3. Figure 37. .................................................................................................................................... 649.4. Table 9. ........................................................................................................................................ 64



9.5. Figure 38. .................................................................................................................................... 669.6. Figure 39. .................................................................................................................................... 6710.1. Table 10. .................................................................................................................................... 7210.2. Table 11. .................................................................................................................................... 7210.3. Table 12. .................................................................................................................................... 7310.4. Table 13. .................................................................................................................................... 7610.5. Figure 40. .................................................................................................................................. 7711.1. Table 14. .................................................................................................................................... 7911.2. Table 15. .................................................................................................................................... 8011.3. Table 16. .................................................................................................................................... 8311.4. Table 17. .................................................................................................................................... 8311.5. Figure 41. .................................................................................................................................. 8411.6. Table 18. .................................................................................................................................... 8511.7. Table 19. .................................................................................................................................... 8712.1. Table 20. .................................................................................................................................... 9112.2. Table 21. .................................................................................................................................... 9112.3. Figure 42. .................................................................................................................................. 9212.4. Table 22. .................................................................................................................................... 9412.5. Table 23. .................................................................................................................................... 9512.6. Table 24. .................................................................................................................................... 9513.1. Figure 43. .................................................................................................................................. 9813.2. Table 25. .................................................................................................................................... 9913.3. Figure 44. ................................................................................................................................ 10013.4. Figure 45. ................................................................................................................................ 10013.5. Figure 46. ................................................................................................................................ 10113.6. Figure 47. ................................................................................................................................ 10213.7. Figure 48. ................................................................................................................................ 10314.1. Figure 49. ................................................................................................................................ 10514.2. Figure 50. ................................................................................................................................ 10914.3. Figure 51. ................................................................................................................................ 10914.4. Figure 52. ................................................................................................................................ 11014.5. Figure 53. ................................................................................................................................ 11014.6. Figure 54. ................................................................................................................................ 11214.7. Figure 55. ................................................................................................................................ 11215.1. Figure 56. ................................................................................................................................ 11615.2. Figure 57. ................................................................................................................................ 11615.3. Figure 58. ................................................................................................................................ 11615.4. Figure 59. ................................................................................................................................ 11715.5. Figure 60. ................................................................................................................................ 11815.6. Figure 61. ................................................................................................................................ 12015.7. Figure 62. ................................................................................................................................ 121


Tárgymutató


1. fejezet - Week 1: IMPORTANCE OF CROP PRODUCTION AND NEW CHALLENGES IN IT1. Crop production: evolution, short history, challengesSeveral biological, anthropological, ecological, social and sociological conditions played role in the hundreds of thousands year-long process of the evolution of mankind. There is no doubt that one of the milestones of this complex process was the appearance and development of the conscious productive activity of man. People got the material assets needed for their subsistence by killing (hunting-fishing) and collecting (seeds, fruits, etc.) the creatures of nature or by searching for different objects. During this period of time, people’s lives were determined by spontaneous processes. A crucial change was the appearance of the conscious productive activity of man, which primarily meant agricultural activity with the addition of making various tools and utensils; and also a primitive kind of medication. The primitive man began its conscious activity of producing special plants during this period and the domestication of certain animal species. Although this “productive” activity was fundamentally different from the recent, developed agricultural production, it resulted in a crucial change in the lives of the then people after all: the production of foods needed for subsistence depended on the natural conditions and the goods provided by nature to a lesser extent. Obviously, this primitive productive activity was supplemented by getting natural goods (hunting-fishing-gathering) through thousands of years.

The above described changes could take place on several geological locations of Earth. Crop production and animal husbandry could develop on more places of the world, about simultaneously. According to the archaeological findings, crop production may develop 10-12 thousand years B.C.One of the most ancient locations of the evolution of crop production was the area of the “fruitful crescent”, the area of the present countries of the Middle East and Asia Minor. Nearly parallel or with little time shift, the conscious production of plants also began on separate locations of Earth. These places were located on the present areas of China, India, Mexico, and Ethiopia. On these areas – due to the differences in the ecological conditions –, various kinds of plants were produced. Nevertheless, the most important ones were the cereals as the basic aliments of mankind supplemented by oil, protein, root and other crops.

In certain times and in the case of special developmental stages, the amount of goods produced by the primitive crop production exceeded the needs.This resulted in incalculable consequences: the division of labour became more pronounced (craftsmen, toolmakers, etc.), the unequal division of the goods, the property developed.The differentiation of the society began, accompanying the history of mankindeven until present.

Agricultural and food producing activity are still among the mosthighly distinguished branches of the economy, and will be there in the future too. The primary cause of this is that they fulfila fundamental, irreplaceable need, the production of aliments directly or indirectly (after processing).The population of Earth began to rapidly increase in the 1950s. Although, the population growth in the developed countries wasslower, it performed an exponential pace in the developing countries.Now, the population of the world is 7.2-7.4 billion people, and due to the prognoses, it will be 9 to 10 billion to 2050. It is of special importance to satisfy the quantity needs of the rapidly increasing population of Earth with agricultural, mainly alimentary products.This means that the food consumption per capita should remain at least on the present level. In addition, the better food provision for the presently 0.8-1.0 billion starving people is of considerable importance. Most of these people are living in the developing countries. Unfortunately, the smaller portion of the habitants cannot get food of appropriate quantity and quality even in the developed countries. Besides the quantitative production, crop production has to ever satisfy the qualitative demands too.Nowadays, quality is the basic market standard not solely in the developed countries.There is an ever growing population in the countries performing rapid economic development,whichnot only needs high quality foods made of plants and an increasing amount of animal products, but can pay the price of them. According to the statistical results, in China about 300 million, while in India 200 million people can pay the European consumption grade (the sum of these numbers isclose to that of the EU27 habitants). Therefore, it is importantto fulfil the qualitative aims besides the quantitative increaseby the crop production of the future. This goal consists of not only the directly utilized foods of better quality but


Week 1: IMPORTANCE OF CROP PRODUCTION AND NEW CHALLENGES IN IT

the production of fodder crops for the increasing production of animal products.

1.1. ábra - Figure 1.

The products of crop production are utilized by different industries (chemical, plastic, textile, etc.) to an increasing extent. One of the biggest challenges of present days – but especially of the future – is the production of biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel, others). In this case, not only the food-biofuel production contrast emerges with respect to crop production, but the question of the energyefficiency of the production too. The amounts of utilized inputs for biofuel production are exceeded by the outputs only to a lesser extent.New possibilities have to be found to enhance the effectiveness of energy production.We are dealing with these kinds of opportunities in later chapters of the syllabus.


Basically, the only function of crop production was production (mainly of food and fodder). In contrast, the present and the future crop productionsare multifunctional, with the following functions:

• productive functions

• food

• fodder

• industrial base materials

• green energy



• environmental and nature protection

• environmentally friendly technologies

• sustainable agrotechniques

• special plant models on nature conservation areas

• economic functions

• conditions of effectiveness

• social expectations

The feasibility of crop production is determined by several ecological, agronomical, biological, technical, economic, and skill boundary conditions. A part of thesemakes the future development possible; among them the most important ones are as follows:

• production of better genotypes by selection (traditional and GM way)

• modernization of certain elements and the whole of agrotechnique

• application of different land use modes depending on ecological and economic-social conditions

• application of new and modernized technical tools, equipments (machines, GPS technology, etc.)

• dynamic development of skills (basic, medium and upper level of education, life-long-learning trainings, increased granting of research, R&D&I system, advisory system, etc.)

However, it is of no doubt that in the further development of alternative crop production technologies will havelimitations to deal with in the future:

• decline of the agro-ecological conditions in connection with climatic changes, soil condition changes, soil degradation, etc.

• the productivity of breeding could be limited by the narrowing of available genetic bases

• the availability of utilizable areas for crop production is limited

• adhering to a previous production technology

• the unfavourable formation of certain political conditions (commercial limitations, aids, etc.)

2. Brief overview of the crop production in the world and in HungaryThe crop production of the world went through considerable changes during the past thousands of years; these changes were both quantitative and qualitative ones. Nowadays, in the world’s crop production we can find either the primitive production carried out mainly manually by wooden plough or the high-tech, intensive technology.

About one third of the area of Earth is land (~13 thousand million ha), about 11% of which is used for field crop production (~1.4 thousand million ha). Other, agriculturally cultivated areas are the grasslands (~3.4 thousand million ha) and the forests (~3.9 thousand million ha). The agriculturally non-utilized area (~4.4 thousand million ha) accounts for one third of the land of Earth.The area used for field crop production (~11%) cannot be enhanced in the future or only to a minimal extent. There are only a few countries (e.g. Russia, The Ukraine, USA, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, etc.) which can involve newer areas into field crop production, but the sizes of these areas are limited.

1.3. ábra - Table 1.



On the different continents of Earth – depending on the ecological and other conditions –the proportion of areas utilized for crop production is different (between 6 and 16%).Please note that on areas used for field crop production, the technological procedures are aggravated and limited by the different environmental conditions (e.g. drought, lack of nutrients, frost, etc.).The technology can be implemented under ideal circumstances on about 10% of the world’s areas utilized for crop production.In another way, it means that crop production can be carried out under ideal ecological circumstances on about 1% of the land of Earth.

In this respect, Hungary is in a more favourable situation.The distribution of our country’s area with respect to the different types of land use isas follows:

~4,5million ha arable land

~2,0 million ha forest

~1,0million ha pasture

~0,2million ha orchard, vineyard, garden

~1,5million ha non-cultivated area


This means that field crop production can be carried out on about 50% of Hungary’s area – under different



ecological circumstances.One third of the 4.5 million ha can be considered as of good, one third as of average and one third as of unfavourable ecological conditions with respect to field crop production.Therefore, different, alternative crop production models have to be developed in accordance with the different conditions.

In the world’s crop production, the following plant groups are the most important ones:

• cereal crops

• pulses

• oil crops

• root and tuber crops

• fodder crops

• industrial crops

• other crops

Among the 20 most important cultivated plant species, 6 belong to cereals, 4 to leguminous plants, 3 to oil plants. The 5 most important cultivated plants are as follows:

wheat ~217 million ha

maize ~162 million ha

rice ~154 million ha

soyabean ~102 million ha

barley ~48 million ha


Due to the different ecological conditions and application demands, the structures of the field crops significantly differ from the sequenceof the ones cultivated worldwide.Hungary is markedly characterized by a sowing structure with the dominance of cereals, which has a lot of negative effects on crop production technologies. The five most important cultivated crops in Hungary are the following:

maize ~1,3 million ha

wheat ~1,1 million ha



sunflower ~0,55 million ha

barley ~0,35 million ha

colza ~0,2 million ha

In our country, the size of ploughing area per capita is also favourable.In the world, this value is ~0.2 ha per capita, while in Hungary it is ~0.5 ha per capita. These factors result in substantially better-than-average conditions with respect to agricultural, especially crop production.This fact is important to emphasize, since at present, only 50-60% of this potential is utilized, although the arable land means our homeland’s natural resourcewhich is available to the greatest extentamong all ones (other minerals, energy sources, etc. are only limited).

Incorrectly,the importance of agriculture within a country is many times evaluated by its contribution to the GDP. In Hungary, this ratio – according to different results – is about 4-5%, although the calculation is not comprehensive.In addition to agricultural production, the values produced by food industry and other agriculture related branches (e.g. fertilizer production, production of agricultural machinery, shipment, etc.) have to be included into in the broader sense of agriculture.These, in total, account for about 10-14% of the GDP.

National economy and food industry play crucial roles in rural development and the employment of rural inhabitants. These are alternatives which also have to be taken into consideration while evaluating the importance of the agricultural sector.

Although nowadays, as a result of globalization, the commercial relationships among the countries of the world became very widespread, a responsibly thinking government has to pursue a kind of economic policy that can provide the basic supply for the population of the country.Among these, aliment and energy supplies are vitally important ones.

With the appropriate development of our agriculture, export can be increased to a great extent improving the trade balance of our country. We have to attempt our agricultural, especially the crop production potential to reachthe level that can provide the supply for the 15 million people.

3. Challenges of field crop production in countries of different developmental levelsNowadays, the field crop production of the world represents very different technological levels.This kind of different development, on one handdetermines the most important challenges, and on the other hand, the most important tasks.

The economic development of a country fundamentally determines the levels of field crop production technologies.According to this –oversimplifying the conditions of categorization –, the countries of the world can be divided into developed and developing ones. Of course, there can be several interim developmental levels between these groups. The situation is further refined by the significantly different crop production technologies found within a certain country.Among others, this also justifies the elaboration of alternative technologies within crop production and their application in practice.

Basically, crop production is characterized by the quality in the developed countries while quantity in the developing ones.The developed countries possess those technical, skill and input conditions with the help of which –besides high yield averages – the emphasis is mainly on the quality of products made by crop production.In this case, quality also involves quality assurance. By definition, quality means

• the quality of the products made of plants

• the crop production technology and the quality of its implementation

• the quality of the environment.

These quality conditions can be implemented by the application of alternative crop production models.

Developing countries face the problem of alimenting the rapidly growing population.In this case, the greatest challenge of crop production is the quantitative increase of production, naturally with the accomplishment of the



basic quality parameters. This requires alternative crop production models ranging from the traditional “technology” to the modern crop production models.

Most important characteristics of crop production in developed countries:

• high yields

• intensive, high input technology

• good quality

• up-to-date genotypes

• less use of manual labour

• big push on environment

Most important characteristics of crop production in developing countries:

• low yields

• extensive, low input technology

• weak and changeable quality

• local genotypes

• huge labour use

• variable push on environment

The different characteristics involve different challenges of the present and different tasks of the future.

The main issues of crop production in the future:

• in developed regions

• sustainability

• environmental protection

• quality

• economic profitability

• adequacy for demand of society

• in developing regions

• bigger quantity of crop products

• increasement of yields

• improving quality

• using of different crop models


• sustainability

• economic competitiveness

Although the tasks of the future in the crop productionsof the developed and developing countries are different,



there are similar and identical ones in both cases. Ones to be highlighted:


• sustainability

• quality

• competitiveness

4. The importance of agricultural (plant) productsNowadays, we can see the revalorizing of agricultural productsconfirmed by the raise of the prices of agricultural products on the stock markets. This value appreciation seems to go on in the future too.It is worth to elaborate alternative technological models which can give the chance for the better utilization of the domestic agro-ecopotential.

These different causes increase the needs about plant products. Perceiving this, several developed and developing countries make efforts to develop their agricultural, especially crop production. In this global competition, Hungary has good chances; to this, alternative models are needed which can give the opportunity to increase yield averages, to improve quality, to enhance competitiveness besides the preservation and improvement of environmental conditions.


5. Problems in the Hungarian crop productionThe domestic crop production solved more and more problems during the last decades.From the 1960s, the yield averages significantly increased, the quality improved, the biological bases and technical conditions of crop production became more modern. The skills also significantly expanded.The economic-political system changesat the beginning of the 1990s significantly altered the condition system of domestic agriculture. This and the alteration of international circumstances (e.g. Hungary became a member of the EU, etc.) meant new and more critical problems in the domestic agriculture involving crop production too.The majority of these problems are not agronomy related; among them we highlight the following ones:

• lack of agricultural strategy

• economic-financial-market-profitability problems

• low level of social acceptance



• undeveloped technical background

• different professional knowledge

• problems in professional education

• difficult situation of scientific research

The, non-agronomical kinds of problems are increased by specific crop production related ones:

• declining ecological conditions

• problems of the biological bases

• shortcomings in the agrotechnique

Our task is, knowing both the international trends and domestic specificities, to elaborate alternative technological solutions allowingto improvethe efficiency of domestic crop production possible.

6. Questions1. What are the possibilities and barriers in the crop production in the World?

2. What are the most important field crops in the World?

3. What does it mean land use? What are the land use categories?

4. What are the new issues of crop production in developint and well-developed countries nowdays and in the future?


2. fejezet - Week 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF CROP MODELS1. Elements of the crop production process, alternative development possibilitiesThe tasks crop production is facing – both in the world and Hungary – are significant and differentiated. It is a great challenge to satisfy the increasing quantity needs of the growing population (plant products → food, fodder, industrial base material, bioenergy, etc.). Another important problem is the manufacturing of plant products. These quantity and quality requirements have to be complied under declining ecological conditions (climate change, etc.) and with the fulfilment of the increasing requirements of environmental protection. To solve this contradiction (increasing requirements – declining conditions), the elaboration of alternative crop production models is needed to fulfil all these tasks.

During the development of crop production, we have to accomplish tasks which are mostly independent of countries, developmental levels, ecological conditions (global challenges). There are also special aims, tasks too which can be accomplished by knowing and taking the local conditions into consideration (local challenges).

In field crop production, artificial (agro) ecological systems are generated and maintained to achieve our goals (quantitative, qualitative, etc.). The alternative crop production models are classified into three main groups of factors:

• agro-ecological conditions

• biological bases

• agrotechnical elements

2.1. ábra - Figure 4

In the crop production process, we aim to harmonize these factor groups as far as possible. The greater and more entire is the harmony, the effectiveness of the given alternative crop production model is better, thus higher yield amounts and better quality can be achieved.


Week 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF CROP

MODELSThere are constant interactions taking place among the factors of the crop production process – from the beginning to the end. This means that we have to investigate a certain technological action (e.g. soil preparation, fertilization, etc.) and its effect alone, but importantly with respect to its influence (positive or negative way) and modifying effect on other factors. Our goal is to utilize the positive interactions to a greatest possible extent and to reduce the negative ones to the possible minimum or eliminate them. These goals can only be fulfilled in the most effective way, if we elaborate alternative crop production models.

The three factor groups of crop production consist of many elements; we will look at these elements and their functions hereafter.

2. The role of agro-ecological factors in the alternative crop production systemsThe agro-ecological factors are fundamental and crucial with respect to crop production; they include:

• the climatic-meteorological conditions

• the pedological-topographical conditions

The climate means the long-term meteorological conditions of an area, while the weather means those of a short period. Therefore, we have to know the climate of a certain area. The world is divided into various climate zones, which can be characterized by different parameters of precipitation, temperature, lighting and of other meteorological ones. Within a climate zone (e.g. temperate), various sub-zones (e.g. oceanic, continental) exist. These areas are characterized by the climatic data of a longer period (e.g. 30- or 50-year averages). These data are average ones with the possibility of bearing significant standard deviations. Nevertheless, it is of great importance to know the climate of a certain area since it determines the plants which can be cultivated on it.

During the development of a technology, one has to endeavour to utilize the short-term meteorological effects taking place during the growing period of the given plant to the greatest possible extent and to reduce the unfavourable effects to the possible minimum negative level. Thus, it is of special importance to know not only the average climatic characteristics, parameters but the weather extremes and the likelihood of their occurrence while elaborating an alternative crop production model.

We have to emphasize that cultivated plants possess various climatic-meteorological adaptation abilities. There are plants with more favourable adaptation abilities (e.g. spiked cereals, sunflower), while others respond to the weather extremes in a pronounced sensitive manner (maize, rape).The time – i.e. during which phenophase – of the adverse effect of weather is also important.Field plants are most sensitive to the adverse weather effects during the phenophases of germination-shooting and flowering-fertilization.

The soil types of a certain area are significantly determined by the climate. However, several soil types can develop within a climate zone, since beyond the climatic effects other factors (e.g. topography, hydrological conditions, etc.) also influence the soil.

Field plants can be characterized as of various soil requirements. Most of the plants can be cultivated on soils of the best physical, chemical and biological traits yielding maximum amounts. However, significant differences can occur in the adaptation of plants to soil. There are field plants which can be successfully cultivated on various soils, thus their adaptation abilities are good (e.g. wheat, triticale, rye, sunflower, alfalfa) while others are of markedly soil-requiring (e.g. maize, sugar-beet).

Although within a certain factory, during the formation of a field we try to make it homogenous with respect to pedological, water management, topographical and other parameters, although in most cases this cannot be implemented. On a field– the basic unit of crop production – there are field parts of various characteristics and soil conditions which has to be taken into consideration while elaborating an alternative technological model.

3. The role of biological bases in the alternative crop production systemsWe can select the biological bases if we know the agro-ecological conditions. Biological bases include



MODELS• the genotype

• the seed

Genotype means the genetically encoded traits. In crop production it is of great importance to consider the following:

• fertility

• yield safety

• abiotic stress resistance

• tolerance against biotic stressors

• agronomical traits

• yield quality

• general qualitative parameters

• special qualitative parameters

Both genetic advancement and the development of agrotechnique contributed to yield increase by 50%, their ratio differed in different ages. Different values can be found in the case of different plant species.

It is of great importance to consider all the characteristics of a genotype and to select the hybrid/variety after their simultaneous evaluation while selecting a genotype for a given growing area and technology.

Genotype manifests as seed for the producer. A seed has to fulfil several physical, physiological, seed biological, etc. requirements according to standards. Excellent genotype is important to appear as seed of excellent biological quality for the producer. There is no use of a genotype is its seed is of weak germinating-power.

The simultaneous development of genetic advancement and agrotechnique is well confirmed by the yield increase of maize in the USA. Yield increases rose to a considerable extent when new genotypes spread and the agrotechnique also developed.


Nowadays, in Hungary the variety/hybrid portfolio of the most important field crops is wide and of world class grade. Instead, the problem is that what kind of scientifically well-founded, exact information lead to the selection of the variety/hybrid. One has to endeavour to reduce the marketing and other, non-professional aspects to the minimum while selecting the variety/hybrid.



MODELS

4. The role of agrotechnical elements in the alternative crop production systemsThe agrotechnical elements in field crop production are significantly determined by the ecological and biological conditions; at the same time, we can partially influence the ecological conditions by the agrotechnical elements, we can adapt to the special demands of the genotype in some way. The crop producer selects and forms the agrotechnical elements deliberately. The agrotechnical elements include each action taken during the production of a certain plant:

• crop rotation

• tillage

• nutrient supply, fertilization

• sowing technology

• plant protection

• plant care

• irrigation

• harvest

• primary processing

In the crop production process, the individual agrotechnical elements do not effect individually, but positive and negative interactions take place between them which has to be taken into consideration while developing the alternative crop production models.

5. Alternative crop production modelsIn crop production, the individual ecological, biological and agrotechnical factors effect by means of interactions. In contrast, during the last decades, the practical implementation of the production technology was carried out in a rather “ad hoc” manner. In the past, the agronomical, biological and economic effectiveness of the crop production technologies were various and incident depending on the factors. Therefore, during the accomplishment of modern crop production, the model approach has to be applied. The most important causes of the requirement of alternative crop production models can be summarized as follows:

• various ecological conditions

• the better utilization and maintenance of natural resources

• various material and personal conditions

• various biological bases

• the assurance of better quality


• quality insurance

• economical effectiveness

The above mentioned make the alternative crop production models reasonable, which are basically classified into three larger groups:

• Traditional crop production models



MODELSThese models are characterized by extensive input utilization favouring manual workforce.

• Industry-like, intensive crop production models

These models are characterized by intensive input use, the application of minimal manual workforce, high yield averages, and significant pressure on the environment.

• Sustainable, integrated crop production models

Both the input and the use of manual workforce are optimized, the environmental pressure is moderate or average which makes the implementation of long-term sustainability possible. These models need significant expertise.

The crop production models are characterized by dynamic development, not a static state. The permanent development of the models is necessary to appropriately and effectively adapt to the changing ecological and biological conditions; this especially concerns the agrotechnical elements. In this case the further development of the models can be implemented by

• The enhancement of the effectiveness of the agrotechnical elements

In this case, we can obtain yield increase and/or better quality without increasing the input and using unity input.

• By reducing the input use

The amount of used input can be reduced without altering yield amount and/or quality.

In the alternative models, these two possible ways are accomplished not separately but – in most of the cases – parallelly. Their application makes the elaboration and practical implementation of growing area and variety specific crop production models. In the case of worse-than-average ecological conditions, the growing area specific, while in the case of better ones the variety specific models are asserted.


In the case of the different alternative crop production models, different intensity levels can be distinguished by the amount of used inputs:

• extensive

• low input

• mid-tech



MODELS• intensive


We made a case study to evaluate the domestic wheat production considering various aspects. We concluded that the intensity level was significantly influenced by the ecological, technical and financial conditions.


The extent of the roles of production factors also differ in the case of different plant species. The roles of the factors were influenced by the ecological and agrotechnical requirements of the given plant species. The roles of the factors considerably differed according to the intensity level of the crop production model. The results of our long-term experiments definitely confirmed that in the case of the extensive technological model, the effects of ecological factors (weather, soil) on yield were significantly greater in the studied plant species than in the case of the intensive model. Even in the case of the intensive alternative model, the roles of the environmental factors could not be eliminated, but they determined the yield amount to a much lesser extent than in the case of the extensive one.

In crop production, the role of yield safety also revaluated beside the amount and quality of yield. In this case, a differentiation has to be made:

• production safety – the extent of risk of the whole crop production in a certain factory determined by agronomical and economical factors,



MODELS• yield safety – the amount (quality) of yield on factory and branch level and the amplitude of their changes

during a year/on a growing area/field.

In the case of the elaboration of alternative crop production models, fundamental attitude and paradigm shifts are needed. The crop production models of the last decades were

• characterized by the quantitative attitude, i.e. the most important goal was to realize the maximum possible amount, while yield quality and the sustainability of the environmental conditions were of slight or no interest

This kind of attitude cannot be maintained in the present and more importantly, in the future. The crop production models of the future are

• characterized by the quantitative attitude, i.e. the quality of the plant product and the long-term sustainability of the environmental conditions are of top priority; and the aim is to realize the optimum amount of yield obtainable under the given circumstances

In these complex, integrated alternative crop production models, the intensity levels of the individual agrotechnical elements are identical and of the same level along the whole crop production process. The decrease or increase in the intensity of any of the elements hinder the efficiency of the previous or the subsequent agrotechnical element(s). This means that there is no place for the bottle-neck effect in the technological model.

The modern, alternative crop production models fulfil the requirements of multifunctionality. This means that the production functions of crop production widened and crop production serves the implementation of other functions too. The most important functions of the multifunctional crop production are:

• production function

• foods

• fodders

• industrial row materials

• energy

• others

• environmental protection function

• type “ex situ”

• type “in situ”

• rural development and other functions

• land protection

• labour policy

• social aspects

• others

6. Questions1. What are the most important factors in crop production?

2. What is the role of ecological factors in crop production?

3. What is the role of biological factors in crop models?

4. What are the agrotechnical elements in crop production?



MODELS5. How can we improve the efficiency of crop models?

6. What are the reasons to create the crop models?

7. How can we describe the most important elements of multifunctional crop production?


3. fejezet - Week 3. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CROP PRODUCTION AND SUSTAINABILITY1. Land use – crop production modelsField crop production as a conscious human activity was formed 10-12 thousand years B.C. most likely on the areas of favourable circumstances of Earth. The most ancient place could be the area of the “fruitful crescent” on some locations of the present-day Asia Minor, Middle East and certain areas of Caucasia. This meant a great change in the evolution of mankind. The hunting-fishing-gathering mode of living was switched to the purposive productive activity making man more or less dependent of the adverse effects of environmental factors. In the individual crop producing gene centres, the production of different crops began. The instruments of the primitive crop production were very simple (digging stick, hoe, etc.) changing to a less extent through long thousands of years. The human manual workforce was switched to the use of animal yoke-power in the crop producing processes only gradually and partially. Nevertheless, crop production developed even if in a slow manner and the development made the generation of certain excessive products possible. This efficiency improvement initiated the separation of different crafts, and later the fragmentation of society into different classes. Finally, crop production and in the broader sense, the conscious producing activity made remarkable effect on the later historical development of human society.

The crop production of the Magyars started 2000-3000 years B.C. In the “motherland” located on the Western part of Asia, the main agricultural activity was animal husbandry; crop production was only of marginal significance. In this period and later, during wandering, the production of cereals (millet, barley) used for mush making took place in a very primitive way. During the period of settlement (9th century B.C.), the peoples of the Carpathian Basin (Slavs, Avars, etc.) carried out more developed crop production than the Magyars. The ecological conditions during the ages of the kings of House Árpád (10-14th century) favoured the production of spiked cereals. Later, crop production further developed, Hungarian cereal production was especially significant under the reigning of King Mátyás (15th century) satisfying not only the domestic needs but exported considerable amounts into the Western European countries. The chaotic political and power relations under the Turkish thraldom (16-17th century) did not favour crop production, resulting in the significant decline of its level. After expelling the Turks and during the Napoleonic wars, the boom boosted up the domestic domanial farming. In this period – especially on the Great Hungarian Plain –, an extremely one-sided crop production structure was formed (wheat was cultivated on 70-80% of the arable land). The decades after the conciliation (1867) and before the First World War were characteristic of the new boost of domestic crop production. The technical background of crop production significantly developed, the crop production research and the conscious crop production began. In parallel, the machine manufacturing serving crop production and the industries processing plant products (milling industry, sugar industry) were also of world class grade. Between the two World Wars, Hungarian crop production was characterized as very heterogeneous. During this period, all technological levels could be found from the smallholdings performing individual, primitive farming through the average instrumented medium estates to the latifundia applying modern techniques. However, in total, the then domestic crop production considerable fell behind both the American and Western European levels. Following the Second World War, after several attempts, those socialist collectives and state farms were formed which could reach the yield averages of the Western European countries in terms of the most important field crops with significant state aids and tremendous inputs. This period was characterized by the typical quantitative attitude. The considerable yield amount decrease was achieved by significant chemical and energy use. This kind of industrial-like crop production model was less effective not only agronomically, biologically and economically but caused several environmental problems. The domestic crop production was not enough prepared for the economic-political system changes at the beginning of the 1990s. The ownerships altered, the prices of the industrial and biological inputs used in crop production significantly rose, while the prices of plant products slightly increased. The producers tried to solve this contradiction by reducing input use. The economical effectiveness declined and no technological developments took place. The skills considerably diversified. Following the relative development from the end of the 1990s to the beginning of the 2000s, Hungary’s accession to the European Union on 1 May 2004 made another type of situation. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the EU fundamentally determines the possibilities of the domestic government.


Week 3. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CROP

PRODUCTION AND SUSTAINABILITY

From 2008, the prices of the plant products are significantly increasing. This excess profit and the higher income give the opportunity to develop the technology of the domestic crop production in an effective manner.

Due to the dynamic development of the domestic crop production in the past years, the proportion of plant products in the Hungarian agriculture reached 60%, while the ratio of animal ones constantly declined (32%). Unfortunately, it is an unfavourable tendency. It would be more desirable if animal husbandry used the majority of plant products increasing the ratio of products made by animal husbandry. In contrast to these unfavourable proportions, the competitiveness of the Hungarian agriculture is confirmed by the fact that despite the open domestic market we export significantly more products than the amount we import. At the same time, please note that the ratio of processed plant and animal products of more added values has to be increased among the exported goods.

The most important land-use systems are classified into the following historic groups:

• extensive land-use systems

• traditional land-use systems

• intensive land-use systems

• modern land-use systems

Further classifications can be performed within each main land-use system.

The grazing-deforestation farming is the most ancient among the extensive land-use systems. Due to its development level, irrigation farming of the antic slave-holding societies (Egypt, Mesopotamia) has a special position among these systems. The early and late feudalism were characterized by two- and three-course farming.

Among the traditional land-use systems, there is a particular place for the Norfolk four-course crop rotation farming characteristic of the early capitalism. The framed crop rotation farming served the better adaptation to the market.


Among the intensive land-use systems, the crop rotation and framed crop rotation farming provided great flexibility. Monoculture cultivation was the extreme, undesired form of specialization. Industry-like crop production was based on the quantitative attitude using significant industrial input and energy, causing a lot of environmental damages.

The modern land-use systems are the sustainable, the integrated and the ecological farming.




The land-use, e.g. the relation of the cultivation branches are determined by several factors:

• ecological conditions

• social-economical demands

• production traditions

• material and personal conditions of the production

According to this, the ratios of the cultivation branches significantly differ on the different continents. The proportion of field crop production is the highest among the continents.


The fulfilment of the needs of the rapidly growing mankind is possible in basically two ways:

• By expanding the areas used by crop production. Earlier it was possible but nowadays this area expansion is very limited.

• By increasing the yield amounts. In the different land-use systems the yield amounts of cereals (and other crops) increased slowly at the beginning while during the past decades, the increases were of considerable extent.

2. Sustainable crop productionDuring the past decades, the goal and function of field crop production significantly altered and broadened. Beside production other tasks (environmental protection, employment, etc.) appeared, quality and food safety became also important beside the quantity. Nowadays, one of the key questions is to provide the conditions of the rational land-use; this needs the harmonization of various interests. The ones interested in land-use are:

• the state

• the landholder

• the land user

• the society.

To implement rational land-use, not only the harmonization of the interests is needed but also a long-term strategy. The crop production of the future has to fill every requirement of sustainability.

The traditional and the sustainable crop production models significantly differ. The traditional crop production is characterized by




• intensive agrotechnique

• agronomical and economical yield maximums

• specialization

In contrast, the most important elements of sustainable crop production are as follows:

• utilization of biological, ecological and agrotechnical interactions

• environmentally friendly agrotechnique

• diversification (biological bases, crop structure, agrotechnical elements).


During the implementation of sustainable crop production we have to match

• the environmental

• the economical

• the social

criteria.





There are several definitions of sustainable crop production considering the most important criteria in various aspects. Briefly, the most important characteristics of sustainable crop production can be summarized as follows:

• the most important thing is the preservation and/or improvement of the conditions of crop production and the agro-ecological environment (soil, water, etc.) in favour of the subsequent production cycles

• the preservation of biodiversity, the genetic variability of crop production

• the reducing/minimization of the environmental problems caused by crop production

• production of high quality and healthy plant products

• economicalviability

• social acceptance

The alternative crop production models have to match the basic requirements of sustainability.

3. Questions1. What historical periods were the most important in crop production?

2. What are the differences between the traditional and sustainable crop production?

3. How can we classify the crop model?

4. What are the definitions of sustainable crop production?


4. fejezet - Week 4. ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION1. Ecosystems – alternative crop production systemsDuring the last thousands of years, man not only populated almost every part of Earth gradually, but significantly intruded into the living, topographical, hydrological and other relations of certain areas. These anthropogenic effects involved negative consequences in most of the cases. The environmental, ecological relations of certain areas changed. The changes of the ecosystems affect the whole Earth and the living conditions and producing activity of mankind to various extents.

Ecology deals with the processes taking place in the environment (oikos = household, environment, a Greek word). These changes affect the abiotic and biotic environmental conditions too. Beside natural ecosystems – as a result of human activity –, artificial ones are present on ever-increasing areas on Earth. In field crop production we establish also artificial ecosystems: we form and maintain the dominant population of the cultivated plant species in favour of obtaining advantageous production, yield. This agro-ecosystem would not remain until the end of the growing period and its productivity would significantly decline without human interference and agrotechnical procedures. Beside the cultivated plant species (e.g. wheat, maize, etc.), other organisms (e.g. weeds, pathogens, animal pests, useful organisms, etc.) can also be found. With the artificial agro-ecosystems we aim to manufacture plant products which can be utilized for different types of goals (food, fodder, industrial base material, energy, etc.).

The anthropogenic influences result in significant changes in the abiotic and biotic environmental conditions. On one hand, these changes appear explicitly, the changes make the drastic modification of environmental conditions. One example is the hydroelectric power station in Bős which considerably modified the water management conditions and life of Szigetköz but also affected the condition system of crop production. The other portion of human influences is perceptible in a less spectacular way (implicitly) but its environmental effects are visible and traceable. These are e.g. the environmental damages causedby traffic, while in agriculture, the environmental pollution due to fertilization or pesticides.

The agro-ecosystems play very important roles in the economy of our country. We perform the highest human influences in field crop production (50% of Hungary’s area) and horticulture (~2-3%). The majority of pastures (~10%) and forests (~20%) can also be considered as artificial ecological systems – despite the less intensive anthropogenic effects on them. Thus, these human influences and production activities affect large areas. In agricultural production, the majority of animal husbandry is performed on significantly smaller areas, the animal farms.Fishponds of small areas are also important ecologically.

In agricultural production, our basic goal is to maintain the favourable environmental conditions of agro-ecosystems and to preserve the balance between natural and artificial ecosystems. Thus, it is of great importance to lay special emphasis on the ecological attitude, sustainability and environmental protection.

The ecosystems are special biotic and abiotic units of the environment in which material and energy processes take place and these processes maintain a self-regulatory system. Although the ecosystems are separate, they are open too and constantly interact with each other and are in permanent conversion in space and time. The most important ecosystems can be classified to the following groups:

• agro-ecosystems

An artificial ecosystem. With the help of it, we produce plant products utilized as food, fodder, industrial base material, energy, etc. and in other ways.It has further important functions too (rural development, employment, landscape protection, etc.)

• coastal ecosystems

Basically natural ecosystems affected by considerable human effects. They provide food and industrial base material. Their roles in recreation and sports are also important.


Week 4. ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF CROP

PRODUCTION• forest ecosystems

Partially natural, partially artificial ecosystems (planted forests). They play important role in landscape protection. The most important areas for game management. They provide energy, fodder and food. Their functions in employment and recreation are also important.

• freshwater ecosystems

Partially natural, partially artificial ecosystems (e.g. fishponds, water reservoirs, etc.). They are important with respect to food production, drinking and irrigation water supply. They can be transport routes or recreation places.

• grassy ecosystems

Partially natural (indigenous grasslands), partially artificial ecosystems (planted grass). They serve as fodder bases for the farm animals. They play role in game management and human recreation too.

Therefore, during our crop producing activity we generate and maintain artificial ecosystems on a certain area (e.g. field). The professional bases of the formation of crop producing ecosystems are the various crop production models (systems). During the elaboration of a crop production model one has to take into consideration the following:

• abiotic conditions

• climatic-meteorological factors

• pedological-topographical factors

• a biotic conditions

• industrial crop(s)

• damaging organisms (weeds, pathogens, animal pests)

• useful organisms (predators, etc.)

• anthropogenic factors

• technical conditions

• financial conditions

• production traditions

• work arrangement

• expertise

The crop production ecosystems considerably differ from other in the various climatic zones of Earth. The compositions of cultivated plants are completely different in the tropical, temperate or subarctic climatic zones.




PRODUCTION

2. Hungary’s weather with respect to crop productionHungary is in the temperate climate zone (45-49o north). Our country’s weather is influenced by its location in the Carpathian Basin.

Within the temperate climate, mainly the continental climatic effects take place in Hungary modified by humid (oceanic) and Mediterranean effects the extents of which depend on areas and seasons. The basically continental climatic effect determines the structure of crop production and the applied agrotechnique. The continental climate is characterized by the relatively low amount of precipitation, significant variability, cold winters and droughty summers.

The energy source of plant photosynthesis is sunlight. The annual sum of sunshine duration varies between 1900 and 2200 hours depending on the different areas. It is favourable that the period of the sunniest hours (180-270 hours/month) coincides with the growing period of our crop plants (April-September).

The adequate temperature is the prerequisite of the vital processes of crop plants. Our industrial plants are characterized by various assimilation temperature threshold values (wheat +1.5°C, pea +4.4°C, sunflower +5°C, maize +10°C, etc.). The highest median annual temperatures (~11.0-11.5°C) are measured in the Southern areas of the country, while the lower ones in the hilly regions (~7-8°C). The country average is ~10oC making the whole area of Hungary adequate for the cultivation of temperate zone crops. The actual temperature values of the different months and along the whole growing period are also important with respect to crop production. For the winterer plants (e.g. winter spiked cereals, winter coleseed), the temperatures of the winter months and the number of winter days (tmax<0°C) are also important. With respect to hibernation, Transdanubia is more favourable than the Great Hungarian Plain and the North Hungarian Mountains. In Hungary, the coldest month is January (~-1.5°C monthly median temperature), while July is the hottest (~+20 oC monthly median temperature) one. Due to the extreme weather of our country, considerable alterations in the values may occur. The frost at the end of winter-beginning of spring can be unfavourable for the hibernation and spring development of plants sown during autumn. The deviation of the monthly median temperatures is the highest during the autumn-winter-spring months performing extremes. During the months of summer, the high temperature and the lack of water coincidentally can be extremely unfavourable for the intertilled crops (maize, sugarbeet, potato, etc.). The number of summer days (tmax>25°C) is notably high on the Great Hungarian Plain and neighbouring areas (annual average: 70-90 days).

In Hungary, the elements determining field crop production to the greatest extent are the amount of precipitation and its distribution during, before and after the growing period. Our country’s climate leans to drought but can be very extreme with respect to precipitation amount. A good example: the extremely abundant precipitation of the year 2010 (~1000 mm) and the markedly dry (~350-400 mm) weather of 2011. Considering a longer period, the average amounts of precipitation falling in Hungary varies between 480 (middle parts of the Great Hungarian Plain) and 850 mm (Vas and Zala counties). The monthly distribution of precipitation is also that important with respect to crop production. The most precipitation falls in May-June-July-August (monthly



PRODUCTIONaverage: 50-65 mm), while the least amount in January-February-March (monthly average: 25-35 mm). In addition to precipitation amount, the evapotranspiration of a certain area is also important with respect to the elaboration of crop production models. The ratio of the actual (AET) and potential evapotranspiration (PET) shows the water supply of a given area. The closer this ratio to 1 (100%), the more favourable is the water supply of the area. The average variation of this AET/PET ratio is 0.70-0.85 on the majority of the country, thus we have to account with the lack of water in crop production and the production technology has to be elaborated accordingly.

The effects of the global climate change can be observed in the domestic crop production too. The annual precipitation of Debrecen nowadays is ~130 mm lower compared to the values experienced at the beginning of the exact domestic meteorological measurements (1870s). This means a 1 mm annual decline of the annual precipitation amount (from 634 mm to 504 mm, counting with 20-year averages). In total, the 130 mm means that nowadays the domestic crop production lacks the amount of precipitation of 2-2.5 (average) months. This is exacerbated by the fact that the annual median temperature of Debrecen is +0.5oC higher than 130 years ago. Similar tendencies can be observed in the case of the other agro-ecological regions. As an effect of the global climate change, the frequency and amplitude of weather extremes increased resulting in the decrease of the precipitation amount but the elongation of the intervals between two rainfalls (from 12 to 25 days). The longer periods of lack of precipitation the industrial plants has to utilize the water supplies of the soil. The unfavourable climatic changes with respect to crop production are well characterized by the change in the frequency of the occurrences of different cropyear types. While during the period of 1860-1900, more than half of the cropyears (55%) was average, nowadays (1980-2000s years) the droughty years became dominant (52.6%). Practically is means that – statistically – every second year is droughty in our country; this has to be considered as a fundamental aspect while elaborating crop production models.

The scenarios of climatic changes predict the decrease of precipitation amounts and the increase of the temperature. These changes affect the individual agro-ecological regions to various extents, but now, the development of appropriate crop production models to reduce the negative effects of climatic changes is needed on the whole area of Hungary.

3. The soils of Hungary with respect to crop productionThe agro-ecological conditions (climate-weather and soil-topography) have to be evaluated in a complex manner with respect to crop production. The good abilities of soil can reduce, buffer the adverse effects of weather; this is also true vice versa, the unfavourable soil features hinder the successful crop production despite good climatic effects.

The soil abilities of our country with respect to crop production are basically characterized by the following:

• In total, the domestic soil abilities favour field crop production. Among the cultivated lands, 37% can be considered as of good, 35% as of average, while 28% as of weak abilities.

• In Hungary, various soil types can be found. In the case of the different soil types, there are differences in the composition of cultivated crops and the applied agrotechnique.

• Our soils are characterized as of mosaic type. In a certain agro-ecological region, a lot of soil types can be found. It is also common that within a field, several types of soils are found which can be taken into consideration while elaborating a crop production model.

In Hungary, the proportion of brown earth (34.5%) is the highest among soil types. Its subtypes provide average conditions for field crop production. Despite, there are also subtypes of better- and less-than average. The disadvantages of brown earth are the acidic pH of the soil, the shallow humus layer, the unfavourable water management and the risk of erosion.

Meadow and alluvial soils (18.6%) are located mainly in the river basins (Danube, Tisza and the earlier flood areas of their subsidiaries). These soils provide average conditions for field crop production. The strong plasticity of meadow and alluvial soils, their acidic pH and – during cropyears of more precipitation – their high groundwater levels can be unfavourable.

Chernozem soils (16.1%) are the most favourable ones for the production of the majority of field crops. The



PRODUCTIONdecline of their favourable characteristics is caused by the application of inappropriate agrotechniques.


Sandy soils (9.8%) are less applicable for field crop production. The greatest disadvantage is their low organic material-humus content; thus they have bad water and nutrient management and they have tendency to deflation. Only a few crops can be cultivated on sandy soils (e.g. rye, potato, tobacco, lupin, etc.).

The disadvantages of alkali soils (8.7%) are the following: high salt and Na content, shallow fertile layer, strong plasticity, unfavourable water, nutrient and air managements. Solonetz soils are a bit more favourable with respect to crop production than solonchak alkali soils. A limited number of crops can be cultivated on alkali soils (e.g. winter wheat, winter barley, sunflower, chickpea, alfalfa, etc.).

4. Ecological regions of HungaryDespite the relatively small area of our country, it can be divided into various natural macroregions determining the structure of field crop production, the scale of cultivated plants and the applicable agrotechnique considerably. The ecological macroregions of Hungary are the dollowing:

• Danube Plain

• Tisza Plain

• The Little Plain

• Western Hungarian Outer Rim

• Transdanubian Hilly Region

• Transdanubian Mountains

• North-Hungarian Mountains

Within these agro-ecological macroregions, 35 agro-ecological regions can be found.

The lowland areas and the Transdanubian Hills are the most favourable areas for field crop production.




PRODUCTION


5. Questions1. What is the ecosystems? What types of ecosystems do you know?

2. What climatic zones do you know in the World?

3. How can you characterize the Hungarian climate?

4. What are the most important soil types in Hungary?

5. What are the main agroecological region in Hungary?


5. fejezet - Week 5. AGROECOSYSTEMS – ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES1. Alternative crop production systems as artificial ecosystemsEarth can be also defined as the network of ecological systems of different sizes. These ecosystems – besides they have individual structures and constant changes, processes take place within them – more or less permanent and the systems are tightly interrelated. With the increasing human influence on the natural ecosystems – taking place from historical times to nowadays –, the majority of them were converted into artificial ecosystems. There is a very limited amount of “untouched”, natural ecosystems on Earth now. The anthropogenic effects are more or less observed on the majority of natural ecosystems.

Artificial ecosystems account for the majority of the ecosystems on Earth, which can be of

• agricultural

• urban

• economic

characteristics.

Agro-ecosystems can be of various sizes. The large (dispersed) systems consist of the field, horticultural, forest and grassland ecosystems. Animal farms, fishponds and the different agricultural granges are local, smaller ecosystems with special ecological problems.

The urban, man-made ecosystems can be urban, village and ranch systems according to size.

Ecosystems of economic aims are special systems related to industrial, trade, transport and hydrographical activities.

The ecological systems fundamentally differ from the closed physical and chemical systems since they are open ones and in constant relationship with their environment. In a given ecosystem, one can also observe permanent material and energy conversion processes, but material and energy flow take place towards other ecosystems too. These internal and external material and energy flows are more intense in the artificial agro-ecological systems than in the natural ecosystems. In crop production systems, the constant input (e.g. organic and artificial manure, pesticides, irrigation water) and output (main and side products of plants) of different substances are carried out, but the energy input (e.g. gasoline demand of agrotechnical activities, etc.) and output (solar energy bound in plant products) are also considerable. The function of artificial ecological systems is also determined basically by the natural processes (ecological conditions, biological factors); we would “only” like to utilize the positive processes to a greatest possible extent and try to reduce the negative ones as possible with the crop production activities. Due to the various interactions, the implementation faces a lot of problems and difficulties.

Both the natural and artificial ecosystems consist of two parts basically:

• Biotope – The territory of an ecosystem generally includes the abiotic environmental conditions (weather, topography, hydrology, soil, etc.).

• Biocoenosis – The organisms constitute an ecological system. These can be microscopic and macroscopic organisms, plants, animals, industrial crops and other living organisms.



Week 5. AGROECOSYSTEMS – ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES

During crop production, we establish special agro-ecosystems in which the cultivated plants are the dominant organisms. These special ecosystems are kept in a relative balanced state only by anthropogenic activities. It is important to emphasize that the agrotechnical actions can be taken only to extents which do not influence the condition system of the given agro-ecosystem or its environment directly. Therefore, sustainability has to be the base of crop producing ecosystems/crop production.

In field crop production, agro-ecological conditions (biotope) have to be as close as possible to the needs of the cultivated plant species. In this case, the leastagrotechnical inputs have to be used to approach the genetic yield potential of the cultivated plant species. This draws the attention to the importance of cultivating plant species which fit the most to the ecological conditions of a given growing region and to set the crop structure accordingly. The greater the difference between the environmental needs of the cultivated plant species and the ecological conditions of a growing area, the more considerable agrotechnical actions have to be taken to approach the genetic potential of the plant species. The input overuse can mean higher environmental stress under special circumstances.

2. Agro-ecological conditions of alternative crop production systemsThe most important agro-ecological conditions of crop production are the climatic-weather and pedological-topographical factors. The environmental needs of different cultivated crops significantly differ. However, the general overview of them is necessary since it is of great importance to know the agro-ecological factors precisely and exactly while elaborating an alternative crop production system.




Our country is located in the continental belt of the temperate climate zone. Our climate is also influenced by its oceanic, Mediterranean and Carpathian Basin location. The limited weather prognosis periods represent hindrances for planning crop production technologies. Nowadays, a quite precise prognosis can be made for 3-6, a satisfactory one for 8-10 days. For longer periods, very uncertain consequences can be drawn by the average of the weather values. It is of great importance, to know the likelihood of the occurrence of weather averages too and also the deviation of the weather values, as well as the minimum and maximum values of a given area. During technological planning, one has to consider both the meteorological values of the growing period and the actual weather of the months before the vegetation period (amount of fallen precipitation, temperature, etc.). These values could help us to put the agricultural elements (e.g. soil preparation, date of sowing, tiller number, fertilizer doses, etc.) together.

During the elaboration of alternative crop production models, the following important climatic factors should be used:

• rainfall

• quantity, distribution

• static water need of plants

• dynamic water need of plants

• transpirational coefficient

• temperature

• annual and growing season average temperature

• temperature in critical phenophases

• minimum and maximum temperatures

• assimilation heat limit

• heat units in vegetation period

• hours of sunshine

• sunshine annual, growing season and critical phenophases

• minimum and maximum values of sunshine

• photoperiodic need of plants



• relative air humidity

• values-annual, growing season and critical phenophases

• wind

The weather conditions always make their effects on plant populations in interactions. The effect is complex since the weather before the growing period can be important for the development of plant populations. Within the vegetation period, in the different phenophases, the sensitivity of plants to the favourable and adverse effects of weather is different. In the case of every cultivated crop, there is/are critical phenophase(s), which is/are especially important with respect to the amount and quality of yield. These phenophases can be different in different plant species. The highest yield decrease is triggered by the unfavourable effects occurring within the critical phenophase. Despite the favourable/optimal changes in the weather during the subsequent phenophases, the results of the negative effects during the critical phenophase cannot be compensated totally. Therefore, the climatic effects during the critical phenophase are especially important with respect to the amount and quality of yield.

The other important agro-ecological condition system of crop production is the pedological-topographical conditions. The quality and applicability of the soil for crop production are determined simultaneously by its several physical, chemical and biological traits. Processes taking place in the soil determine the homeostasis characteristics and are of great importance with respect to crop production. These are the following ones:

• water husbandry of soil

• water conductivity

• water holding capacity

• capillary water lifting capacity

• level of water table

• water holding capacity (WHC), disponible, usable water (UW), dead water (DW)

• nutrient husbandry of soil

• nutrient capital (all nutrients)

• usable nutrients

• mobilization speed of nutrients (nutrient flux)

• heat husbandry of soil

• warming capacity

• heat capacity

• air husbandry of soil

• amount and proportion of soil pores

• aerob-anaerob conditions (groundwater, rainfall).

The culture state of soils is of special importance with respect to crop production. This means a complex trait of soil including cultivability, the extent of weediness, and the interactive effects of water, nutrient, temperature and air management processes.

Hungary is characterized by the mosaic-like appearance of the different soil types within an agro-ecological region or even a field. The agrotechnological actions (e.g. soil preparation, sowing technology, plant protection, irrigation) have to be taken in accordance with the soil abilities.

Hungary’s most important soil types with respect to crop production can be characterized by the following traits:



• Chernozem soils

• favourable physical (loamy = 38-42 AK ), chemical (pH = 7, nutrient content), biological (soil life), heat-, water-, nutrient- and air-husbandry, thick top soil (50-100 cm), big humus content (2-4%)

• unprofessional agrotechnical elements can weaken these excellent properties

• Brown forest soils

• acid pH (under 6 pH)

• narrower top soil (30-60 cm), less humus content (1,5-2,5%)

• less favourable water management (between A and B layer aquifer) and less nutrient content

• risk of erosion

• Meadow and luvisoils

• acid pH (under 6 pH)

• compaction (above 50 AK )

• high water table – with inclination to over wetting

• less favourable water-, heat-, air- and nutrient-management

• Sodic (salty) soils

• shallow top soil

• high salt- and Na-content

• very compacted

• unfavourable water-, heat-, air- and nutrient-management

• “minute-soil”

• solonetz and solonchaksodic soils

• Sandy soils

• shallow top soil

• low humus content (0,5-1,5%)


• deflation

• Eroded holly- and mountain soils

• especially shallow top soil

• strongly acid soil

• low humus content (0,5-1,0%)

• erosion

• heterogeneity of the soil

• Marshy soils



• high organic matter content


• deflation



The water and nutrient managements of the soil are of particular importance for the cultivated plants.

The effects of agrotechnical factors on soil characteristics

The agrotechnical elements of crop production models significantly influence the

• physical traits

• chemical traits

• water and nutrient management characteristics

of soils.



The changes in the soil traits considerably influence the vegetative and generative development and fruiting processes.

The physical traits of soils (plasticity, pore volume, bulk density, airing, etc.) are influenced by the following agrotechnical factors:

• Crop rotation

The green crop makes direct and indirect effects on the physical state of soils. It is recommended to consider a longer (4 years) crop rotation period and to set the sequence of plans accordingly.

• Soil preparation

The factor influencing soil structure to the greatest extent. The selections of tools and the cultivation depth are important.

• Nutrient supply

Organic manuring influences the physical traits of soils directly. The effects of meliorating substances (CaCO3) are also direct. Artificial fertilizers influence the physical traits of soils indirectly via the remaining plant and root parts.

• Irrigation

Irrigation can result in the decline of soil structures; this can be reduced by the irrigation of appropriate time and dose and by cultivation.

• Harvest

During harvest, vehicles used for harvesting or freight can cause significant poaching damages.

The chemical traits of soils are influenced by the following agrotechnical factors:

• Crop rotation

Makes two kinds of effects: direct (differences in nutrient uptake), indirect (remaining plant parts)


It makes influences by the aerob-anaerob and redox conditions and the modification of nutrient uptake possibilities.

• Nutrient supply

The pH of the soil is influenced by organic manuring, artificial fertilization and the use of meliorating substances.

• Irrigation

Irrigation influences the chemical traits by affecting the material turnover, the salt content, the redox conditions and the groundwater level.

• Crop care

By draining the groundwater off, the redox conditions and salt turnover, while by inter-row cultivation, the air management and indirectly the chemical traits can be influenced.

The water and nutrient managements of the soils are of fundamental importance for crop plants. These traits can be modified by the following agrotechnical traits:

• Crop rotation



The water and nutrient uptakes and the amount and quality of the remaining plant and other parts of the different green crops significantly differ.


Soil preparation has to be water preserving, the water reception and retention abilities of soils can be influenced by it.

• Nutrient supply

Organic and artificial manures and other types of fertilizers increase the nutrient pool of soils.

• Irrigation

The water supply of soils can be increased most effectively by irrigation. A favourable water supply can result in better nutrient uptake.

• Plant protection

Weeds significantly reduce the nutrient and water supplies of soils. Plants adversely affected by pathogens and animal pests have increased water and nutrient supply compared with healthy populations.

• Crop care

By inter-row cultivation, evaporation can be reduced, while the better airing of soils improves nutrient uptake.

3. The roles of biocoenoses in agro-ecological systemsDuring crop production, we establish a special biocoenosis consisting of mainly cultivated plants. Other kinds of organisms are also found in the populations comprising the biocoenosis of a certain crop production unit (field)

Interspecific relations can take place between the populations of the biocoenosis, among which the most important ones are the following:

• symbiosis

• allelopation

• predation

• competition

• neutralism

• commensalism




Besides the interspecific relations, intraspecific interactions also occur within the population of the cultivated crop. Therefore, the homogeneity within the population of the cultivated plant is very important, thus the favourable growing-developing and the optimal fruiting conditions are provided.

4. Questions1. What are the elements of ecological systems?

2. What structures have the ecosystems?

3. What are the most important climatic-weather factors in the agroecosystems?

4. What are the most important soil factors in the agroecosystems?

5. What are the functions of soil?

6. What are the most important antropogen factors in agroecosystems?


6. fejezet - Week 6. ENERGY AND MATERIAL FLOW IN AGROECOSYSTEMS1. Material and energy processes in the agro-ecosystemsThe agro-ecological ecosystems are considered as special artificial ecosystems. The alternative crop production models are agro-ecosystems of field crop production in which the special cultivation conditions are provided for the cultivated plants by agrotechnical activities. Therefore, the crop production ecosystems can be characterized by special traits:

• Artificial systems which are maintained by agrotechnical activities taken before and within the vegetation period. They are special by the fact that the biocoenosis is mainly comprised by individuals of the cultivated plant species for the final purpose of producing optimal yield amount and maximum yield quality. In the biological sense, this agro-ecological system is considered as “monoculture”.

• An open system in tight connection with the other artificial and natural ecosystems of the environment.

• System of field level, this means that the fundamental unit of the agro-ecological system is the field with natural and artificial boundaries.

• Characterized by internal and external energy flow.

• Characterized by internal and external material flow.

• The crop production system is maintained by the agrotechnical activities utilizing the ecological-natural sources. Without anthropogenic influence, material and energy input, the agronomical and economical efficiency of crop production systems will be decreased to the minimum.


2. Energy processes in the alternative crop production systemsThe most important biochemical-physiological process of our cultivated plants is photosynthesis during which


Week 6. ENERGY AND MATERIAL FLOW IN AGROECOSYSTEMS

organic materials, carbohydrates are formed out of inorganic substances (CO2 and H2O) with the help of solar energy; which are converted into other organic materials (amino acids, proteins, lipids, other carbohydrates, etc.) during other metabolic processes. Besides anabolic biological processes, the constant catabolism of organic materials (dissimilation) is also taking place in plants.

In the crop production ecosystems, mainly the individuals of the cultivated plants can be found altogether with other organisms. These organisms of the biocoenosis form a trophic system of tight interactions. The trophic system of the crop production ecosystems consists of the following levels:

• Producer organisms – plants with chlorophyll forming organic substances out of inorganic ones. The individuals of the cultivated plant species, weeds and other plants of the ecosystems comprise this level.

• Consumer organisms consuming organic plant material. These organisms are the different herbivore animals (e.g. insects, birds, mammals).

• Symbiotic organisms finding their living conditions on host plants (e.g. Rhizobium bacteria on the roots of leguminous plants and vexillary fodder crops).

• Parasitic organisms – these organisms invade different parts of the cultivated plants and parasitize them. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and other organisms (e.g. sunflower and tobacco broomrapes or the dodder parasitizing the alfalfa).

• Predator organisms consuming other, mainly consumer organisms; the injuries caused by the consumers may be reduced in the cultivated populations. Insects, birds and mammals comprise this level.

• Reducent organisms – they convert organic substances into less complex and inorganic materials; thus the producer organisms could take up these inorganic substances again during the cycle. Reducents are microscopic soil organisms (bacteria, fungi) and macroscopic ones (earthworms, etc.).


The energy processes taking place in the ecosystem are divided into three stages:

• Energy intake (energy input)

During the agrotechnical activities natural and artificial energy inputs take place in the ecological system of the cultivated plant. Natural or ecopotential energy is comprised of sunlight, heat, water, air and soil.

• The majority of the energy input of technological process consists of artificial energies as

• energies of biological origin

• energy of genotype and seed



• energy of human labour

• energies of technical origin

• direct energy input (gasoline, electric energy, gas, etc.)

• indirect energy input (agricultural machinery, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation water, etc.)

• Energy transformation

In the crop production process, the natural and artificial energy intakes are converted into utilizable plant products during the physiological processes of plants. The formed organic materials accumulate partially in the vegetative source and also partially in the generative sink. During the physiological processes of plants, the natural energy intakeis converted into utilizable plant product only partially since energy losses to various extents occur during the transformation processes.

• Produced energy (energy output)

The biomass generated during the crop production process represents a considerable amount of energy. A part of the biomass is utilizable. The utilizable part can be the main (e.g. wheat grain, etc.) or in several cases the side (e.g. wheat-straw, etc.) product. The non-harvested part of biomass is considered as energy loss, but the remaining plant parts (e.g. root, stalk, leaf remains, beet top with leaves, etc.) are significantly valuable in the biological and agronomical points of view since they replenish organic material. Nowadays, due to the drastic decline of animal population, these remaining parts are the most important sources of organic material replenishment for the soils.


By looking back on the historical development of crop production, one can conclude that the energy use of the production process constantly increased in favour of obtaining higher yield amounts. In the developed countries, labour use (energy input) significantly decreased, while both the indirect (machines, equipments) and the direct industrial (fertilizers, pesticides) energy inputs increased, resulting in considerable increase of yield amounts. A good example was the yield increases of wheat and maize in Hungary between the beginning of the 1960s to the middle of the 1980s. The average county yield of wheat grew from 1.5 t/ha to 5.0-5.5 t/ha, while that of maize from 2.0 t/ha to 6.0-6.5 t/ha. Meanwhile, the production technologies became fully mechanized, the fertilizer use increased about twenty-fold, from 15 kg/ha NPK to 280 kg/ha NPK. Similar tendencies were observed earlier in the developed Western European countries and the USA. The main question concerning this process is the mode of change in energy use. Calculations confirmed that the increases in the yield averages of field crops were achieved by tremendous direct and indirect energy input uses, thus the energy utilization declined. In the majority of the cultivated field crops, the energy output/input ratio varies between 1.5 and 3. This raises the question whether it is efficient enough to produce energy on the fields. We will return to this question in later chapters.

The structure of used energy input can significantly differ in the case of different plant species and also within a



species and crop production models. The analysis of the production technology of the dry grain maize would be informative:

• directenergy input ~25%

fuels, drying, electricity

• indirectenergy input ~60%

fertilizers, pesticides

• otherenergy input

seed ~1%

machinery ~14%

The energy input of the production technology of winter wheat is mainly consisted of chemicals (fertilizers ~55-65%, pesticides ~15-20%) independently of growing area. Among the works carried out by machines, soil preparation represents a significant proportion (~20-30%), while the input at harvest was of a lower rate (~5-8%). Among the fertilizers utilized in wheat production, the energy utilized for the production of N-fertilizers is the most considerable one (~75-80%), the energy input by P- and K-fertilizers represented a lower proportion (~10-15% both of them).

3. Material flow in the crop production ecosystemsBesides energy flow, a significant material flow takes places in the agro-ecological systems. While the natural ecosystems are characterized by material cycles, in agricultural factories and crop production ecosystems, the plant and animal products excluded by the production break the cyclic material flow processes. With the help of anthropogenic influences, we have to endeavour to make the cyclical nature and cyclic processes of the material flow processes as complete as possible.

In the case of the older factories of mixed farming (crop production + animal husbandry), this cyclic nature of the material flow processes remained, despite the sale of plant and animal products (outputs) and as an effect of anthropogenic influences. The main and side products were utilized in animal husbandry, while the side product of animal husbandry (livestock manure) was recycled into crop production.

Nowadays – due to profitability –, most of the factories are doing only field crop production without animal husbandry. In such cases, the cyclic material flow cannot be provided.

The most important material flow processes of the crop production ecosystems are the turnovers of macro nutrient elements. The nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium turnovers of the crop production systems are characterized by special material conversion processes. In every case, the nutrient conversion processes have inputs and outputs, the most important ones are the following:

• input

• the nutrient amount from the nutrient pool of the soil which is converted to be available for the plants

• different types of fertilizers (organic, artificial, others)

• other inputs (N-binding, plant remains, etc.)

• output

• the amount of nutrients taken up by the plants

• the amount of nutrients bound in the soil, not available for the plants

• losses (wash-out, denitrification)




Therefore, it is very important to know the nutrient turnovers of soils. The majority of the nutrient pools of soils are not directly available for the plants.

Out of this nutrient pool, as a result of the mobilization processes, a small amount of these nutrients is converted into replaceable form bound on colloids, while a minimal amount of this is found in the soil solution as a water soluble fraction. The cultivated plants can directly take up and utilize these nutrients of the soil solution. The nutrient conversion processes (mobilization – immobilization) are taking place constantly in the soil. The nutrient uptakes of cultivated plants are fundamentally influenced by the direction and intensity of these processes. We aim to make these conversion processes go in the favourable way byagrotechnical activities (e.g. soil preparation, fertilization, irrigation, etc.).

The most important characteristic of the N-turnover of soils is that its majority (~95%) is in organic form while cultivated plants take up nitrogen mainly in the form of inorganic ions (NO3- and NH4+). The conversion of organic and inorganic N-forms take place mainly in microbiological processes influenced by the environmental conditions (temperature, water, etc.). The availability and amount of nitrogen – the most important macroelement for most of the cultivated plants – can be influenced only partially due to the microbiological processes.


Both organic and inorganic phosphorus compounds play important role in the P-turnover of soils. Their ratio is various, close to 50-50% in chernozem. The amount of soluble phosphorus available for the plants is very small



in the soil, thus constant phosphorus flow is needed from the non-available P-pools into the soil solution. The velocity of this material flow is determined by several soil chemical and physical processes. The cultivated plants take up P in the form of inorganic ions (H2PO4

- and HPO42-).


Potassium can be mainly (~99%) found in the form of inorganic compounds in the soil, most of them are chemically bound K-compounds (feldspars, muscovite, biotite) unavailable for cultivated plants. Another unavailable portion is the bound K+ ions of 2:1 type clay minerals. The directly available K-supply for cultivated plants consists of the K+ ions of the soil solution and partially the replaceable K in the soil colloids. There is a constant material conversion between the bound and available K-forms in the soil.


4. Energy utilization in the alternative crop production systemsIn field crop production, our principal aims are to

• increase the amount of yield



• realize better yield safety

• obtain better yield quality.

We have to achieve these goals by

• providing the long-term sustainability of the ecological conditions of the crop production field

• improving the biological and agronomical efficiency

• achieving favourable energy utilization

• making crop production more profitable.

During the historical development of crop production, the increasing yield amounts were obtained by increasing energy input use, thus the energy utilization declined in the case of most field plants. One of the most important goals of alternative crop production models is to improve the energy utilization of the crop production process. The possible ways of fulfilling this aim are:

• Plant breeding and plant physiology methods

• Crop production, agrotechnical methods

The energy utilization can be achieved by the simultaneous, complex application of the breeding and agronomical methods. This is of special importance since the presently cultivated C3 and C4 plants utilize only a small portion (~1-2%) of solar energy. With respect to energy utilization, the C4type cultivated plants are more favourable than the C3 plants (unfortunately, most of the field plants are of C3 type).

The energy balance of the field ecosystems are described by the following equation:

Re = ET + Ql + Qt + Qph

One part of the solar energy entering the system (Re = 100%) is for warming up the air above the plant population (Ql =25-30%), while the other part raises the temperature of the root zone of the soil (Qt = 5-10%). The majority of the solar energy is needed to maintain the evaportanspiration of the plant populations (ET = 55-75%). The photosynthetic processes (Qph) utilize only 1-2% of the solar energy.

Therefore we endeavour to increase the extent of energy utilization in the alternative crop production systems.

5. Questions1. How can you describe the nutritional – trophic system in crop models?

2. What are the elements of energy flow in crop models?

3. What are the elements of material flow in crop production?

4. What does it mean nutrient flow in the soil?

5. What processes of N-, P- and K-flow in crop models?


7. fejezet - Week 7. ROLE OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS AND GENOTYPE IN CROP MODELS1. The role of biological bases in alternative crop production systemsIn the previous chapters, we explored that three factor groups can be observed in the artificial ecological systems in field crop production:


• biological bases

• agrotechnical factors

The previous chapters outlined the ecological conditions which have to be taken into consideration during the generation of crop production systems. Among these agro-ecological conditions

• the climatic-weather factors

• the pedological-topographical factors

are of special significance in

• the selection of field crops which can be cultivated on a certain area

• the selection of different genotypes within a plant species

• the elaboration of agrotechnique adaptable to the growing area and the genotype.

In Hungary, considerable changes took place in the development of the biological bases of field plant species. Even in the previous decades (1970-1980-1990s), the Hungarian variety policy was open, thus the best varieties/hybrids of the largest breeding companies of the world were found on the domestic variety list. This competitive situation positively influenced the activities of the Hungarian breeding institutions. Nowadays, the variety/hybrid portfolio of the most important field crops is very wide. In several cases, the selection of the best genotype out of the great many varieties/hybrids represents the biggest problem for the farmers.

During the previous decades, the domestic variety use significantly changed. Between the decades of 1900 and 1960, in the case of the most important field crops (wheat, maize, etc.) there were one or two varieties which were of greatest significance and they were cultivated for a long time. Later, the number of varieties gradually increased and their time in cultivation became shorter. A good example is the variety use of the domestic wheat production. Bánkúti 1201 was a variety of great significance between the 1930s and 1960s (about 30 years). Due to its high stalk, easy lodging, sensitivity to certain diseases and low productivity, this variety did not fit the altering farms using higher fertilizer amounts and machines in harvest instead of manual labour. Bezosztája 1 replacing Bánkúti 1201 was the variety of special significance between 1960 and 1975. During this period, the number of varieties also increased (about 5-10). The life duration of Bezosztája 1 was only ~15 years. Nowadays, an average duration of a wheat variety is 5-7 years in production practice, exceeding this duration only in exceptional cases (e.g. the variety Jubilejnaja 50, being in production for 20 years). At the same time, the number of state certified wheat varieties exceeds 100. The situation is similar in the case of other crops cultivated on large areas (e.g. there are more than 400 state certified hybrids of maize). It is worth to mention that in Hungary, in addition to the domestic ones, other varieties/hybrids certified in other EU countries may be used in the production due to the EU membership of the country. Therefore, nowadays the large number and wide choice of varieties makes the selection of varieties/hybrids which fit the most to the growing area and agrotechnical level difficult.


Week 7. ROLE OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS AND

GENOTYPE IN CROP MODELSThe biological bases of field crop production are

• the genotype

• the seed

Both of them have to be of appropriate traits. The genotype manifests as seed for the producer. Seed is a type of crop production input whose quality is assured by strict rules and control process. With the seed, the producer buys the desired genotype. High yields and excellent genotype may be expected only in the case of using excellent seeds. Favourable ecological conditions and professional, optimal agrotechnique are also needed to realize the expectations.

The genotype is the aggregate of the genetically encoded traits of the given variety/hybrid. While selecting the genotype, basically three factor groups are taken into consideration:

• productivity

• yield stability

• yield quality

An absolutely good genotype applicable on every growing are and in every crop production model, appropriate for all the production aims does not exist. The crop producer has to prefer certain traits while selecting a genotype. There are cases when the goal is the achievement of the highest possible yield amount or the more favourable yield stability or the best possible quality. We have to know this while selecting the appropriate genotype out of the variety/hybrid portfolio. Let’s have a look at the characteristics of the three trait groups of the genotype:

• Productivity

In the case of a given genotype, several types of productivity can be distinguished; knowing them helps us to select the genotype.

The genetic (or potential) productivity means the yield amount realized under ideal environmental conditions. These kinds of conditions can be guaranteed artificially (e.g. phytotron). In this case, the environmental conditions (water, light, heat, nutrients, etc.) are the most favourable, plant protection problems (weed, disease, pests) also do not occur. Our two most important cereals (wheat, maize) are feasible to demonstrate the changes in the productivity levels with exact data on their example. The genetic yield potential of wheat is 15-17 t/ha, while that of maize is 25-28 t/ha.

The maximum yield realized in practice can be obtained on smaller areas under optimal environmental conditions and by the application of intensive agrotechnique (e.g. carefully set and conducted small plot experiments). In the case of wheat it is 10-13 t/ha, while in maize 19-22 t/ha.

The yield maximum of field level is achieved on larger areas under optimal pedological and weather conditions and besides excellent agrotechnique (wheat 8-11 t/ha, maize 15-19 t/ha).

The factory level yield maximum of the certain genotype is obtained on larger areas (hundreds or even thousands of hectares) under favourable agro-ecological and agrotechnical conditions. In Hungray, the favourable factory level in wheat is 7-9 t/ha, while that in maize is 11-14 t/ha.

Since the genotypes of the given plant species are cultivated under various environmental and agrotechnical conditions, the country yield averages are significantly lower. In Hungary, this value of wheat varies between 3 and 5 t/ha, while that of maize is between 4 and 7 t/ha (mainly depending on the water supply of the cropyear). This means that only the 20-25% of the genetic potential of the genotype is utilized; but under favourable factory conditions, only the 40-55% of the yield potential is utilized. On one hand, this demonstrates the extreme changes in the domestic ecological conditions and on the other hand, the fact that the applied crop production technologies are needed to be further developed.

• Yield stability

The genotype possessing the highest yield potential is less valuable/utilizable in practice if it cannot realize its



GENOTYPE IN CROP MODELShigh yield level of appropriate yield stability under different ecological conditions (e.g. cropyear, soil) and at different agrotechnicallevels. Under unfavourable conditions of the growing area, the significance of yield stability increases. In such case, the genotype of better yield stability gains advantage over that of high productivity during variety/hybrid selection.

Yield stability is a complex trait mainly including the stress resistance of the genotype:

• The abiotic stress tolerance is the ability of the genotype to adapt to the agro-ecological conditions. Under the extreme climatic and changing pedological conditions of Hungary, it is of special importance. The genotype of favourable abiotic stress tolerance can adapt well to the extreme precipitation, temperature, pedological, etc. conditions.

• The biotic stress tolerance is the tolerance of organisms impairing the genotype. The disease tolerance of a genotype is of special significance. However, it means also the competitive ability of the genotype against weeds. Recently, favourable advances were made in the development of tolerance of animal pests in the case of certain plant species.

• The yield stability of the genotype is influenced by several agronomical traits, e.g. stalk stability, shattering liability, population homogeneity and co-ripening, etc.

• Yield quality

Nowadays, during the selection of the genotype, the issue of quality is emphasized in almost every field plant species. It is not enough to obtain high yields but the quality needed by the market, the processing industry, animal husbandry, etc. has to be performed by the genotype. In terms of quality, we can distinguish general quality parameters characteristic of the plant species, not the genotype; e.g. in the sunflower genotypes of oil industry, the 48-52% oil content is a general quality criterion. The special quality traits represent the special value of the certain genotype and make its applicability possible. Sunflowers of HO genotypes contain oil of special composition (80% is oleic acid), to keep the previous example.

The biological bases consist of two parts, the genotype and the seed. There seed production of

• autogamic and

• heterogamic

plants are very different.

In the case of the autogamic plants (e.g. wheat, barley, pea, soybean, etc.), the seed of the genotype produced during the breeding process would be – theoretically – of identical biological value through several generations. Due to different causes (genetical, seed production, etc.), the biological value of the seed and thus the amount (and even the quality) of realized yield also declines. In wheat, this decrease is ~5% per propagation grades. Therefore the seed renovation is of great importance in the case of autogamic plants. The production of the individual propagation grades takes place in different factories. The super-elite (SE) and elite (E) seeds are produced by the breeding institute and some farms of excellent conditions. In the production of grade I, more farms take part, while the production of grades II and III is widespread in the practice. For end-use, the crop produced of grade III seeds is used.

In the case of heterogamic plants (e.g. maize, sunflower, sorghum, etc.), genetically homozygotic inbred lines (strains) have to be produced. The directed mass crossing aiming to produce F1 (hybrid) seeds are conducted by the application of these inbred lines. The F1 seed possesses the advantages of the generative, vegetative and adaptive heterosis effects. Male sterile maternal lines may be used to ease the production of F1 seeds. The F1 seeds have to be produced each year. The heterogeneity of the populations is considerable in the F2 generation, thus cannot be applied for production.

As a result of breeding, the significant genetic advancement of field plants can be observed. This involved considerable changes in the phenotypes of varieties/hybrids. An exceptionally good example is the phenotypic changes of the genotypes of maize. The freely flowering varieties were of lesser heights, offshoot producing, and sagging foliage, developing the majority of leaves on the medium-lower part of their stalks, their ear heights were different and their tassels were of gigantic size. In contrast, the present, modern maize hybrids are characterized by the following phenotypic traits:



GENOTYPE IN CROP MODELS• high stalk

• favourable Harvest-index (HI)

• leaves of up-right type

• leaves are found in the upper third of the stalk

• minimal offshoot production

• homogeneic ear height

• small tassel

Out of the candidate varieties produced by breeding institutions, only a small proportion will be state certified. The state variety certification system is very strict and serves the interests of the producers. The variety certification process consists of two parallel studies:

• Performance test

In the three-year long study, the yield amount and the agronomic, pathological, qualitative, etc. traits of the candidate variety are investigated. These traits have to be better than those of the standard varieties. The three-year study is needed due to the different cropyear effects. The studies are conducted on regions of different ecological abilities.

• DUS (Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability) test

In the two-year study, the distinctness (D) of the candidate variety from certified varieties; the phenotypic uniformity (U) of its populations and its genetic stability (S) are determined.

The candidate variety has to pass both tests to become state certified.


The accession of Hungary to the European Union involved changes in the variety use meaning that any other variety/hybrid certified in any of the EU member states may be available on the domestic seed market. It is important to know that the production of varieties/hybrids certified outside Hungary bears risks. These varieties/hybrids were produced under different ecological conditions which frequently highly differ from the domestic weather and pedological conditions. On the other hand, producers do not have reliable information on the agrotechnical demands and responses of these varieties/hybrids, thus, these varieties/hybrids do not perform the required results many times.



GENOTYPE IN CROP MODELSIn the alternative crop production systems, the


• applied agrotechnique

are very important, they have to be taken into consideration while selecting the genotype.

Under various ecological conditions, the adaptability of the genotype is an important aspect beside productivity and quality. We aim to select a kind of genotype that responds to the favourable ecological conditions with high yield (intensive genotype) and tolerates the negative ecological effects to the greatest possible extent (adaptive genotype).

It is important to know the agrotechnical level (extensive, low input, mid-tech, intensive) while selecting the genotype. The different genotypes utilize the inputs of different levels to various extents. The genotypes can be characterized by different agrotechnical responses. The effectiveness of an alternative crop production model can be favourable only if the agrotechnical responses (e.g. fertilizer, sowing time, tiller number, herbicide, irrigation, etc.) are taken into consideration.

2. Variety/hybrid use in the most important field plant speciesThe large number of state certified varieties/hybrids puts difficulties in the way of selecting the genotype in several cases. The prices of the seeds of varieties/hybrids can significantly differ; that obviously has to be taken into consideration while selecting a genotype. Usually the prices of the more recent seeds of varieties/hybrids are higher than those of the older ones. In this case it is advisable to try the recent genotypes besides older ones already approved in the certain factory – on a smaller area. The higher yield potential of the new genotypes fully covers the extra costs of the seeds. By this method, the variety/hybrid portfolio of the certain factory can be constantly modernised.

Our several-year long studies on the important plant species confirmed that the most important starting point of production technology was the appropriate variety/hybrid selection. According to our experiments carried out under identical ecological conditions and by the application of the same agrotechnique, the differences in the yield results of the varieties/hybrids were highly significant.

The testing of winter wheat varieties (50-60 annually) between 1996 and 2006 confirmed the considerable effect of the cropyear on the yield result. In the droughty cropyears (2002 and 2003), the yield results of wheat were between 3.8 and 4.5 t/ha in the averages of the varieties. In the favourable cropyears (1997, 2000, 2004, and 2005) the average yield level varied between 7.5 and 8.4 t/ha. The results of our studies confirmed that – when identical agrotechniques were applied – in the case of either favourable or unfavourable cropyears, the difference in the yield results of the varieties performing the worst and the best results were between 2 and 4 t/ha, which meant significant difference. These differences also occurred in the wheat varieties of different maturation groups.




GENOTYPE IN CROP MODELS

Similar conclusions can be drawn in the cases of maize and sunflower hybrids too. According to our results, the difference between the yield results of the worst and best maize hybrids were 4-5 t/ha, while that was 2-3 t/ha in the sunflower hybrids, depending on the cropyear.






Several experiments were carried out aiming to determine the changes in the productivities and agrotechnical responses of new genotypes compared to those of older ones, as a result of breeding. In winter wheat, the old genotype was represented by GK Öthalom (state certified in 1985). Through several years (2000 to 2005), the performances of the tested new genotypes were compared to this old variety. According to the results of our studies, the maximum yields of the new winter wheat genotypes increased averagely by 700 kg/ha compared to the old one (GK Öthalom). The abilities to utilize the natural nutrients from the soils were improved in the new genotypes (no artificial fertilization applied, 300 kg/ha excess in the case of the control treatment), as well as their fertilizer responses became more favourable (+400 kg/ha excess compared to the old variety). Surprisingly, the more favourable nutrient utilizing ability of the new varieties was obtained at lower fertilizer optimum values (the Nopt dose of the new varieties was 85 kg/ha +PK, while that of the old one was Nopt = 95 kg/ha +PK to achieve the maximum yield level, which yield level was lower at the same time).


Our test experiments on winter wheat varieties confirmed that 1100-2300 kg/ha difference occurred between their maximum yield levels, depending on the cropyear, under identical agrotechnical conditions.





It is important to emphasize that the different genotypes respond to the cropyears and the agrotechnical activities to different extents. These differences are utilized during the application of growing area and variety specific technological models. According to our results, winter wheat obtained the most favourable yield as a result of the application of optimal NPK dose, under average weather conditions, both in bi- (maize-wheat) and tricultural (pea-wheat-maize) crop rotation (7236 kg/ha and 8870 kg/ha, respectively). Yield decreases were experienced both during the dry (26-31% yield decline) and extremely moist cropyears (43%-43% yield decline). The tricultural crop rotation provided more favourable yields in every cropyear than the wheat cultivated in biculture.


3. Questions1. What are the most important traits of genotype?

2. How can we produce planting materials (seeds) of self- and cross-polinating crops?

3. How can the farmers choose the genotypes into different crop models?

4. What are the most important agronomic traits of wheat, maize, sunflower and rape?


8. fejezet - Week 8. GM FIELD CROPS IN DIFFERENT CROP MODELS1. GM plants in field crop productionThe methods applied in the selection of autogamic and heterogamic plants are quite time-consuming. In the case of autogamic plants, as a result of the different selection processes, we get candidate varieties that can be comprehensively studied, about 6-10 years after crossing. In the case of heterogamic plants, as an effect of inbreeding, we could obtain genetically homozygous, stabile lines applicable for crossing in 6-8 years. To find the parental lines of appropriate combination, can take another 3-5 years. Therefore, by the employment of traditional selection methods, a minimum of 10-15 years is necessary to produce a variety or hybrid following by a three-year long state certification process. After all of these, the propagation of the variety/hybrid in greater amount can be performed, which takes 4-5 years in the case of autogamic plants and 2-4 years in the case of hybrids. Thus, the selection of the varieties/hybrids cultivated on wide areas nowadays, began in the 1990s. Therefore, breeders have to plan for 10-15-20 years and have to consider which valuable traits would be important in the genotypes of the future.

It could be a general requirement to shorten the long, labour, time and money demanding selection process as possible; biotechnology can provide an efficient help in this. By the application of biotechnological techniques, we can shorten and make the production of new genotypes more efficient. There are biotechnological methods, with the help of which, homozygosity can be achieved in one step (DH = dihaploid method). By other biotechnological techniques, the selection can be conducted on the cellular or tissue level and a large starting population can be screened. By others, an entire plant can be regenerated from tissues in the laboratory and several generations can be bred and tested in a certain period of time. These biotechnological methods significantly improve the efficiency of classical selection and do not result in genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

By the co-application of classical and biotechnological techniques, exceptionally valuable traits can be formed in traditional genotypes. One of these is the pesticide resistance of sunflower. Earlier, in the weed control of sunflower, the thermophilous, constantly germinating dicotyledonous weeds of the same family or close to its family caused serious problems; there were no traditional weed clearing methods against them. Those post emergent dicotyledonous weed control chemicals which cleared these dicotyledonous weeds partially, caused considerable phytotoxicity in the sunflower too. The application of sunflower hybrids – especially on the areas seriously infected by the above mentioned dicotyledonous weeds – resistant to certain pesticides can represent a new solution. These special sunflower hybrids are the imidazoline resistant ones applicable in the Clearfield (IMI) technology and the sulphonylcarbamide resistant hybrids which can be employed in the Express (SU) technology. The hybrids applicable in the two categories cannot be interchanged but the weed control technology is lethal to other, average hybrids too. Please note that these IMI and SU sunflower hybrids are not GMOs, they only contain sunflower genes.

However, there are traits of field crops which cannot be dealt with traditional or biotechnological selection methods at satisfactory level. The production of genetically modified organisms (GMO) began in the 1980s because of this and to form totally new traits; the practical results were first seen in the middle of the 1990s. GMOs are found not solely in field but in horticultural plants, various microorganisms and animals too.

GMOs are organisms containing the genes of other organisms in their gene pools besides their own ones. The production of transgenic plants consists of the following:

• First, a so-called elite event (EE) line has to be produced containing genes of other organisms (transgenes) besides those of the certain plant species. Genetic modification takes place following gene isolation and vector formation; it means the introduction of the transgene into the gene pool of the given plant (by gene gun, Agrobacterium plasmid, solvent method, etc.). The selection of the cells receiving the transgene take place in the next step then viable plants are regenerated from these cells by biotechnological methods.

• In the second step, these EE lines are crossed with normal lines/varieties; following by the genetic stabilization of the new trait and the production of varieties of favourable productivity and quality by the


Week 8. GM FIELD CROPS IN DIFFERENT CROP MODELS

application of traditional and biotechnological methods.


During the production of GM plants, the aims changed; according to that, several generations of GM plants can be distinguished:

• First generation GM plants

In these varieties, the primary goal was to solve the different plant protection problems. Varieties tolerant to certain (total) herbicides and hybrids resistant to animal pests (e.g. European corn borer) were produced this way. These special traits were possessed by the GM plants individually.

• Second generation GM plants

In this case, the goal was to fulfil the special requirements of the market. The majority of them were horticultural plants like varieties of extraordinary colour (e.g. yellow, violet cauliflower), shape and taste. Another aim was the elongation of storability (e.g. tomato, papaya).

• Third generation GM plants

These plants can be utilized as special “bioreactors” capable of producing special chemical compounds. The different diseases caused by the lack of vitamin A are common in the developing countries. The goldenrice containing high amounts of carotene (the provitamin of vitamin A) was produced to solve this problem. Special nutritive (e.g. enzymes) or other substances (e.g. plastic) can also be produced by GM plants and microorganisms.

• Fourth generation GM plants

In the case of them, the goals are to concorporate the existing traits into one variety/hybrid (e.g. herbicide, borer and Diabrotica resistance in maize) or to improve the adaptability to the ecological conditions (e.g. drought tolerance) and the better utilization of agrotechnical inputs (e.g. similar or higher yield by the application of less NPK fertilizers).

The first GM plants (maize, soybean, cotton, rape, rice, etc.) applicable in practice appeared in the USA at the beginning of the 1990s. Later, GM varieties/hybrids of other plant species were also produced and the production of GM plants gradually spread in other countries of the world, their sowing areas increased.

8.2. ábra - >Figure 33.



The production of GM plants in the world and Hungary

The cultivation of GM plants in the world spread slowly in the 1990s but quite rapidly in the 2000s. Nowadays, the production of GM crops take place on the 10% (about 140-150 million ha) of the world’s arable land (in Hungary, the size of the whole arable land is 4.5 million ha). Among the producer countries, one can find both developed and developing ones. Countries producing GM plants on areas larger than 1 million ha are:

USA ~ 65 million ha

Argentina ~22 million ha

Brazil ~17 million ha

India ~ 8 million ha

Canada ~ 8 million ha

China ~ 4 million ha

Paraguay ~ 3 million ha

GM plants are produced in another 30 countries of Earth.

8.3. ábra - Figure 34



There is no consensus in the countries of the European Union about the production of GM plants. There are EU countries in which GM plants are produced on a relatively higher (ten thousands of hectares) area (e.g. Spain). In further countries, the cultivation of GM plants is allowed (e.g. France, Germany, Slovakia) but takes places on areas of negligible size (some hundred ha). Several EU member states (e.g. Hungary, Austria) called for moratorium on the production of GM plants; only experiments are allowed to be carried out but the field production is forbidden. In Hungary, the regulation of GM production is so strict that it was stated in the Constitution too.

The GM varieties and hybrids of several field and horticultural plants have already been produced. The most important ones are the following:

• maize – size of its sowing area in the world is 163 million ha, out of which that of GM hybrids is 40 million ha (~25%)

• soybean – size of its sowing area in the world is 102 million ha, out of which that of GM varieties is 65 million ha (~65%)

• cotton – size of its sowing area in the world is 36 million ha, out of which that of GM varieties is 17 million ha (~47%)

• rape – size of its sowing area in the world is 33 million ha, out of which that of GM varieties/hybrids is 7 million ha (~20%)


Although some of the countries – Hungary as well – endeavour to be GM free, it is not possible due to the global trade of plant products. The majority of the largest GM producer countries (e.g. USA, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina) export a significant amount of the produced GM plants; thus the considerable amount of soybean imported to Hungary derives from GM plants (from the USA, Brazil). The significant maize import of the Western European countries from the USA is dominantly of GM maize. The majority of the Canadian rape export (80%) consists of crops produced with GM varieties/hybrids.

In the special variety testing system of the USA taking place at the universities of the individual states, the candidate hybrids are mainly (90% of them) of GM type containing many traits (herbicide, borer, Diabrotica resistance) simultaneously.

2. The potential risks of GM productionIn Hungary, all the solutions which may be solved by the GM plants, can be worked out by the application of traditional agrotechnical tools and traditional varieties/hybrids. Therefore, there is no professional reason for the employment of GM plants in the domestic field crop production. The worsening of certain ecological (e.g.



drought) or plant protection (e.g. Diabrotica) problems or the occurrence of new professional ones may justify the revision of this view.

Several publications draw attention to the possible risks caused by GM plants. One part of them is scientifically well-founded, but there are also ones whose scientific bases are questionable. The most important possible risks are summarized below:

• Primary ecological risks

• Vertical gene transfer

The spontaneous crossing between the GM and cognate wild type plants maybe resulting in the development of a “superweed” which would be hard to clear.

The appearance of volunteers (e.g. GM maize weed in a GM soybean population – further herbicide treatment is needed to be cleared)

• Horizontal gene transfer

The transition of the transgene of the GM plant into an unrelated plant species possibly resulting in the appearance of new viral and bacterial diseases.

In human and animals, antibiotic resistance may be developed.

• Secondary ecological risks

The indirect negative effects of GM plants on the environment (e.g. Bt maize in addition to killing the larvae of the corn borer, negatively influences the advantageous insects, animals living in the soil, etc.).

• Effects on biodiversity

• positive effects (the development of new species by GM)

• negative effects (the suppression of the traditional organisms, e.g. weeds, insects, the alteration of the composition of the biocoenoses)

• toxic effects of foods (the production of undesired toxins by the transgene)

• Food safety risks

• the alteration of the chemical composition of foods

• allergenic effects of foods

• toxic effects of foods

• antibiotic resistance genes in foods

• Economic and social risks

• the obtainment of the wild and cultural flora of other countries

• the gene technological patents cause monopoly position

• the ruination of the own breeding of certain countries

• special combination sales (GM variety – special herbicide)

• enormous investments into the production of GM varieties/hybrids (~100 million US dollar/variety) – the production of GM varieties/hybrids is the privilege of the most developed countries and multinational companies




Although, in Hungary, the production of GM plants is not reasonable in field crop production, we have to be prepared for the alteration of this in the future. If it happens, comprehensive results of research should be needed for the practice.

3. Questions1. What are the GM field crops?

2. What important agronomic trait are modified in GM plants?

3. What are the most important field crop species? Why are they?

4. How can we characterize the sowing area of GM plants in the World and in Hungary?

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of GM field plant?


9. fejezet - Week 9. ALTERNATIVE CROP MODELS1. Crop production modelsDuring its historical evolution – due to the growing empirical and scientific knowledge –, crop production developed from a spontaneous activity into conscious agrotechnical operations; and on the other hand, in the possession of the growing professional information, a system of them was formed. On a certain level of development, the crop production systems were generated in the 20th century, coherently integrating the individual factors.

As a historical retrospection, we distinguish the following models highlighting the most important characteristics of the crop production practice of a certain period:

• Old crop production models

• grazing-deforestation farming

• ancient irrigation farming

• ley-farming

• Norfolk crop rotation system

• New crop production models

• extensive farming

• intensive farming

• monoculture cultivation

• industry-like crop production model

• Modern crop production models

• integrated crop production model

• environmentally friendly crop production model

• sustainable crop production model

• ecological farming model

In the case of the different crop production models, the ratio of the natural resources and the input materials/energies introduced from outside is very important and also characteristic. The higher is the introduction of the outer inputs of industrial origin, the more intensive the crop production model is. In the case of natural ecosystems, the introduction of the outer inputs practically does not exist or of negligible extent. In contrast, the other extreme is industrial production, in case of which the natural resources are practically neglected (or utilized only to a minimal extent); during the production process, the utilization of artificial inputs (materials, energies) take place entirely. In the crop production practice, the natural resources (biological, meteorological, within the soil, etc.) are utilized to the greatest extent in the ecological crop production model; the use of outer inputs is on the minimum. Despite, the industry-like crop production model endeavours to reduce the effects of the natural resources to the minimum and attempts to provide the important environmental factors (e.g. nutrients, water) in an almost fully artificial manner. In the majority of the cases, the latter approach is not only expensive and economically inefficient, but causes serious environmental stress. This kind of industry-like crop production model cannot be maintained on the long run.


Week 9. ALTERNATIVE CROP MODELS

The crop production ecosystems are in constant interaction with other artificial and natural ecosystems. During crop production, an important goal is to harmonize land use and nature protection. This harmonization means that in the case of the areas of different utilization, their functions are different. According to land use and functions in nature protection, the following areas are distinguished:

• Protection area

No agricultural production takes place on the area since it serves the aims of nature protection (protection of biotopes, biocoenoses).

• Primarily protection area with limited land use

Agricultural production can be carried out to a kind of extent and intensity that provides the protection of natural resources (water, soil, plant and animal species).

• Agricultural area

A cultural region within which mainly agricultural and field crop production take place. In this case, the long-term sustainability of the ecological conditions has to be also ensured (e.g. ecological green corridors).

A cultural region within which mainly agricultural and field crop production take place. In this case, the long-term sustainability of the ecological conditions has to be also ensured (e.g. ecological green corridors).


At present and in the future, the biggest problem of sustainable crop production is the restraint of the used ecological conditions and the constant decline of their quality. Among these ecological conditions the following are of special importance:

• The soil – The area utilizable as sowing area can be increased only in a limited way (in the world it is ~11%), or declines in most of the countries (in Hungary as well). Besides the quantitative limitations of arable land, the increasing proportion of the limiting factors (e.g. drought, lack of nutrients, erosion, deflation, etc.) influencing its quality represent a similarly serious problem.

• The water – Freshwater accounts for only 2-3% of the water supply of Earth and only its small fraction can be utilized in crop production. As an effect of climate change, the precipitation amount determinant in crop production shows a declining tendency in our country. In addition to the quantitative problems, increasing qualitative ones will be expected in the water supply of plants in the future.




2. Elements and characteristics of crop production modelsThe crop production models are complex systems including several environmental, agronomical, technical and economic elements. Our aim is to cohere these elements ensuring the efficient function and use of the crop production model.

Let’s have brief look at the most important elements of a crop production model.

• Agro-ecological conditions

The ecological conditions account for the base of a crop production model to determine that which plant species can be cultivated and at what intensity level.

The agro-ecological conditions are the

• climatic-weather conditions

• pedological-topographic conditions

• Biological bases

The selection of variety/hybrid into the ecological and agrotechnical conditions is of special importance in terms of the utilization of natural resources and the efficiency of the selected genotype in utilizing the applied agrotechnical inputs (specific response of the variety/hybrid, e.g. to fertilization, irrigation, etc.). Biological bases also include

• the genotype

• the seed

• Agrotechnical elements

They mean the agrotechnical inputs applied during the crop production technology. The identical input levels of the individual agrotechnical elements (from crop rotation to harvest) are of great importance. If the agrotechnical elements of different intensity (extensive, low input, mid-tech, intensive) mix in the technological model (bottle-neck effect), that involves the decline in the efficiency of the model.

• Financial conditions

One should know the financial possibilities of the whole technological process while selecting a crop



production model. It is also important to know the financial resources (own, credit). We aim to achieve profitable production by the applied crop production model.

• The market factor

The output of the crop production model means not only the amount of produced crop but quality is also this important. Plant products needed by the different markets have to be produced with perfect timing by the application of the crop production model.

• The technical condition system of production

The feasibility of the crop production model in practice depends on the available machinery and its capacity. The appropriate technical conditions make the accomplishment of agrotechnical activities in optimal time and excellent quality possible.

• Social conditions

The demands and requirement of the society in terms of the amount and quality of plant products and applied agrotechniques constantly change. It is important to take these social requirements into consideration while elaborating a crop production model.

• Factors of environmental protection

A crop production is model basically based on the ecological conditions. The productive activity has to be conducted not only without spoiling the ecological conditions but with the improvement of them (e.g. cultivation of a soil of high plasticity, livestock manuring on soils of low humus content, etc.). Therefore, the crop production model has to be sustainable.

The overview of the elements of sustainable crop production gives useful help to its compilation. It is also important to briefly summarize the most important goals of sustainable crop production:

• In the case of agro-ecological conditions, we aim to prevent the environmental damages and not to correct them later. With this respect, the adaptation of the agrotechnique to the agro-ecological conditions is important.

• Among the biological-genetic aims, the preservation of biodiversity, the use of novel, more modern genotypes and the implementation of the agrotechnique adapted to the variety/hybrid are the fundamental ones.

• In the case of the agrotechnical conditions, we endeavour to utilize the interactions taking place between the factors to the greatest possible extent. An additional goal is the rational reduction of the use of the external, industrial inputs.

• During the utilization of the interactions between the agro-ecological-biological-agrotechnical factors, we utilize the natural resources to a level that ensures long-term sustainability.

• In the case of the quality of plant products, we aim to produce the differentiated quality matching the market requirements and user demands; and we endeavour to comply the food/fodder safety regulations and the production of healthy plant products (e.g. mycotoxin and pesticide free).

• Without the economical viability, the application of a sustainable crop production model is not possible. The goal is to achieve a profitability level that makes the implementation of expanded production cycles possible.

• With respect to social acceptance, the model has to fit the constantly changing quantity and quality requirements of the society. Our additional aim is to influence and form the social demands not only to adapt to them.

3. Possibilities to increase efficiency in the alternative crop production modelsEfficiency is one of the most important parameters in the evaluation of the crop production models. These most important efficiency indicators of crop production models are the following:



• agronomical efficiency

• energetic efficiency

• environmental efficiency

• economic efficiency

• social efficiency

In the narrow sense, the agronomical and the economical efficiencies are the most important ones with respect to crop production practice. As a consequence of the regulations and social requirements, a crop production model has to match also the energetic, the environmental and social requirements, thus the efficiency indicators evaluate a crop production model in a complex way.


A permanent challenge of crop production is the constant improvement of the efficiency. In the agronomical, crop production points of view; there are two possible, closely related ways to improve the efficiency of a crop production model.

Efficiency can be increased by the selection of the appropriate genotype. The more efficient varieties possess better adaptive capacity, more favourable abiotic and biotic stress resistance, better agrotechnical responses, higher productivity and better quality.

The agrotechnical factors to improve the efficiency are the following:

• diversification of crop rotation

• reduced, environmentally friendly tillage

• specific sowing technology

• growing area and variety specific fertilization

• integrated plant protection

• appropriate water supply

• specific harvesting




The enhancement of economic efficiency in the case of crop production models is of similar importance. We cannot influence the majority of these factors, we can only adapt to them. The economic efficiency of the crop production models is mainly determined by two factors independent of the crop producer:

• market price

• marketing possibilities

The crop producer can influence the

• costs of production

by reasonable selection of these factors of the crop production model:

• agro-ecological conditions

• professional selection of the variety/hybrid

• application of complex agrotechnical system

In Hungary, the implementation of sustainable agriculture is supported by an Agricultural Environmental Management Programme (AEM) that endeavours to achieve the sustainability aims by the help of the regulatory and aiding system. The most important goals of the AEM are summarized as follows:

• crop species structure suitable for ecological conditions

• environment-conscious farming

• improvement of the environmental conditions

• production of quality food, fodder and other crop products

• improvement of the viability of farms

• improvement of economic efficiency

The field agricultural environmental management programmes in the AEM are classified into two larger groups within which additional sub-programmes can be distinguished:

• Horizontal target programs for arable lands

• integrated farming



• homestead farming

• ecological farming

• Nature protection zonal target programs

• target program for developing bustard habitat

• target program for developing elks and cranes habitat

• target program for developing birds and small game habitat

• target program for developing red footed falcon habitat

In addition to these, the soil protection programme (against erosion, deflation) is also important.

In the case of field horizontal programmes, the conditions of the obtainment of financial grants are limited by the following strict agronomical directions:

• examinations of the soil

• nutrient management plan

• rules of optimum crop rotation

• rules of green fallow

• rules of soil cultivation

• rules of crop protection

4. Alternative models of sustainable crop productionThe crop production models interact closely with the environment. These interactions can be

• positive

• negative.


We aim to utilize the positive interactions to a greatest possible extent and to reduce the negative ones to the



possible minimum level. The interactions between the crop production process and the environment are intensely influenced by the level of the crop production model. The more intensive is the crop production model, the more intense (positive and negative) its effect is on the environmental conditions.

The most important goals of the sustainable crop production models are summarized as follows:

• agronomical


• economic

• social

The greatest challenge of the implementation of crop production models is the harmonization of the above mentioned aims. The problem is that a certain crop production model can fulfil an individual goal, but the solution for the accomplishment of every aim is limited.


The sustainable crop production model of new approach considers the agricultural factory of different size as an artificial agro-ecosystem. This agro-ecosystem can work efficiently only if the following are implemented in optimal manner:

• energy flow

• water cycle

• mineral cycle

• biodiversity

Besides of agronomic sustainability it is important

• social sustainability

• economic sustainability

The crop production model applied earlier significantly differs from the sustainable crop production model of biological bases. This sustainable crop production model of biological bases is characterized by the following:

• information (knowledge) intensive



• cyclical process

• farm as ecosystem

• enterprise integration

• biodiversity

• higher value products

• multiple-use equipments

• active marketing

The intensive, sustainable crop production model can be employed either in the developed or the developing countries with the consideration of special conditions. The intensive, sustainable crop production model is characterized by the following:

• Well-developed countries

• intensive input using (crop models)


• social demands

• Underdeveloped countries

• extensive input using (crop models)

• increasing needs for foods

• interactions technology and society

• harmonization among production-environment-society.

Our most important goals by the application of this intensive, sustainable crop production model are as follows:

• to increase productivity with limited land expansion

• to maximize biological processes

• to intensity crop production by managing biodiversity and ecosystems

• to use adaptive crop management to ecosystems

• to ensue healthy landscape

• to develop markets and infrastructure.

The crop production models are various; their objectives differ and they are characterized by different agronomical and economic efficiencies. A common feature of them is that each crop production model has to be sustainable both at present and in the future.

5. Questions1. What were the most important crop models in the historical time?

2. What is the energy input in different crop models?

3. What are the elements of alternative crop models?

4. How can we improve the efficiency of alternative crop models?



5. What are the main issues of sustainability in alternative crop models?

6. What does it main intensive sustainable crop production?


10. fejezet - Week 10. AGROTECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE CROP PRODUCTION I.1. The role of agrotechnical elements in the alternative crop production modelsPreviously, we dealt with the ecological factors and biological bases as factors taking effects in the crop production models. Next, we will look at those agrotechnical elements, which can be influenced to a greatest extent and the most effectively during the production technology. These are the following:

• crop rotation

• tillage


• nutrient supply

• irrigation


• harvest

Although these agrotechnical factors will be analyzed individually, it is important to emphasize that there are tight interactions between these factors of production technology.

The alteration of one of the agrotechnical elements affects other ones and also the agro-ecological conditions and biological bases.

The role of crop rotation in the alternative crop production models

The different plant species effect the physical, chemical and biological traits of soils differently, they leave the soil in different culture-states, they utilize the water and nutrient supplies of the different layers to different extents. Recognizing this, the favourable effects of crop rotation has been utilized for a long time in crop rotation. In the history of crop production, the following crop rotation systems were the most important ones:

• set-aside management

• shift of crops management

• two course

• three course

• crop rotation

• classic (fixed)

• frame

• rotation cycle

• traditional


Week 10. AGROTECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE

CROP PRODUCTION I.• frame

• monoculture

• sustainable farming

During the evaluation of the crop rotation systems, one has to consider that a crop rotation has to be planned for a longer period (usually for four years), the values of the preceding crops are never absolute but relative (therefore they change in the case of the modification of certain conditions, e.g. a good preceding crop becomes of medium value); and the fact that the implementation of the optimal crop rotation can be hindered by several compelling conditions (e.g. market demands, technical conditions, financial limitations, etc.). Nevertheless, we have to endeavour to implement the optimal crop rotation; since by the agronomically favourable crop rotation,

• the amount of used input can be reduced (e.g. after leguminous preceding crops less N fertilizers have to be applied, after the rape preceding crop of draining effect, less tillage is needed, etc.)

• the efficiency of the used inputs can be improved (e.g. higher yield excess per one NPK fertilizer unit after favourable preceding crop, etc.)

significantly without additional expenditure.

As a result of all these factors, the optimal crop rotation makes a more profitable crop production possible.

To set an optimal crop rotation, one has to know the preceding crop values of field crops. The evaluation of the preceding crops is complex and can be possible by the consideration of the following aspects:

• The removal time of the preceding crop

Usually, the less time elapses between the removal of the preceding crop and the sowing of the next crop, the more unfavourable their effects are. There is less time available for the appropriate soil works and nutrient supply.

• The effect of the preceding crop on the soil

The effect of the preceding crop on the soil

The effects of plants on soils are complex. Primarily, the water and nutrient intakes can significantly differ. There are plants which consume the water and nutrient supplies of the soils (e.g. sunflower, maize), while others are characterized by lesser intake (e.g. pea, bean, lentil, etc.). The cultivated plants influence the physical (compactness – draining effect) and chemical features and the microbial life of soils.

• Plant parts remained after the preceding crop

The amount of the remains deriving from roots and the plant parts above the ground significantly differ in the case of cultivated crops. Certain plants leave a considerable amount of plant parts behind themselves (e.g. grain maize), while others only of minimal amount (e.g. green pea, etc.). There are also differences in the qualities, i.e. decomposition, conversion of plant remains.

• Effects of the preceding crop with respect to plant protection

Plants after the preceding crop with common diseases or animal pests with the preceding crop should be avoided. On the other hand, plants possess different weed competencies. There are plants with significant (e.g. sunflower, rape, etc.) or weak (e.g. pea, etc.) weed suppressing abilities.

Therefore, the crop rotation is a kind of land use system, within which plants are being cultivated through a long period of time (usually four years) according to a system determined in space and time. Its elements are the cultivated species, the ratio and sequence of crops. It is reasonable to set the optimal crop rotation system fitting the certain area in every case, which is beneficial even if one has to change it due to compelling conditions.

The industry-like crop production model is characterized by the small number of produced crops, the frequent application of monoculture production (e.g. maize), the crop rotation is determined by the demands of the market.



CROP PRODUCTION I.In contrast, the sustainable crop production model endeavours to set diversified plant structure and the implementation of environmental and agronomical optimums. Its most important features are the following:

• diversified arable crop structure (growing many crops)

• avoiding monoculture if possible

• keeping the rules of the rotation cycle

• considering limited aspects of market

• less ecological vulnerability

• better marketability

• favourable effects of nutrient- and water supply in soil

• better physical, chemical and biological traits of soil

• less erosion/deflation

In the last 50 years, Hungarian crop production was characterized by the simplification of the crop system. The domestic crop production is focuses on cereals. Cereals (spiked cereals + maize) account for the 67-68% of arable land. Another important group of plants are the oil plants (20-21%, sunflower and rape are the most important ones). The production of other plants is of negligible extent. This kind of extreme crop system does not allow of keeping the agronomical optimums of crop rotation.





CROP PRODUCTION I.

The crop structures are more diversified in two agriculturally significant countries of the EU, France and Germany; the ratio of other cultivated plants (leguminous, tuberous, forage, industrial plants) besides cereals and oil plants varies between 30 and 40%, while in Hungary this proportion is only 12-13%.

The preceding crop effect takes place primarily under unfavourable ecological conditions (e.g. dry cropyear, unfavourable soil); this is related to the water and nutrient supplies and the water and nutrient supplying abilities of soils. Our results confirmed that on chernozem soil, the differences between the preceding crops were significantly smaller in cropyears of favourable water supply than during a droughty one. This phenomenon can be explained by the differences in the water supplies and the related different nutrient uptakes.

The unfavourable preceding crop effects can be reduced by excessive agrotechnical activities, which increase the production costs and the environmental stress too. The agrotechnical elements reducing the unfavourable preceding crop effect can be the following: tillage, nutrient supply, sowing technology, plant protection, and irrigation. According to our experimental results, in the case of unfavourable preceding crops, the yield increasing effect of fertilization was greater, and the fertilizer utilization (yield excess per 1 kg NPK fertilizer) was more favourable after good preceding crops in the case of winter wheat.


2. The role of tillage in the alternative crop production



CROP PRODUCTION I.

modelsThe soil is not simply the medium of field crop production, but the basic element of the crop production area mediating the ecological and agrotechnical effects directly and indirectly towards the plant stocks. The soil of favourable state can reduce these environmental and technological effects having and important compensating function during the vegetation period. The role of the soil is determinant in the water and nutrient supplies of cultivated crops, which factors are of fundamental significance in terms of vegetative and generative growth and fructification of plants.

Therefore, the appropriate agronomical state of the soil is of great importance. In such cases, the agronomical inputs (e.g. chemical fertilization, irrigation, weed control) can take effect in a more efficient manner. Thus, the tendency characteristic of the agronomical state of domestic soils is very unfavourable. While in the 1980s the agronomical state of domestic soils were of 54% good, this number declined to 9% by the middle of the 1990s. The causes of this are complex. The inappropriate land use, the improper selection of the tillage tools and the tillages carried out at inadequate time point and depth contributed to the problem.

It is important to emphasize that the agronomical state of the soil can be ruined by improper tillage activities in a very short time and the repairment can take long time, even years. Another fact worth accentuating is that the more unfavourable physical and chemical features a soil possesses, the selection of the tillage tools and the time and depth of the preparation needs the more carefulness. Tillage is an agrotechnical activity planned for several (usually four) years considering the needs of the cultivated plants. Tillage has to be carried out in accordance with the systemic approach.

In the case of tillage, the broader aim is the formation of the soil state optimal for the plant that remains along the whole vegetation period. The narrower goal is to generate appropriate soil state, seed-bed for the time of sowing.

In terms of the number, mode and depth of tillage actions, we distinguish the following tillage systems:

• classic (primarily based on the use of plough, contains several actions)

• environmentally friendly (mainly uses cultivating and combined tools, the reduction of the number of activities and their connection are important aspects of it)

• strip-till (the cultivation of certain strips of the field is carried out)

• minimum tillage (the number of tillage actions is reduced to 1-2)

• non tillage (tillage in the traditional sense does not take place, the opening of the seed-bed is carried out by a special sowing machine)

In the case of the tillage systems mentioned above (except the non tillage system), the tillage activities are divided into four groups. In the majority of the cases, these activity groups can be conducted jointly. The groups are the following ones:

• preparation

• basic tillage

• soil grading

• seed-bed making

During the elaboration of a tillage system, several aspects have to be considered. Among them we can find ecological, agronomical, technical, economical ones, summarized as follows:

• The biological demand of the cultivated plant

The selection of the depth of cultivation is very important. The excessive depth does not result in yield excess compared to the optimal one, while the inadequate depth can decrease the yield. A portion of the plants especially needs deep (around 35 cm) cultivation (e.g. sugarbeet, potato, maize, alfalfa, etc.), for others, shallow cultivation (20-25) is sufficient (e.g. winter wheat, winter barley, triticale, etc.).



CROP PRODUCTION I.• Soil features

Among the soil features, the thickness of the cultivated layer, its lamination and soil plasticity are of fundamental importance. These traits determine the type of tillage tools and the depth of the tillage. It is important to know the moisture content of the soil while determining the time of tillage.

• Ecological conditions

Hungary’s climate is continental, mainly dry; thus, the preservation of the water supply of the soil during tillage is of great importance.

By the appropriate elaboration of tillage, soil degradation (erosion, deflation) can be significantly reduced.

• Preceding crop

The preceding crop considerably influences the state of the soil (water supply, compactness, etc.) and there are also differences in the amount and quality of the plant remains. These factors influence the selection of the tillage tools, the number, depth and time of actions taken.

• Energy and cost economization

The optimal tillage fulfilling the needs of plants makes the selection of the tillage and the rationalization of the course numbers and the depth, thus, energy and cost can be spared.

• Systemic approach

During the elaboration of a tillage system, we have to plan for a longer period of time (usually for four years). Mainly the formation of the basic actions conducted during the individual years is important (thus, the formation of the unfavourable plough and disc pans can be avoided).

• Complement and capacity of power-machinery

The tillage system can only be implemented in the practice if we possess the tools and power-machines needed for the tillage activities. It is important to harmonize the power-machinery. The appropriate determination of the potential and actual (stand-down periods due to weather and other causes) potential of the tillage is important mainly during the peak periods of tillage (primarily in autumn, partially in spring) to conduct the soil preparations in the possible optimal quality.

Tillage systems can be classified in many respects:

• according to input use

• according to soil type

• according to crops

• according to the depth of tillage

The tools used during tillage very rapidly developed in the past 15-20 years. The main direction of technical developments was characterized by the connection of tillage actions, energy conservation and water preservation. The most reasonable is to categorize the various tillage tools according to the features of the activities. In accordance, we distinguish:

• tools for turning the soil

• tools for loosening the soil

• tools for compacting the soil

• tools for shaping the surface of the soil

• tools for preparing seedbeds



CROP PRODUCTION I.The industry-like tillage of outdated approach is characterized by drastic tillage actions, mainly ploughing, activities wasting coal and water, and mechanically prepared soils.

In contrast, the tillage system of the sustainable crop production model is characterized by the following:

• maximum attention paid to soil traits

• keeping the carbon- and water-content of soil

• tillage mainly without ploughing

• energy- and cost-saving

• minimum tillage

• varied application of tillage tools

• providing optimum biological activity in the soil

3. The role of sowing technology in the alternative crop production modelsSowing is an important agrotechnical element since the mistakes made during sowing cannot be repaired or only in a limited manner in the later periods of cultivation. Every plant has a so-called optimum-interval in terms of sowing date, tiller number and sowing depth, within which several ecological, biological (genotype) and agrotechnical factors have to be taken into consideration during the determination of the exact values. The sowing technology influences the efficiencies of other agrotechnical actions (e.g. fertilization, plant protection, irrigation, etc.) directly and indirectly.

In the industry-like crop production model applied earlier, sowing technology was characterized by the ignorance of the ecological, biological and agrotechnical elements and over-mechanization, although modern sowing machines were used.

The sowing technology of the sustainable crop production is basically characterized by the following:

• maximum attention paid to ecological, agrotechnical and biological conditions

• utilization of interactive effects as much as possible

• optimal use of machinery

• good logistic background

• up-to-date, high performance machinery

• seed drills performing several operations

The selection of stock density is of special importance partially in the case of plants of population productivity (e.g. spiked cereals), but mainly in the ones of individual productivity (e.g. maize, sunflower). The results of our experiments confirmed that the optimal stock density of maize hybrids was determined by the water supply in the cropyear, on chernozem soil. In the dry cropyear, the optimal tiller number (48-55 thousand/ha) and the realized yield amount (~8 t/ha) were significantly lower than during a cropyear of favourable water supply (optimal tiller number: 65-75 thousand/ha, realized yield: ~12.5 t/ha).




CROP PRODUCTION I.


According to our research, in the case of the plants of individual productivity (e.g. maize, sunflower), the optimal tiller number was influenced by the tiller number response of the genotype, in addition to the ecological conditions (cropyear, soil). The optimal tiller numbers differ both in the case of maize and sunflower hybrids. The hybrid specific differences in the tiller number optimums of maize hybrids appeared in the case of favourable water supply, while during dry cropyears, the differences practically disappeared. The optimal tiller numbers of sunflower hybrids varied between 45 and 55 thousand/ha. In the case of the sunflower hybrids, the increasing of the tiller number density was significantly influenced by the hybrid’s tolerance to diseases.

Similarly to the tiller number, the sowing date and depth of the cultivated crops are determined by several ecological, biological and agrotechnical factors.

4. Questions1. How do you evaluate the forecrops in a crop rotation system?

2. What are the differences of crop rotation in traditional and alternative crop models?

3. What are the most important field crops in Hungary?



CROP PRODUCTION I.4. How do you modify the harmful effects of forecrops?

5. What are the most important elements of tillage system?

6. What are the differences of tillage in conventional and alternative crop models?

7. How do you characterize the sowing technology in different crop models?


11. fejezet - Week 11. AGROTECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE CROP PRODUCTION II.1. The role of nutrient supply in the alternative crop production modelsIn crop production, the vegetative growth, the generative development, the fructification and the quality of plant products are mainly determined by the nutrient and water supply. A part of the macro-elements (C, H, O) necessary for their organisms, the plants take up from their environments (air, water supply of the soil). In the uptake of the additional macro-, meso- and micro-elements, the nutrient supply of the soil is of great importance, but a portion of these elements has to be supplemented artificially, by the intake of input materials in the case of the cultivated crops.

In favour of the optimal nutrient supply of the cultivated plants, we conduct nutrient management. This means far more than only the application of the different types of fertilizers. Nutrient management is a complex, conscious agrotechnical activity involving the managements of natural resources, organic and inorganic manures and other biotic and abiotic fertilizers. In field crop production, nutrient management consists of the conscious use of the following nutrient sources:

• The natural nutrient content and nutrient supplying capacity of the soil

• Organic fertilizers (farm yard manure, sweage, compost)

• Green manure

• Nitrogen absorbed by Rhizobium bacteria in legumes

• Artificial fertilizers (macroelements– N, P, K; mesoelements–Ca, Mg, S; microelements - Cu, Zn, B, Mn, Fe, Mo)

• Organic plant residues (plant- and root residues)

• By-products (eg. Biofert)

• Bacterium fertilizers

• Sedimentation from the atmosphere (acid rain – S and N)

• Soil improving materials (lime – Ca, dolomit – Ca+Mg)

Before the beginning of the 1960s, the yield averages of the domestic crop production were on lower levels (e.g. country average of wheat was ~1,5 t/ha, that of maize was ~2,0 t/ha). From the 1960s, besides other factors (mechanizing, plant protection, new varieties, etc.), the intensive yield increase was primarily due to the dynamic increase of fertilizer use. While the fertilizer use in the country was only 15 kg/ha NPK in the 1950s, this value increased to 280 kg/ha NPK by the middle of the 1980s (almost 20-time increase). The yield average of wheat was ~5,0 t/ha, that of the maize was ~6,5 t/ha. Due to the subsequent economic, financial and other problems, the fertilizer use in Hungary significantly declined (in the first half of the 1990s, it was 44 kg/ha NPK); and as a consequence, the yield level of wheat decreased to 3-4 t/ha, that of the maize to 4-6 t/ha, and meanwhile the annual yield fluctuation increased multiple times.




CROP PRODUCTION II.

In the world, the fertilizer use in the countries conducting intensive farming (e.g. Western European countries), performed a rapid growth but afterwards – primarily because of the severity of the environmental protection laws – a decline. Nowadays, the fertilizer use varies between 200 and 400 kg/ha NPK in the developed countries (in Hungary it is ~100 kg/ha NPK). From the beginning of the 1990s, the fertilizer use in the developing countries is performing an intensive increase. Countries of large population (e.g. China) use a significantly higher amount of fertilizers (~400 kg/ha NPK) than Hungary. The composition of the world’s fertilizer use is: ~60% of N, ~20-20% of P and K fertilizers, respectively.


With respect to nutrient supply, the use of livestock manure was of special significance (~22 million tons/year) up to the 1960s. Partially due to the drastic decline in the stock and also because of the modification of the farming, the annual use of livestock manure decreased (~4 million tons/year). Organic manuring makes several favourable effects on both the nutrient supplies of plants and the soil:

• Significant organic material input into the soil (~30-60 t/ha)

• Huge macro-, meso- and microelements input into the soil by using farmyard manure

• The transformation of organic matter input is continuous (2-4 years) and slow process

• Using of farmyard manure we can improve the physical (humus content, water management etc.) traits



CROP PRODUCTION II.• More favourable soil life, microbiological activity

In the last 40-50 years, chemical fertilizer use increased in crop production, and simultaneously the use of livestock manure decreased. The most important features of chemical fertilizer use are as follows:

• The artificial fertilizers contain concentrated mainly macroelements (N, P, K) and the doses of them are small (physical doses vary between 0,1-0,5 t/ha.

• The fertilizers contains only inorganic nutrient elements. These elements are mainly macroelements (N, P, K) and partly meso- and microelements.

• The effect of artificial fertilizer are rapid (their nutrient elements are water soluble). The effect of N is 1 year, the effects of P and K are 1-3 years.

• The fertilizers can modify positively (increasing the nutrient content of soil etc.) and negatively (acidity of soil etc.) the traits of soil.

• The effectiveness of fertilizers can modified by different ecological, biological and agrotechnical factors (interactive effects).

We can apply different nutrient supply systems in the alternative crop production models. In the previously employed intensive nutrient supply system (MÉM-NAK method), the goals were the replenishment of the nutrient supplies of the soils and the application of excessive fertilizer doses ensuring maximum yield; this resulted in unfavourable environmental effects (NO3-N accumulation, eutrophization of living waters, etc.). This kind of system cannot be employed in the future.

In contrast, the sustainable nutrient supply system is characterized by the following:

• The primary aim of nutrient supply is to achieve optimal yield amount and the best quality.

• In this system, the nutrient demands of the plants are satisfied by applying the balance theory (the goal is the supplementation of nutrients consumed by the plants).

• It is important to refill the P and K supplies of the soil slowly.

• In the cases of P and K fertilizations, not only annual but periodic (2-4 years depending on the type of the soil) refilling is also possible.

• This kind of nutrient supply system is environmentally friendly.

We have made the calculations of the nutrient balance in the country. Our results confirmed that nowadays only ~40% of the nutrients consumed by the field crops are supplemented by fertilizers. Although another ways are also possible for nutrient supplementation (e.g. livestock manure), if they are considered, the level of nutrient supplementation is only ~50%. This means that the nutrient balance of the country is negative. The intensity levels of the supplemented nutrients are different. In case of N ~70%, in case of P ~25%, while in case of K only ~20% of the consumed K is supplemented by fertilizers.

The adverse nutrient balance cannot be maintained on the long run. A country survey confirmed that the good N, P and K supply levels of domestic soils significantly declined between 1985 and 2005. This unfavourable tendency is characteristic of the present days too.

The nutrient supplies of cultivated crops are influenced by several direct and indirect factors, which have to be taken into consideration during fertilization. These influencing factors can be agro-ecological, biological and also agrotechnical conditions.

Nutrient supply, mainly fertilization takes the following effect in crop production:

• Increases the yield amount of the crop

In a long-term experiment, on chernozem soil of excellent nutrient supply, as an effect of fertilization, wheat performed a yield excess of ~2.2 t/ha in the average of the cropyears (extreme values varied between ~0.7 and ~4.1 t/ha).



CROP PRODUCTION II.As an effect of optimal fertilization, the potential yield of winter wheat was utilized in ~65%, while in the case of incomplete nutrient supply (control treatment), in ~42%.

• Improves the yield stability of the crop

As an effect of optimal nutrient supply, fertilization, the extent of the yield fluctuation in wheat could be reduced. The favourable nutrient supply improved the yield stability of wheat. The fact that the water utilization of the wheat varieties was more favourable at optimal fertilizer dose significantly contributed to the above mentioned phenomenon. In a long-term experiment (1985 to 2003), the average grain yield per 1 mm precipitation of winter wheat varieties was ~14 kg in the case of the control (without fertilization), while in the optimal fertilizer treatment it was ~21 kg.

• Improves the quality of the crop

In the case of optimal nutrient supply, the baking quality of the winter wheat varieties improved and the extent of the improvement took effect differentially in the case of the individual quality parameters. As an effect of fertilization, the increase in the gluten content was higher than that of the valorigraphic value.

In field crop production, the efficiency of fertilization is influenced by the following, most important factors:

• Ecological factors

• cropyear (mainly water supply)

• soil (nutrient capital and nutrient providing ability)

• Genotypes

• natural nutrient utilization ability

• fertilizer-response

• maximum yield-level

• optimum NPK doses

• Agrotechnical elements

• crop rotation

• tillage



• irrigation

• harvest

• Technological quality-level

• input level

• technological discipline

• technological quality

The factors influencing the efficiency of fertilization take their effects usually interactively; this will be demonstrated by our experimental results.

In the case of winter wheat, the preceding crop and the cropyear collectively influenced the efficiency of fertilization. In a dry cropyear, the yield increasing effect of fertilization was slight (400-1000 kg/ha yield excess



CROP PRODUCTION II.depending on the preceding crop), but the yield results significantly differed (after the preceding crop of sunflower 2200 kg/ha, while after that of pea 7000 kg/ha was the yield of wheat in the case of optimal fertilizer treatment). In the case of favourable water supply, the yield excess of fertilization was considerably higher (1600-5400 kg/ha), and at the same time, the differences caused by the different preceding crops could be compensated by fertilization (after the preceding crop of sunflower 8900 kg/ha, while after that of pea 8500 kg/ha was the yield of wheat in the case of optimal fertilizer treatment).


Similar conclusions can be drawn from the interactions of the cropyear, crop rotation and fertilization in the case of maize too. In maize, during extreme drought, the high fertilizer doses can induce significant yield depression, as an effect of which, the yield of maize can fell below the yield level of the control treatment.

In a long-term study on wheat, we detected very interesting interaction between the cropyear, plant protection and fertilization. An intensive plant protection (mainly against diseases) took a considerable larger yield increasing effect in the case of optimal fertilizer treatment than in the control one (without fertilization). The yield increasing effect of plant protection took place mainly during a moist cropyear.


The different genotypes of the plant species respond to the effect of fertilization by different yield excesses and



CROP PRODUCTION II.they can utilize the nutrient supplies of the soil to different extents. Thus, it is important to apply variety/hybrid specific nutrient supply. We have determined such variety/hybrid specific nutrient reactions in winter wheat, maize and sunflower. During the determination of the variety/hybrid specific nutrient reaction, we consider the following traits of a genotype:

• natural nutrient utilizing ability

• fertilizer utilizing ability

• maximal yield

• optimal NPK dose.

Our results demonstrated that the winter wheat varieties could be classified into four groups according to their nutrient reactions.

The industry-like crop production model is characterized by the application of extremely high fertilizer doses, the obscuring of other agrotechnical faults by fertilization, the neglect of biological and ecological features and the increasing environmental pollution.

The most important characteristics of the nutrient supply system of the sustainable crop production model can be summarized as follows:

• utilization of soil nutrient capital

• using of other nutrient sources

• nutrient-balance (input-output)

• slow increasement of the nutrient content of soil

• producing crop product with high quality

• using of interaction among fertilization and other agrotechnical elements

• to take into consideration the biological traits


• environmental friendly system

2. The role of the water supply in the alternative crop production modelsIn the vegetative and generative life processes of plants and in the fructification, the water and nutrient supplies of plants are of fundamental importance. Water is very important in the organization of plants, in the nutrient uptake and the material cycles of the crop production site. In the water regime of the crop production site, on the incoming side, the amount of precipitation (with respect to water supply of plants, its distribution too) is of basic significance, but the groundwater and the capillary water increase also can play important roles in the case of certain types of soils (e.g. meadow and flood-plain soils). In the increase of the water supply of soils, the drainages above and below the ground can represent a smaller portion. The majority of the outgoing side of the water regime of the crop production site is consisted of the evaporation from the soil surface and the transpiration of plants. In this case, the water drainage on and below the ground can also be possible, reducing the water supply of the soil. In the water supply of cultivated crops, the ratio of the actual and potential evapotranspiration (AET/PET) is of great importance, especially during the critical periods of the water supply of the plant (e.g. flowering, fertilization, etc.). Soil plays crucial role in the water regime of the crop production site. While the water uptake of the plant is continuous, then the water supply is mainly discontinuous (e.g. precipitation). This kind of difference cannot be compensated by the water storage of the soil. Certain cultivated plants cannot utilize the water supply of the soils to identical extents, since they have different rooting




CROP PRODUCTION II.

depth, root wideness and suction power. The water management features of the soils can also significantly differ. The values of field water capacity (VKmin), the disposable water-waste water (DW-WW) ratio, the depth of groundwater, the water uptake capacity and the capillary increase ability of the soils are different. In field crop production, it is important to harmonize the water management traits of the plant and the soil considering the climatic conditions and several agrotechnical factors (e.g. crop rotation, tillage, nutrient supply, etc.). In the different climate zones of Earth, the amounts of falling precipitation are different making the production of different plants possible. Among the agrotechnical elements, irrigation is the most active way to provide the lacking water amount needed by the plants. The role of irrigation is very important when the size of the utilizable area is limited, but the plant products are notably needed (e.g. countries which are overpopulated and of less adequate areas for crop production: Egypt, China, India, etc.); and when the goal is to implement intensive farming is (e.g. certain Western European countries). Nowadays, the 20% of the arable land is irrigated worldwide, but this proportion consists of significant differences. In the two most populous countries of the world, China (the ratio of irrigated area is ~42%) and India (~35%) these values are extremely high, since the alimentation of the population can be ensured by relatively intensive irrigation farming on limited areas due to the wide areas of unfavourable ecological features (deserts, semideserts, mountains, etc.) and large urban ones. In the European Union, the proportion of irrigated areas is ~15%, also consisting of large differences.


In Hungary, the most important cause for the yield decrease caused by the environmental factors is drought (accounts for ~42% of the environmental damages). Due to the extreme weather of our country, unfortunately it



CROP PRODUCTION II.can frequently happen that on the same area water abundance (inland waters) can be observed during winter and spring, while in summer it turns out to be lack of water (drought). Therefore, the reasonable management of the water supplies of soils is of basic importance.

In Hungary, the size of areas adequate to be irrigated is about 150 thousand ha (~3%), while the actually irrigated size varies between 50 and 100 thousand ha (~1-2%). This proportion is of insignificant extent comparing to the water management possibilities of the country and the actual demands of crop production. We can also approach the problem like this: currently, we have to produce higher yield amounts and better quality by the utilization of natural precipitation on 99% of the arable land. In the previous chapters we could see that the highest uncertainty of the domestic crop production is the amount and distribution of precipitation, i.e. the natural water supply. Thus, it is of special importance to enhance the area that can be irrigated in Hungary.

Irrigation is an expensive agrotechnical action; therefore its efficiency is important.

Generally, in the enhancement of the efficiency of irrigation, two basic aspects have to be considered:

• Irrigation is recommended to be conducted on soils of good traits since these soils are adequate for other agrotechnical elements (e.g. tillage, fertilization, plant protection) to take effect. Plant cultures which thank the irrigation and produce high values (e.g. hybrid maize, sweet corn, green pea, string bean, etc.) can only be cultivated on good soils.

• The irrigation should be applied when the optimal implementation of the other agrotechnical elements is ensured. It is important that with irrigation we do not make the correction of mistakes made in the case of other agrotechnical elements (unfavourable crop rotation, bad tillage, etc.) since it reduces the efficiency of irrigation.

The basic principle of irrigation is to avoid and not to eliminate the lack of water that already took place. Thus, irrigation is necessary during the dry cropyears. There are several types of droughts. In the case of soil drought, the water supply in the soil is limited or not disposable. In the case of atmospheric drought, the moisture content of the air above the crop production site is so low and the evapotranspiration is so high that the adequate water supply for the cultivated plant is not possible. If these two types of droughts simultaneously occur, disastrous drought takes place seriously damaging the fructification of the plant and in addition, even the shrivelling and the elimination of the stock may happen. Physiological drought occurs when the water demand of the transpiration of the plant is not ensured by the unfavourable state of the soil, although there is enough water in the soil (e.g. during early spring, the frozen soil cannot provide adequate amount of water to the spiked winter cereals).

Under the continental climatic conditions of Hungary, two basic types of irrigation are distinguished:

• Classical irrigation

Irrigation takes place during summer (June-July-August), when the water demands of the cultivated crops are the highest. Its application is possible in the case of different soil types and every field plant.

• Out-of-season irrigation (developed by Professor Ernő Bocz)

The two main periods of irrigation are autumn (September-October-November) and spring (April-May) and can be complemented by the classic irrigation of summer, depending on the water supply. Its application is possible only on areas of the best features and of deepwaterchernozem soil. The main plant cultures in cases of which the system can be employed: spiked cereals, rape, etc.

In the classical irrigation system, the beginning and the end of the irrigation season, the amount of irrigation water applied at one occasion (irrigation norm), the irrigation round (days between two irrigations), and the irrigation season norm (the whole amount of irrigated water) are very important. These values can considerably differ depending on the growing period and plant species.

Among the irrigation types, the labour intensity is the less, the application of the irrigation water is the most precise and the soil damages are the less serious in the case of irrigation carried out by linear equipments. Each irrigation type induces the decline of soil features (soil structure, porosity, salt content, etc.) to lesser-greater extents, thus special agrotechnique (crop rotation, tillage, organic manuring, use of meliorating substances, etc.) has to be applied on the irrigated areas.



CROP PRODUCTION II.Irrigation takes its effect, efficiency in interaction with other agrotechnical elements. Our results also confirmed the existence of these interactive effects. Out of them, we described the results of our wheat studies. Winter wheat is not a kind of plant that thanks irrigation, but tight interactions can be found in the case of this crop too. In the case of other plants, which thank the irrigation to greater extents, these interactions are more pronounced (e.g. maize). Our results confirmed that the efficiency of irrigation was mainly determined by the weather of the cropyear. The highest yield increase related to irrigation was found during a dry cropyear in the case of wheat. Tight interaction was detected between the water and nutrient supply. In the case of deficient nutrient supply (control treatment), the yield increase related to irrigation (in dry cropyear: 600-800 kg/ha) was significantly lower than the one in the case of optimal fertilization (in dry cropyear: 1300-2300 kg/ha). The effect of irrigation was also influenced by the crop rotation. In biculture, after the maize preceding crop of high water demand, the yield increase related to irrigation (in dry cropyear, in Nopt +PK treatment: 2300 kg/ha) was significantly higher than that was in triculture, after pea preceding crop of low water demand (in dry cropyear, in Nopt +PK treatment: 1300 kg/ha).


In the industry-like crop production model, irrigation was characterized by its application on every soil type, unfavourable irrigation order; the interactions between the ecological, biological and agrotechnical factors were less considered, the effect of irrigation on the soil was unfavourable.

The irrigation of the sustainable crop production model is characterized by the following:

• Concentration of irrigation on the best soils – bigger agronomic and economic efficiency

• Complex irrigation system controlled by plant and soil

• Widening of irrigation season (classic and out-of-season irrigation system)

• Optimal irrigation schedule

• Consideration interactive effects in irrigation systems

• Minimalization the unfavourable soil and environmental effects of irrigation.

Irrigation is one of the most efficient agrotechnical actions to increase the amount and quantity of the yield of plants. However, irrigation can only be applied efficiently biologically, agronomically and economically at intensive agrotechnical level, and by the consideration of its interactions between other agrotechnical elements.

3. Questions1. What are the elements of nutrient management in crop models?



CROP PRODUCTION II.2. What are the main characteristics of organic fertilization?

3. What are the main characteristics of artificial fertilization?

4. What are the agronomic effects of fertilization in different crop models?

5. What ecological, biological and agrotechnical elements modify the efficiency of fertilization in crop models?

6. What are the most important differences of conventional and integrated irrigation?


12. fejezet - Week 12. AGROTECHNICAL ELEMENTS OF ALTERNATIVE CROP PRODUCTION III.1. The role of plant protection in the alternative crop production modelsThe widespread application of chemicals brought about a basically new kind of situation in crop production. Among the employment of chemical substances, the application of fertilizers and pesticides were the most important ones. The use of fertilizers and their environmental concerns were described in details in the previous chapters. From the 1960s, the use of pesticides fundamentally changed the domestic crop production. The tools of weed clearing and the protection against diseases and pests, which were very limited until then, changed. The widespread application of pesticides in the 1970-1980s – in the industry-like crop production model – became so large-scale that caused serious environmental problems. During this period – in the case of a certain part of the practical technologies –, pesticides were used to correct the mistakes made in the case of other agrotechnical elements and on the other hand, the use of these agents were characterized by a sort of “overinsurance”, which was professionally unexplainable. During these times, plant protection was basically characterized by the use of chemicals, pesticides.

In the plant protection of the sustainable crop production, the approach fundamentally changed, the application of plant protection of integrated approach began. The integrated plant protection is based on the non-chemical protection, which is only complemented by the use of pesticides only as a final solution if other methods are not enough efficient. The elements of integrated plant protection are:

• the appropriate selection of the growing area

• the proper selection of the variety

(favourable disease tolerance, good weed competence, resistance of pests in certain cases)

• the proper application of the agrotechnique

• professionally elaborated crop rotation

• tillage that reduces weeds, diseases, pests

• nutrient supply improving the conditions and the growth vigour of plants

• favourable sowing date, tiller number, sowing depth

• appropriate plant care (e.g. inter-row cultivation)

• harvest in optimal time and quality

• chemical plant protection

• weed control (weed clearing)

• protection against diseases

• protection against pests

• other chemical actions



CROP PRODUCTION III.(e.g. stalk shortening, regulation, etc.)

2. Plant diseases and the protection against them in crop productionThe plants cultivated on arable lands can be invaded by different plant pathogens. These pathogens represent as constant hazards for the plant stock from sowing to harvest and they attack the different parts of the plants. In practical aspects, we can classify the plant pathogens into the following groups:

• viruses

• bacteria

• fungi

• biotrophic

• necrotrophic

The pathogens of the field crops are significantly differ (specific pathogens) but there are several diseases whose pathogens can invade more plant species (general pathogens). In the case of cultivated plants, the most important group is that of pathogenic fungi.

The chemical protection against pathogens can mean:

• the dressing of the propagulum (seed, fruit, tuber)

• stock protection

Our primary aim with stock protection is prevention, and the efficiency of the protection is influenced by many factors, including

• the ecological conditions (weather and soil conditions)

• the tolerance/resistance of the variety/hybrid to diseases

• the applied agrotechnique

The functions and effects of these factors can significantly differ in the case of the different plant species. We demonstrate some of the results of our studies on fungicide use in the case of winter wheat. The experimental results confirmed that the application of different fungicide technologies resulted in different yield increases compared to those of the untreated control wheat varieties. The most efficient treatment was the one carried out with double systemic fungicide. The character of the cropyear significantly influenced the extent of the infection in wheat. The extents of the infections by the most important diseases were considerably greater during a moist cropyear than during an average or dry one, both in the case of the unprotected and fungicide treated stocks. In the two different types of cropyears, the extents of infections were the following in the control/unprotected and protected stocks:

dry cropyear moist cropyear

powdery mildew % 24-41 17-31

HTR % 18-41 37-50

leaf-rust % 24-42 27-41

spike Fusarium % 0 23-26



CROP PRODUCTION III.The extent of infection was influenced by the disease resistance of winter wheat.


The results of our experiments on earlier (Mv Emma, MvPálma) and newer genotypes (GK Élet, GK Petur) confirmed that the yield excess in the case of the fungicide treatment was different from that of the control depending on the tolerance of the genotype and the type of the cropyear. GK Élet is characterized as a variety more sensitive to diseases, while GK Petur is a more resistant one. In their cases, the yield excesses in the case of fungicide treatments were the following in the different cropyears:

GK Élet GK Petur

yield excess, kg/ha

Dry cropyear 1200 1100

Average cropyear 1700 1300

Moist cropyear 2100 1400




CROP PRODUCTION III.

In the dry cropyear less characterized by diseases, the yield excesses of the two varieties of different disease resistance were similar. The differences between the varieties appeared in the yield excesses during the cropyears (average and moist cropyear) within which the infection pressure (extent of infection) was higher.

Besides the yield amounts of wheat varieties, the fungicide treatments influenced the yield quality too. According to our results, the baking qualities (wet gluten content, valorigraphic value, falling number) of the wheat varieties improved in the case of each fungicide treatment compared to the control (no fungicide treatment). The effects of the different fungicide treatments on the yield quality of wheat were different.

Along with the changes in the condition system (ecological, agtotechnical), the importance of diseases also alter and newer diseases appear. The global climate change considerably influences the weather of our country too. As a result of this, the significance of thermophilous pathogens becomes higher, which were not frequently seen in the plant stock before. A good example is the Macrophomina infection in sunflower production. The dominant diseases of sunflower (Diaporthe, Sclerotinia, Peronospora, Botrythis, Phoma, Alternaria) cause serious diseases in average or higher-than-average moist weather, and the decline of the yield amount and the oil content. Macrophominaphaseolina appears and causes serious damages in sunflower stocks during dry, warm, droughty cropyears.

The application of stalk strengthening agents in spiked cereals is among the other plant protection activities. In the case of lodging, the diseases appear earlier and more intensively on the spiked cereals and this results in the decrease of yield amount and the deterioration of the quality. This lodging can be avoided by the use of stalk shortening agents. We found that the yield excess in the case of the application of stalk strengthening chemicals was influenced by the character of the cropyear (water supply) and the nutrient supply.





3. Animal pests and the protection against them in crop productionThe cultivated crops are constantly impaired by animal pests during the vegetation period. In terms of the crop production practice, animal pests can be divided into the following main groups:

• nematodes

• soil pests

• mites

• birds

• mammals

• insects

We can apply the following chemical protection methods – besides the non-chemical ones:

• seed coating

• soil disinfection

• spaying on plants

The most important group of animal pests is the insects. The insects can invade all parts (either vegetative or generative ones) of the cultivated plants.

The environmental and agrotechnical conditions can significantly influence the composition and amount of animal pests.

Similarly to diseases, the global climate change effects the dangerousness of animal pests and the appearance of new ones. Due to the change of the domestic climate, new, thermophilous animal pests appeared in the Hungarian maize production (Helicoverpaarmigera, Diabroticavirgifera). Among them, especially the appearance and the extensive spread of Diabrotica altered the agrotechnique of the domestic maize production.

4. Weeds and the protection against them in crop production



CROP PRODUCTION III.Weeds reduce the yield amounts and qualities of field crops directly and indirectly. Previously, we endeavoured to eliminate the concurrence of weeds (the phrase “weed clearing” was used accordingly); but in the integrated plant protection we aim to reduce the extent of weed coverage to a level not causing economical damages (in this case, we talk about “weed control”). Traditionally, we consider the phrases “weed clearing” and “weed control” as synonyms, but we mean modern weed control by using them.

With respect to crop production, weeds are categorized into the following groups:

• Annual weeds

• T1 – germinating in autumn, producing seeds in spring

• T2 – germinating in autumn (or spring), producing seeds in summer

• T3 – germinating in spring, producing seeds in summer

• T4 – germinating in late spring, producing seeds in autumn

• Perennal seeds

• G1 – creeping on stem (Johnson-grass, reed etc.)

• G3 – creeping on root (field thistle, lesser bindweed etc.)

In Hungary, there were five country-wide weed surveys in the past 50 years. The obtained data confirmed that due to the changes in the ecological and agronomical conditions, the priorities of weeds considerably changed. Weeds which were less important in the past became more important, while the significance of the previously relevant ones decreased.

Besides the non-chemical methods of the integrated weed control, one has to apply a chemical protection too in a considerable proportion. In the case of herbicide use, we distinguish the following important methods:

• presowingherbicide using (using before sowing and incorporating into the soil)

• pre-post herbicide using (from the aspect of field crop – preemergens; from the aspect of weeds – postemergens)

• preemergensherbicide using (after sowing, before emergence herbicide spraying on the surface of the soil)

• postemergensherbicide using (herbicide spraying on the plants)

The significances of certain weed types show constant changes in the domestic wheat and maize production. Previously, the annual (~50%) and perennial weeds (~50%) could be observed within the stock of our two most important field crops (wheat, maize) to a similar extent, but currently the proportion of annual ones (~82%) significantly increased compared to that of the perennials (~18%).




CROP PRODUCTION III.In the case of all field crops, weeds are the most dangerous at the beginning of the vegetation period, when the weed suppressing abilities of the cultivated plants are less. Studies confirmed that in the case of the earlier developmental stage of maize, weeds account for the majority of the amount of organic materials and their nitrogen and potassium uptakes are more pronounced than those of the maize.

Herbicide use is adjusted to the changing weed composition and altering agrotechnique. In the previous period of the weed control of maize, the importance of post-emergent treatments increased, while that of the pre-emergent ones decreased and the pre-sowing treatments almost disappeared from the practice. While selecting a weed control method, one has to endeavour to apply the techniques safely and as efficiently as possible.

The results of our studies on maize confirmed that the cropyear significantly influenced the efficiency of the weed control treatments. Compared to the mechanical weed control (cultivating two times), the use of herbicides resulted in a ~2000 kg/ha yield excess in both cropyears (2010: moist cropyear, 2011: dry cropyear). The yield excess compared to the control (two-time cultivation) was caused by the following: the weed coverage of the chemically protected stocks became much lower (the weed coverage of 18-28 decreased to 3.5-15.9%). However, the cropyear influenced the efficiency of herbicide use. In the moist cropyear (2010), the illuvating precipitation favoured the efficiencies of the pre-emergent herbicides. In the dry cropyear (2011), the more favourable effect took place in the case of the pre-emergent treatments. In both cropyears, the combined (pre + post) treatments proved to be the best.


Our weed control experiments on winter wheat confirmed the effects of the cropyear on the extent of weediness and on the efficiency of weed clearing. In the dry cropyear resulting in lesser weediness, the yield excess related to weed control was 100-200 kg/ha, while that of the moist cropyear of greater weediness, was 500-800 kg/ha compared to the control.





The extents of weediness and weed composition in the case of field crops constantly change. The results of the weed surveys on wheat and maize also confirmed this phenomenon.

Ecological conditions also take significant effects on weediness and weed composition. During the past 20 years, as a consequence of climate change, the termophilous, large-seeded weeds became more important in the case of the root crops (maize, sunflower, etc.). Among them, the following ones are worth highlighting:

• Ambrosia elatior

• Abutilon theophrasti

• Daturastramonium

• Xanthium strumarium

The industry-like crop production model was characterized by the dominance of chemical methods, the application of drastic pesticides, the ignorance of interactive effects, the remaining chemicals in plant products and the serious environmental stress.

The plant protection of the alternative crop production models is characterized by the following:

• using the integrated pest management

• based on mainly non-chemical crop protection tools

• chemical plant protection is only last resort

• application of substances of different effects, and using environmental friendly pesticides

• application of only necessary plant protection interventions

• using of interactive effects

• application of forecast systems

• minimum pesticides residues in crop products


• environmental friendly pest management

5. The role of harvest in the alternative crop




production modelsHarvest is an important agrotechnical action since by its proper application; one can realize the produced yield amount totally, without loss and in the best quality. The mistakes made during harvest decrease the yield amount and its quality.

In the case of the several types of field plant species, we can use harvesters, which can be applied

• generally, in the case of several plant species

• in the case of the certain plant to be harvested (special harvesters).

The harvesting of field crops is influenced by many ecological conditions (e.g. weather factors) and biological processes can also take effects (e.g. water release, the interval of the optimal harvest of the variety). Besides the ecological, biological and agronomical factors, the selection of the date of harvest is influenced by the aim of utilization too.

Our experiments on harvesting date in winter wheat confirmed that the optimal harvest time and length were considerably influenced by the genotype. In the case of certain varieties, the harvest carried out after the optimal date influenced the yield amount, while in other ones this kind of effect was not that pronounced, i.e. these varieties better tolerated the delay of harvest. These factors have to be taken into consideration while planning the harvest sequence of the varieties.

6. Questions1. What does it mean integrated pest management (IPM)?

2. How can we improve the environmental friendly crop protection against pathogens, pests and weed?

3. What are the most important differences between the conventional and alternative crop protection in different crop models?

4. What is the role of harvest in the alternative crop models?


13. fejezet - Week 13. ALTERNATIVE AND RENEWABLE ERENGIES FROM CROP PRODUCTION1. Alternative functions in crop production – energy productionThe growing number of the inhabitants on Earth requires the production of increasing amounts of food, industrial base materials from both crop production and animal husbandry. The world’s crop production faces different tasks; there are significant differences in terms of the tasks to be solved in the developed and developing countries. We have already described these differences in the previous chapters. At the same time, besides food production, the following tasks have to be solved by mankind:

• the reduction of environmental stress during the different human activities (agriculture, industry, trade, mining, etc.)

• the satisfaction of the growing energy demand by the involvement of renewable energy forms if possible

• the reduction of the social-economical-political conflicts, the elimination of the armaments race

The growing humanity, the ever increasing productive activity, the transport and the improved quality of life are all as challenges of energy production. The energy consumption of the world began to rapidly increase in the 1950s and this process is ongoing despite the actions taken in favour of energy saving. While at the beginning of the 1900s, the energy consumption of the world was 10 x 1018 Joule, in the 1950s it was 55 x 1018 Joule, the value increased to 450 x 1018 Joule by the 2000s. Besides the quantitative growth, considerable changes took place in the composition and ratio of fuels. While at the beginning of the 20th century, coal was the most important one, nowadays oil and gas are also of great significance. The roles of water and nuclear energies also grew, but to a far lesser extent. The use of renewable energy sources began apparently in the 1970s and their proportion is constantly growing ever since. One of the greatest challenges of mankind is the mode of the gradual reduction of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) due to the limited resources. The other is that the greenhouse gases deriving from them (CO2) considerably accelerate the unfavourable climate changes. Our essential interest is to increase the ratio of the renewable energy forms. The political and economic acts taken in a part of the developed countries, which favour the spread of renewable energy production, help this process. The actions taken by the European Union are of special significance in this issue. According to the commitments, in 2020, the 20% of the EU’s energy consumption – and 13% of that of Hungary – will be provided by the renewable energies. Within this, the proportion of biofuels will be significant (both in the EU and Hungary, 10% of the fuels will be biofuels according to the plans).



Week 13. ALTERNATIVE AND RENEWABLE ERENGIES

FROM CROP PRODUCTION


Thus, the increasing ratio of renewable energy forms in the energy supply of the future is important:

• solar energy

• wind power

• hydropower

• geothermic energy

• energy of agricultural origin

In the energy supply of Hungary, the proportion of the import (~75%) is notable bringing up numerous economical-political problems. Thus, the decrease of our dependence on import energy would be recommended. Since the fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) and certain renewable energy sources (e.g. hydropower, wind power) are limited in our country, the significance of the renewable energy sources, which can be produced in agriculture, will increase.

The utilization of the solar energy is possible in two ways:



FROM CROP PRODUCTION• passive form

• active form

Currently, its spread is hindered by the high price and relatively low efficiency of the solar cells.

In Hungary, the utilization of wind power is limited and only possible in certain regions.

Due to the plain areas of our country, the possibilities of hydropower utilization are also very limited. The building of water reservoirs is reasonable primarily due to hydrographical, flood control and irrigation causes.

Hungary has very favourable conditions in terms of geothermic energy (thermal water). The utilization of them is limited to horticultural production to less extent compared to the possibilities. The high salt content and the strict environmental protection regulation for the storage of the used thermal waters can represent problems.

Among the renewable energy forms, the utilization of the ones of agricultural origin is the most promising:

• biogas

• solid biomass

• biofuels

For biogas production, the following materials are applicable: the liquid manure deriving from animal husbandry, the basic material produced by field crop production (sorghum types, silage maize, etc.), and the industrial and communal wastes. The produced biogas can be applied for the production of electricity. A special factory is needed for biogas production demanding significant investment costs. Without state aids, the time of return of a biogas factory is very long.


The solid agricultural biomass (main and side products of herbaceous and ligneous plants) can be utilized for thermal energy and electricity production. Such utilization of ligneous, perennial plants (e.g. energy willow, Miscanthus, etc.) can be also promising. The application of the side products of herbaceous field crops (e.g. maize stalk, wheat straw, etc.) for energy production is less recommended by the crop producer point of view. The side products and above-the-ground biomasses of these plants represent a significant, indispensable organic material supply for our soils. Due to the drastic decrease of livestock manure in Hungary, the side products of field crops became the most important sources of organic material supply.





The potential renewable energy form that can be produced on the field is the different biofuels. Bioethanol can be made of the plant parts rich in carbohydrates, while biodiesel can be produced out of the oil containing parts. Nowadays, either the production of bioethanol that can be mixed with petrol or biodiesel mixable with gasoline significantly increase, out of plants. In the case of the current engines – with some alterations –, bioethanol can be mixed with petrol in 10-15% (special engines are needed for the use of the E85 fuels). In pure form, biodiesel can only be used for the drive of less sensitive engines (e.g. trucks, tractors).


In the world, either the production of bioethanol or that of biodiesel rapidly increases. Their ratio is almost constant: 5:1 – bioethanol:biodiesel. This rapid growth of bioethanol production is well demonstrated by the following data:

2007 year 49 500 millionliter


2011 year 88 719 million liter

The fast increase of bioethanol production is primarily due to the rapid growth of the USA’s production as demonstrated by the following figures:

Bioethanol production of the USA




FROM CROP PRODUCTION 2009 year 40 503 millionliter


Another significant bioethanol producing country is Brazil. These two countries account for the 90% of the world’s bioethanol production. The bioethanol production in the EU is far less (the two countries producing the higher amounts are France and Germany). Among the developing countries, China and India produce bioethanol amounts worth mentioning.

In the world, the amount of produced biodiesel and the pace of its production are significantly lower than those of bioethanol as shown by the data of world-wide production:




The EU countries account for the 65% of the bioethanol amount produced worldwide (mainly Germany, France, Austria, etc.). The biodiesel productions in the USA and Brazil are far less.

Crops using for bioethanol production

• sugarcane

• maize (seed, other parts)

• sorghum

• root and tuber crops (sugarbeet, potatoe)

• small grain cereals (wheat, barley)

Production of bioethanol per unit area depends on:

• field crop species

• variety/hybrid


• agrotechnology

Among the cultivated plants, sugarcane of the tropical and subtropical areas can produce the highest yields (6000-7000 L/ha bioethanol). In the temperate zone, less amounts can be produced by the use of maize (3000-4500 L/ha).

Currently, the EU countries use rape oil to a greatest extent for biodiesel production. The amount that can be produced out of rape varies between 1200 and 1900 L/ha. The oil of sunflower – the crop that can be cultivated under temperate climatic conditions – is less applicable for biodiesel production due to its composition. As a result of breeding, the sunflower hybrids of high oleic acid content (HO) can be successfully utilized for biodiesel production. The specific biodiesel “production” of sunflower can vary between 1200 and 1800 L/ha. The most suitable, most productive plant for biodiesel production is the tropical oil palm (7000-8000 L/ha).





In the developed and partially in the developing countries, the spread of biofuels is fast. Renewability and the environmentally friendly technology are considered as their advantages. It is worth approaching the question of biofuel production more nuanced with respect to crop production. Besides the obvious advantages, there are also disadvantages of biofuel production. The most important ones are as follows:

• Biofuel production is carried out on fields which are primarily used for the production of foods for the rapidly growing humanity. The size of the arable lands cannot be enhanced considerably in the future, and in addition, we have to count with the aggravation of the ecological conditions limiting crop production (drought, lack of nutrients, erosion, etc.).

• Biofuel production causes environmental problems. This mainly concerns the energy plants produced on the subtropical and tropical regions (sugarcane, oil palm). The cultivation areas of these plants are generated by destroying the tropical rainforests, which results in increasing soil degradation, the decline of the natural life conditions of plant and animal species and the decline of biodiversity.

• The energy efficiency of field crop production – including the plants used for bioethanol and biodiesel production – is relatively low. The output/input energy ratio is an average value of 1.5-3 in field crop production. The intensification of the production technology involves the decline of the energy efficiency of field crop production. To simplify the facts, by tremendous energy input use, we can produce only a little more energy.

The solution of the problems raised above needs a complex approach. The increase of food production can be implemented by the use of alternative crop production models in field crop production. As a consequence, on areas becoming available, plants applicable for biofuel production can be produced. There are advanced studies aiming the side products of energy plants – and not the main ones, e.g. grains of maize – to be used for biofuel (bioethanol) production. Such cellulose decomposing bacteria (the fermentation of ethyl alcohol out of cellulose) already exist, but they are still not efficient enough. Another possibility is the production of plants, which can be produced on lands not suitable for field crop production and produce energy. Such kind of plant is the jatropha, its fruits are used for biodiesel production. Its advantage against the oil palm that it is more adaptive, thus, it can be cultivated not only in the tropical regions but on large areas in Asia, Africa, Australia and





North-South America. Our other important task is to enhance the efficiencies of the production technologies of the domestic field energy plants (maize, sorghum, rape, sunflower, etc.) by

• the selection of the appropriate growing area

• the selection of the proper genotype

• the application of efficient agrotechnique.

These collectively result in the improvement of the production technology of the certain plant.

Although in Hungary, the primary energy use has not changed basically – slightly decreased – since the middle of the 1980s, our energy structure is unfavourable. The fossil energies (coal, oil, gas) and nuclear power are still the dominant ones, while renewable energies represent only a small ratio (~5%). One of the possibilities to increase this proportion is to raise the amount of produced energy.

While earlier and currently, we still use mainly the hydrocarbons (oil, gas) obtained from the deeper layers of the soil, the significance of the energy produced out of the carbohydrates produced on fields will increase in the future. The scheme of the process is the following:

2. Questions1. How do you characterize the energy using of the World?

2. Why it is necessary to increase the using of alternative and renewable energies?

3. What is the bioenergy?

4. How can we utilize the biogas?

5. How can we utilize the biomass?

6. What crop can we use for production of biofuels (bioethanol and biodiesel)?


14. fejezet - Week 14. PRECISION CROP PRODUCTION1. Alternative functions in crop production – precision farmingThe technical condition system of field crop production underwent tremendous changes during the last thousands of years. At the development of crop production and during the following long thousands of years these changes were very slow. Radical changes happened after the fulfilment of the industrial revolution in the Western European countries in the 18th-19th centuries. Another important period was the wide spreading of the technical condition systems of the industry-like production technologies in the USA and the developed countries, which began in the 1930s and culminated from the 1950s. As a result of this process, almost every element of the crop production technologies had appropriate technical background:

• power-machines of different performance spread widely

• the tools of tillage broadened and completely new tools appeared

• the mechanical tools of organic and chemical fertilization developed and more and more precise machines appeared in nutrient management

• the mechanical tool system of sowing technology became complete: besides the dense-row, cereal sowing machines, the multifunctional, precision monograin sowing machines appeared

• the mechanical tool system of plant protection developed, the application of multifunctional, high-performance equipments providing the appropriate spread and coverage of spray began

• for the application of irrigation water, irrigation machines of high performance, of less manual power demand, preserving soil structure and applying low water norms got into the practice

• for harvesting, combines and other machines applicable for harvesting more plant cultures appeared, and the special machines for harvesting individual crops were also developed


The development of the technical tools of crop production was not followed entirely by the mode of their operation. In traditional crop production, the basic unit of the agrotechnical elements is the field. Nowadays, the


Week 14. PRECISION CROP PRODUCTION

implementation of a technological element is carried out on the field uniformly. As mentioned in the previous chapters, the naturally (e.g. tree-line, forest, etc.) and artificially (e.g. canal, dirt road) bordered field is considered as the basic unit of crop production. During the size formation of the field, two basic aspects have to be taken into consideration:

• the uniformity and homogeneity of the ecological conditions to the greatest possible extent (primarily pedologically, topographically and partially micro-climatologically) – this aspect involves smaller field sizes

• the operation of the machinery has to be as economical as possible – this aspect involves larger field sizes

Besides the two aspects above, the traditions, the accessibility of the fields, the needs of animal husbandry, etc. can also play role in the development of field sizes.

Although we endeavour to form homogenous fields, it is not possible in the practice, independently of table sizes. Even in the case of smaller fields, micro-topographical differences, soils of different types or subtypes, differences in water, heat, air and nutrient managements of the soil can occur on certain parts of the field. In spite of these, the different agrotechnical actions are carried out uniformly within a field:

• tillage

• fertilization



• irrigation

• harvest

This kind of uniform agrotechnique results in the following: even in the case of proper implementation, a given agrotechnical element can only be considered as optimal on certain parts of the field, while on other parts, the application of suboptimal or higher-than-optimal input, cultivation, seed, fertilizer, herbicide, etc. take place. Therefore, despite the optimal places, on a part of the field, the application of the input is lower or higher than the plant needs. This can involve yield decrease and/or quality decline on certain places of the field and the partial utilization of the optimal energies. In case of higher input and energy use (e.g. more fertilizer, more herbicide), the risk of increasing environmental stress and pollution have to be counted upon.

One of the technological bases of precision crop production became possible as a result of the civil application of the precise localization (GPS). This gives the opportunity of the exact localization of the machines, machine groups conducting the agrotechnical activities. The precise localization can form the base of the differentiated implementation of the given agrotechnical action. Thus, in precision crop production, the implementation of the agrotechnical actions is not uniform on the field level, but is adapted to the certain areas of the field.

The main aims of precision crop production are the followings:

• to increase agronomic and biological efficiency

• to reduce the inputs and energy

• bigger yield in the given ecological and agrotechnical conditions

• better crop quality

• more favourable yield stability

• better technological quality

• more economic efficiency and profitability.

Precision crop production is not solely the application of modern technical tools, but a paradigm shift in the crop production technology. In spite of the relatively schematic approach of traditional crop production, precision crop production needs a dynamic approach based on information and knowledge.



In general, precision crop production has two parts. The hardware part represents the technical tools applied during the practical implementation of the technology. The software part consists of all the professional knowledge and information making the expert use of the tools possible. Precision crop production can only function if the hardware and software parts are harmonized.

In details, the elements of precision crop production are the following:

• hardware

(GPS, yield measuring equipments, sensors on weeds, pests, diseases, nutrient levels of plants etc.)

• maps

(yield-maps, soil nutrient maps, other soil maps on water, air, heat management, map of soil structure and pH etc.)

• algorithms

(theoretical foundation of carrying out agrotechnical elements based on data, maps)

• software

(computer control of carrying out the given agrotechnical element adapted to the given field)

The implementation of precision crop production has two basic methods:

• On-line, real-time implementation. In this case, certain features of the field (e.g. weediness, diseases, locations and extents of damages caused by pests) are studied by sensors, and then the agrotechnical actions (e.g. the differentiated, necessary application of herbicides, fungicides and insecticides within the field) are carried out during the same course.

Thus, the elements of the on-line method are:

detection

↓

information processing

↓

control

↓

implementation of the agrotechnical action

(The elements of the on-line method are carried out in one course within the field)

• Off-line method (based on databases). For the implementation of the agrotechnical action, the data, the database of the studies conducted earlier are needed (e.g. the nutrient supply data of soil studies in autumn or spring, the moisture content of the soil, etc.). One has to endeavour to have enough data on the field size, depending on heterogeneity. The practical implementation of a certain agrotechnical action within the field is carried out based on the previously obtained data.

Therefore, the elements of the off-line method are:

data collection

↓

information processing



↓

software (control) development

↓

implementation of the agrotechnical action

(e.g. tillage, fertilization, sowing, irrigation)

In the case of the off-line method, the regulation of the data collection-processing-control is separated from the implementation.

During precision crop production, the optimization of almost every agrotechnical element is possible in practice. Applying the on-line and off-line methods, the in-field, adapted technology can be carried out in the case of the following agrotechnical elements:

• tillage (actions, tillage depth)

• nutrient management (organicmanuring, chemical fertilization, leaf-manuring, liming)

• sowing technology (stock density, sowing depth)

• plant protection (weed-controlled area, herbicide dose, areas and doses of fungicide and insecticide treatments, regulator use)

• irrigation (irrigated areas, irrigation norm)

• harvest (desiccated area, dose of desiccant, date of harvest)

Therefore, the most important conditions of the precision crop production are:

• The tools of exact geographical localization (GPS). The accuracy of these tools is within 20 cm, appropriate for application.

• The logical process control system (algorithm) developed during the processing of the input data (yield, soil, meteorological, water management, etc. data). In possession of the data, one has to develop algorithms based on professional considerations, which can control the implementation of an agrotechnical activity.

Currently, one of the most vulnerable parts of precision crop production is the professional development of the algorithms, e.g. of fertilization within the field. According to the formal logical approach, more nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) have to be applied on the part of the field where the soil studies show nutrient shortage. Considering professional aspects, this solution is not necessarily the proper one. The other possible causes of nutrient shortage also have to be studied (e.g. unfavourable soil structure, pH, water management problems, micro-topographical differences, etc.). An expert algorithm for the given agrotechnical element can only be developed by the consideration of several information simultaneously.

• Automated application technique

As a result of the technical developments, the appropriate on-line and off-line sensors are available and the existing machines can be adjusted to be applicable for the accomplishment of the precision activities.

The advantages of precision crop production can be the following:

• biological and agronomical efficiency

• more economical material and energy use

• the implementation of the agrotechnical activities in optimal time and excellent quality

• lower environmental stress

• higher expertise



• better area utilization

• higher economical efficiency

During precision crop production, the most exact knowledge of the features of the field is of great importance. The yield of the plant cultivated on the field is one of the best indicators to get to know the different abilities of the different field parts. It is worth beginning the switch to precision crop production by the creation of the yield map. Since the different plant species adapt to the field parts of different traits, the creation of the yield maps of the different plant species can give useful help for the development of the algorithm of an agrotechnical action.


The maps created based on such characteristics of the field as soil, water management, topography and others are also important. These help in the elaboration of the precision technology of tillage, nutrient supplementation, sowing technology, and irrigation.


With the precision sowing technology we can select the optimal tiller number of the plant (e.g. in the case of maize it can vary between 50 and 75 thousand/ha within the field) in accordance with the abilities of the field part, and the sowing depth can also be changed. This makes the provision of the optimal conditions of the germination-shooting possible; and with the application of various tiller numbers we can avoid excessive stock density (we can reduce e.g. the development of nutrient and water shortages with this) on the field parts of



poorer abilities; while on the field parts of favourable features, the favourable ecological conditions can be utilized by higher tiller number. With precision sowing technology, the excessive stock density can be avoided on the sides, the rotations of the fields.


Precision crop production makes the use of pesticide doses appropriate for the field part possible, or we may carry out plant protection treatments only on certain field parts. The pre-emergent herbicide doses of some plants (e.g. maize, sunflower) are determined by the organic material, the humus content of the soil. In the precision weed control, we can change herbicide doses in accordance with the humus content (off-line technology). In the cases of other plants, weed infection or the damages caused by diseases and animal pests affect only certain parts of the field, thus, on these areas, plant protection treatments have to be carried out. In this case we can use a kind of plant protecting machine that has sensors on the front detecting the extents of weediness and damages; after processing these data, the on-board computer instructs the machine to open or close its sprayers. Therefore, the process takes place concurrently from the detection to the implementation (on-line technology).


On a regular field of large area, promising experiments are carried out to implement a kind of precision technology in the practice during which the drive of the power-machine group is fully automated (“robot pilot”).



However, this solution is rather of the future than that of the present.

In practical point of view, the traditional crop production is characterized by the following:

• The main unit – plot (different size).

• The plos – theoretically – homogenous (in the practice – heterogenous).

• From point samplex – average agrotechnical operations.

• Average machinery operation on plot-level (doses of fertilizers, depth of plowing etc.).

• Plot level (average) yield.

• Plot level costs and income.

• Limited information about the plot.

The practice of precision crop production is characterized by the following important features:

• The main unit-small homogenous subplots.

• Adaptation of agronomic operations to homogenous subplots.

• Using GPS during agronomic operations.

• Specific machinery operations on subplot level.

• Subplot level yield.

• Subplot level costs and income.

• Decision alternatives.

• Wide information about plot via subplot.

With the practical implementation of precision plant production, the following will be possible:

• the practice of managing specific field areas based on variability within the field

• managing each production input on a site-specific basis

• to reduce waste

• to protect environment

• to increase agronomic efficiency

• to increase yield quantity

• to improve yield quality

• to increase food-safety

• to increase profits.

In practical point of view, the implementation of precision crop production has four basic elements:

• yield measurement

• the direct and indirect determination of the environmental conditions

• precise localization



• adaptively applied agrotechnique


Precision crop production may be considered as a closed-cycle system, in which the individual elements are built on each other and collectively make the implementation of the production technology possible in the practice. The elements of the closed cycle of precision crop production are as follows:

• Database

Besides yield data, it contains the soil, the water management the micro-relief etc. conditions of the field.

• Data evaluation and analysis

The data have to be evaluated collectively and interactively. During evaluation, the variability of the data and the complex effects of the factors on yield amount, quality and environment have to be considered.

• The elaboration of the agrotechnical activities

The possible alternatives applicable in case of an agrotechnical element and their effects on input use, costs and environment are needed to be evaluated.

• Practical implementation of the agrotechnical actions

This affects almost every element of production technology (tillage, nutrient supply, sowing, plant protection, irrigation, harvest). The optimal time and good quality of practical implementation are of great importance.




Currently, one of the important ways of the development of crop production is precision crop production. The technical conditions of this technology model are ensured. The majority of the crop production machines can be made applicable for the implementation of the technology by a low-cost investment. Significant advances were made in the elaboration of databases, data processing and algorithms needed for the operation of the machines, but we still have tasks to be accomplished on this field. Precision crop production can be applied in the practice even today, but it will have a more important role in the future.

2. Questions1. What are the objectives and elements of precision crop production?

2. Why it is necessary to increase the using of alternative and renewable energies?

3. What is the bioenergy?

4. How can we utilize the biogas?

5. How can we utilize the biomass?

6. What crop can we use for production of biofuels (bioethanol and biodiesel)?


15. fejezet - Week 15. ORGANIC CROP PRODUCTION1. Alternative functions in crop production – ecological crop productionThe traditional crop production brought considerable advancement during the past decades, both in the developed and developing countries, especially from the 1960s, when the “green revolution” was introduced in the developing countries. The most important favourable, positive effects of traditional crop production can be summarized as follows:

• The yield amounts of field crops significantly increased.

• Certain parameters of yield quality improved.

• Favourable changes took place in the yield safety of field crops.

• The level of production technology and the technical conditions of crop production significantly developed.

• The number of new varieties/hybrids increased in the case of the important plant species.

Besides the obvious positive effects, unfavourable processes and phenomena also occured in the case of more intensive production and the application of traditional crop production. The most important ones are the following:

• Reduced genetic diversity.

• Increased vulnerability of crop production.

• Increased soil erosion and loss.

• Reduced soil fertility, nutrient contents (mainly microelements), less soil biological activity.

• Increased the contaminations of soil and environment.

• Increased the water deficit in special reasons and contaminations of ground water.

• Decreased the number of small farmers and their profitability.

• Increased tensions and conflicts in agricultural production and consumption system.

Traditional crop production increased

• health risks

• environmental risks

• other (social etc.) risks

Such solutions had to and have to be found, as a result of which the negative effects and risks of traditional crop production can be reduced. The alternative crop production models can help us in our endeavours. Their elements, basic principles of their elaboration, the material and energy processes taking place in the models were discussed in details in the previous chapters. A special type of alternative crop production model is ecological (organic, bio) crop production.

When we talk about ecological farming and crop production within, it is very important to emphasize that it means not simply an agricultural production mode, but a crop production model. The feature of ecological farming, ecological crop production is that it represents a kind of a lifestyle, a way of thinking, the main point of


Week 15. ORGANIC CROP PRODUCTION

which treats the society, the economy and the environment as a unity and appreciates, respects their values. Therefore, ecological farming is a kind of lifestyle, which includes long-term thinking, moderate production and consumption and the acceptance of human values.

In the ecological farming, crop production and animal husbandry are inseparable. However, hereafter we focus on the analysis of the questions of crop production in accordance with the topic of the syllabus.

The history of ecological faming began in the ancient times, when in the Asian empires (Chinese, Indian) a kind of farming was carried out that entirely utilized the natural conditions. In the Western societies, the basic principles of ecological crop production appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. In the first half of the 1900s, Albert Howard, Eve Balfour, and Rudolf Steiner made significant efforts to elaborate the bases of ecological crop production and to achieve its acceptance by the society.

In response to the unfavourable effects of traditional crop production, J. I. Rodale introduced biogardening in the USA in the 1950s. Rachel Carson’s book, Silent Spring, published in 1962, describing the negative environmental effects very pessimistically, was of significant effect.

After all these, the first international organization supproting ecological farming, the IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements) was established in 1972.

There are a lot of definitions of ecological farming. Its most important characteristics are summarized as follows:

• Organic agriculture is a production system that sustain the health of soils, ecosystems and people.

• It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.

• Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.

Basic principles of organic agriculture:

• Principle of health

(in soil – plant – animal – man system)

• Principle of ecology

• Interactions between agroecological and natural ecosystems

• Keeping biodiversity

• Maintaining recycling processes

• Principle of fairness

• Ecological justice

• Social justice

• Fair trade justice

• Principle of care

Ecological farming spread gradually on each continent of Earth. Currently, the size of the area cultivated ecologically is ~25 million ha. The largest areas are found in Australia (~11 million ha) and South America (~6 million ha). Please note that these areas were not applied for intensive agricultural cultivation (extensive, low-input technologies were employed), thus their conversion from the traditional farming to the ecological one was relatively easier. In Africa and Asia, the areas of ecological farming are minimal (~0.5 million ha, and ~1.0 million ha, respectively). According to our definition, appropriate ecological farming can be found partially in Europe (~6 million ha) and in North America (~1.5 million ha). In the USA, ecological farming is partially related to the lifestyles of certain religious communities (Amish, Mennonite). In Europe, ecological farming is a



system mainly applied in the Western


European countries. In the EU, the size of areas of ecological farming began to considerably grow from the beginning of the 1990s, involving about 6 million ha and 180 thousand farms. The ratios of ecological areas are very significant in Austria (~12%), Switzerland (~10%) and


Italy (~8%). In Hungary, the growing of the areas of ecological farming began at the end of the 1990s and currently ~120 thousand ha are under ecological control. The control is performed by an independent organization in our country, mainly by BiokontrollKht. Unfortunately, in the past years, the increase of the ecologically cultivated areas stopped due to the lack of sufficient state aids. It is also unfavourable that half of the ~120 thousand ha area is grassland. Field crop production is carried out on 47% of the area, mainly cereals are produced on the majority of the area. The ratio of horticultural production is only 3%.




In ecological crop production, there is a three-year-long period for the conversion of traditional crop production. During this time, the agrotechnical actions of crop production can only be carried out in accordance with the strict regulations of ecological crop production, but the products made within this period cannot get eco certification.

The most important practical issues of organic farming:

• a sufficiently high level of productivity

• efficiently using of natural resources in agricultural practice

• maintaining and increasing of soil fertility and biological activity

• maintaining of biodiversity in natural and agro ecological systems

• maximum use of renewable resources

• creation of a harmonic balance between crops and animal husbandry

• ensure that water stays clean and safe

Besides the allowed technological actions in the crop production and animal husbandry parts of ecological farming, there are also forbidden ones:

• in organic crop production

• using of fertilizers

• using of synthetic pesticides

• using of GM plants

• using of GM products

• using of organic manure originated non organic farming

• in organic livestock

• synthetic hormones and antibiotics

• synthetic parasiticides





During the last decades, several varieties of ecological farming developed. The most important ones are the following:

• traditional ecological farming

• biodynamic farming

• organic-biological farming

• permacultural farming



One of the most important endeavours of ecological farming is to provide the cyclic character of the natural and artificial processes taking place in the agro-ecosystems in the most entire way. This is especially important in the circulation of macro-nutrients. The application of chemical fertilizers in the circulation processes of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium taking place in the agro-ecosystems is forbidden in ecological crop production. The practical implementation of the technology of ecological crop production needs greater knowledge than that of the traditional crop production, since the tools and methods are limited and the efficiency of the permitted methods – in some of the cases – is lower. Therefore, in favour of the efficient farming, the agrotechnical elements have to be applied in a complex way in the practice of ecological crop production. We describe the principles and rules of the practical application of the most important agrotechnical elements.

In ecological crop production, we aim to preserve genetic diversity. This can mean that on a certain area, the production of more crops is carried out simultaneously, which plants help each other in growing and repel certain pests from the stocks. We can produce more varieties of a plant species (blend) in favour of the reduction of the different abiotic and biotic stress factors. The production of local varieties possessing appropriate adaptabilities could be efficient.

It is important to select such plant species to a given growing area, which not only well adapt to the ecological conditions, but can utilize these conditions efficiently.

The reasonable elaboration of the crop rotation plays crucial role in the solution of plant protection problems (weeds, diseases, pests); also has important function in the maintenance of the nutrient and water management features of soils. The changing of the plants rooting in deeper or less deep layers is important in the crop rotation with respect to the soil structure.

In ecological crop production, the formation of good soil structures and the maintenance of soil fertility are of crucial importance. In favour of these, we need to use the following:

• organic manuring

• rational tillage

• professionally elaborated crop rotation

• green manuring and leguminous plants

• mulching

• soil inoculation with Rhizobium bacteria and mycorrhiza

• phosphate rocks

The nutrient supply of plants is especially important since by the help of it, we can ensure the healthy plant stock, the intensive microbial life of the soil, the preservation of the organic materials of the soil and their constant conversion to nutrients available for the plants. In the nutrient supply, the organic manures, the composts play special roles. In ecological crop production, the production of green manure plants is far more important. The green manure plants favour the re-uptake of the nutrients, which were washed away, thus, the increase of the nutrient supplies of the upper soil layers, improve soil structure, raise the organic material content of the soil, positively effect soil life and reduce the extent of soil erosion.

The mulch of top soil has different adventages:

• decreasing water loss due to evaporation

• suppressing weed growth

• preventing soil erosion

• increasing the number of micro-organisms in the top soil

• increasing soil nutrient contents

• improving soil structure



• adding organic matter to the soil

The most critical point of ecological crop production is plant protection. The cultivated stocks have to be protected from weeds, diseases and animal pests mainly without chemical use.

Instead of weed clearing, our primary aim is weed control, the maintenance of the weed coverage on a level that does not decrease yield amount. The tools for this are:

• appropriate crop rotation (appropriate sequence of weed suppressing and weed promoting plants)

• mulching

• the production of covering plants

• mechanical weed control (inter-row cultivation, manual hoeing)

The protection of the plant stocks from diseases and animal pests also represents several problems. In favour of the protection, we have the following tools:

• the conscious selection of the plant species into the given ecological and agrotechnical conditions

• the production of varieties/hybrids resistant/tolerant to diseases and pests

• the application of conscious crop rotation that can cut the infection chain

• the increase of genetical-biological diversity in the given plant stock (the propagation of the natural enemies of pests, etc.)

• optimal tillage

• the adequate nutrient and water supplies of the plant stocks in favour of healthy and rapid growth

• production technology carried out in adequate time and by appropriate tiller number and sowing depth

• the application of special methods (traps, sex pheromones, etc.)

In addition to nutrient supply, the adequate water supply of the plant stock is also of special importance. The optimal water supply can be implemented by complex agrotechnical activities including the improvement of the water uptake capacity, the water-bearing ability and water management features, the reduction of the evaporation losses, the decrease of the surface and under surface water losses, the increase of the organic material content of the soil, the improvement of the physical traits of the soil (soil lamination, ratio of pores, water supply of soil crumbs, etc.).

Within ecological farming, ecological crop production is a kind of an alternative crop production system, whose more widespread introduction into the practice is reasonable. It is also important to be aware of that besides its favourable effects, ecological farming involves a lot of difficulties. The most important advantages of ecological farming are the following:

• It is not solely a form of production but also a special lifestyle, social and environmental approach.

• Makes favourable effects on agro- and natural ecosystems.

• Significantly reduces the adverse environmental effects of agricultural production.

• Favourable for the soil features.

• Produces agricultural products of special quality.

• Sustainable in the long run.




Besides the advantages, ecological farming is characterized by difficulties and disadvantages too:

• Needs much higher expertise.

• The yield amounts are usually lower.

• Its labour demand is much higher.

• It can be economically efficient only by the application of especially careful agrotechnique.

• The level of its social acceptance is low.


One of the alternative crop production models of the future is ecological crop production. When introducing it, we have to be aware of the fact that it is not solely a type of farming but requires a lifestyle change too.

2. Questions1. What are the most important problems of traditional crop production?

2. How do you characterize the organic agriculture?

3. What are the basic principles of organic agriculture?



4. What are the most important figures of organic farming in the World and in Hungary?

5. What are the most important agrotechnical elements in organic crop production?

6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of organic crop production?

3. References:George Acquaah(2001): Principles of CropProduction. Theory, Techniques, and Technology. PearsonPrentice Hall, UpperSaddleRiver, New Jersey 07458. ISBN 0-13-114556-8

John H. Martin – Richard P. Waldren – David L. Stamp(2006): Principles of FieldCropProduction. PearsonPrentice Hall, UpperSaddleRiver, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio. ISBN 0-13-025967-5

John L. Havlin – Samuel L. Tisdale – James D. Beaton – Werner L. Nelson (2005): SoilFertility and Fertilizers. PearsonPrentice Hall, UpperSaddleRiver, New Jersey. ISBN 0-13-027824-6


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