A Russia Today Publication *

50 QUESTIONS ANSWERED BY AN AUTHORITY ON RUSSIA

Compiled by 6D.

REG. BISHOP

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EN QUI R E WIT H I NON THE U. S. S. R.

Printed and Published by HARRISON & SONS, L ro., Hayes, Midch., for the Russia Today Society, ISO, Southampton Row, W.C.I

MA RCH, 1943.

Enquire Within on the U.S.S.R. Compiled by REG. BISHOP

(I) What Industrial Resources has the U.S.S.R. Outside the actual War Area?

F IRST and foremost there is the Urals, from which coal, iron, copper, bauxite, manganese, nickel, chrome and oil are obtained. This region is 1,700 miles from the western

frontier. It includes the towns of Magnitogorsk, Perm and Orsk. A new blast furnace was blown in at Magnitogorsk in December 1942; it yields 1,500 tons of pig-iron a day.

Then there is the Kuznetsk area, 1,000 miles further east, whose coal supplements the local supplies of the Urals, and where valuable deposits of manganese are also to be found. Its centre is Novosibirsk. Five hundred miles east again is Lake Baikal on the shores of which is more coal, iron and manganese, with Irkutsk as the centre of a powerful manufacturing area.

North of Lake Baikal is the river Lena where gold is mined, while in the Far East industrial area, coal and iron is produced for the great steel works at Komsomolsk, and oil is produced on the shores of the Pacific. In Soviet Central Asia there is copper from the area around Karaganda, and cotton, as well as stilI more coal and manganese.

(2) How has the U.S.S.R. Evacuated its Factories from the Front Line?

T HE plants were moved to sites near sources of the raw materials or the semi-finished products they required. Very

often they were merged with plants of a similar kind or erected 3

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at a spot already selected for the construction of a plant of the same type before the outbreak of war. In many cases this made it possible to rearrange the machinery and flow of production to give a far higher output with the same equipment.

The large Kirov (previously Putilov) armaments works of Leningrad was moved to the Urals where it has increased its tank output threefold. Before evacuation its buildings and yards covered 400 acres of land and were served by thirty miles of railroad track. It had six open hearth furnaces, nine electric steel furnaces, nine huge rolling mills, 310 forges, 420 heating furnaces and 3,500 pieces of metal-working machinery.

The Leningrad Carburettor plant was evacuated to a large city on the Volga, where it was merged with a local enterprise and the great Petrovsky steel works of Dniepropetrovsk (the largest steel works in old Russia) was moved to Cheliabinsk in the Urals.

How were they moved? All the equipment and workers of a plant were loaded on to as many trains as were needed. Each man travelled with his own machine and was responsible for seeing that it was set up and in operation as soon as possible after arrival.

(3) How does the U.S.S.R. Compensate Itself for Things Lost in the Occupied Areas?

THE greatest material losses at the end of 1942 were the coal of the Donbas, the iron of Krivoi Rog, the industries, wheat

and sugar-beet of the Ukraine. Some things cannot be made up. Moscow is short of coal, and hence of electric power.

But, in general, compensation has been obtained by the 100 per cent. conversion of existing industry to war needs; the development of high-speed construction technique; the full utilisation of previously idle or obsolete machinery; and the development of new technological processes such as the smelting of special steels in ordinary open hearth furnaces.

(4) How is the Rubber Deficit made Good?

I N 1932 the U.S.S.R. was still importing 99.6 per cent. of the rubber consumed, but by 1937 it was producing 75 per cent.

of its needs. In the interval Soviet scientists had developed means 4

of extracting natural rubber from dandelion-like plants­kok-sagyz, tau-sagyz, krym-saguz and guayule. At the same time, the scientist, Andrei Favorsky, was working out a synthetic process using acetylene as the raw material.

By 1941, large-scale production of both types of rubber had been reached.

The other important deficit materials are certain minerals, deposits of most of which have been found and exploited after diligent research, but the U.S.S.R. has still to import molyb­denum from U.S.A., tungsten from China, and tin, copper and aluminium from other countries to supplement inadequate domestic supplies.

(5) Where does the U.S.S.R. get its Oil?

OIL output was 34,200,000 tons in 1940; a year later it was 39,000,000 tons. Maikop fell to the Germans, but was

recaptured in January 1943. The eastern oil-fields are comparatively new, but production

was stepped up considerably in the last few years. For instance, the Buguruslan field, largest in the Urals-Volga

group, produced four times as much in 1941 as in its entire previous history. Refining capacity was greatest in the Caucasus. But the production of high octane oil was only just beginning.

In 1938 the Baku field produced 74 per cent. of all Soviet oil, and the fields of Volga and Urals, Central Asia and the Far East only 9 per cent. The planned production for 1942-based on the actual production figures for 1941 was 26 per cent. from the latter group, with 58 per cent. from the Baku area, although the actual production of the latter had increased considerably.

The Grozny-Maikop pipe-line was cut, and during the period it was not in operation, the main routes remaining for oil transport were via the Caspian Sea and up the Volga, or into the Urals, by pipe-line north from Gurev, at the head of the Caspian.

(6) How is Man-Power Mobilised?

IN February 1942 all men between 16 and 65, and all women between 16 and 45 (that is 45 per cent. of the entire

population) were liable for mobilisation, either in the forces or 5

in industry. In December 1941 a decree was issued treating the leaving of a job without satisfactory reason as desertion, and punishable by the military court.

In April 1942, all able-bodied males between 14 and 55, and females between 14 and 50 not already employed in industry or transport were made subject to mobilisation for work in the rural areas to meet the social harvest needs.

(7) How have enough Workers been Trained for Industry?

pRIOR to the invasion, in October 1940, new schools were established to create a Labour Reserve, designed to bring

from 800,000 to a million city and farm boys a year into industry. Three types of school were established: trade schools, railway schools and industrial schools. The first two had a two-year course, and boys and girls of 14 and 15 were the entrants. They were also given two hours' general educational instruction for every five hours of industrial training. The industrial schools had a six-months' course for youngsters of 16 and 17. Tuition and maintenance are free in all three categories.

After the invasion the number of such schools was increased, and the curriculum slightly varied to allow for training in the production of military· equipment and supplies while still in school. In May 1942, 700,000 young workers graduated-115,000 metal-workers 25,000 steel-workers; 136,000 construction workers; 52,000 miners and 43,000 railway workers.

An eight-hour day (including general education) :s worked in the schools, and half adult wages are paid, plus food. One hundred and ten hours of military training annually is included.

(8) Where do Women Work?

WOMEN are mobilised for work-from 14 years to 50 for farm work during the harvest season; from 16 to 45

for industry (unless they are ill, pregnant or have children under 8).

There is no branch of production in which women are not working; 45 per cent. of all gainfully employed persons are

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women, as against 29 per cent. in 1929. Wives have taken their men's place at the lathe; 70,000 women work on the railways, 10,000 in the oilfields, considerable numbers on board ship, as engineers, mates and even captain. Fifty-one per cent. of the surgeons and physicians are women-the Red Army Medical Corps has a considerable percentage of women doctors. There have been special wartime modifications of the special legislation for the protection of female labour, but the regulations regarding maternity leave, working hours (pregnant women must not do overtime), etc., are still rigorously observed. Housewives are enabled to go into industry by the extensive provision of nursing facilities at the factory.

Over six million children used the factory creches in 1939, and these facilities were considerably increased prior to June 1941.

In 1942 the great Magnitogorsk works recorded that its four best workers were women.

On the farms the 19,000,000 women collective farmers are now doing the bulk of the work; 123,000 of the 170,000 newly-trained tractor drivers are women.

(9) What is the Wages System?

PIECE-WORK is practically universal in Soviet industry. A basic wage is paid for an agreed-on norm, with pro­

gressively higher rates and bonuses for all production over and above that figure. The 200 percenters who have been so pronounced a feature of Soviet industry since the invasion consequently earn very high wages.

A seven-hour day was normal in almost all industries until shortly before the invasion, when the hours were increased to eight. Since the invasion workers may be obliged to work up to three hours overtime daily, with pay at rate and a half. Holidays, which were previously universal on full pay are abandoned for the duration of hostilities, but extra pay is given in their stead.

Office workers get monthly salaries, with bonuses if their departments or plant exceed their plan.

Artists, sculptors, etc., receive an annual salary, all that they produce over and above a certain amount being sold through their co-operatives, the payment reverting to the individual.

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Actors are paid monthly salaries, including payment for rehearsals.

(10) How do the Trade Unions Function in Wartime?

THEIR primary job is to aid in increasing production. In peacetime the Soviet trade unions had production com­

mittees for the purpose of increasing productivity-through publications, classes, lectures, and socialist emulation between various plants. Labour management conferences to discuss the better organisation of production were already a feature of industry in peacetime.

The unions have the main responsibility for the training of new workers in wartime-the wives and daughters of their members, new workers from the countryside and office employees released for industry.

Soviet trade unions are organised along industrial lines, in local branches, of not less than 25 members, which elect a wages committee to negotiate with the management on rates of pay, etc. The branch also elects a Labour Protection Committee to see that the Labour protection laws are strictly observed.

The unions also administer the social services which in peacetime are the most extensive in the world. There are 25,000,000 members, or 85 per cent. of those eligible, belonging to the 168 trade unions, which are organised in the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions, with which the British Trades Union Congress has an agreement.

In 1942 there were 1,231,000 T.U. members of factory and local Union committees. Thirty-five per cent. of those elected were women.

(II) How do the Soviet People Feed Themselves 1

I N 1942 the U.S.S.R. lost 40 million acres of cultivated land, meaning that nearly half of the normal sown acreage was in

German hands. Half the area thus lost was compensated for by bringing into cultivation new lands in the eastern part of the U.S.S.R., and by the more intensive cultivation of the existing acreage left to them.

In urban centres and around factories digging for victory has become as much a feature of Soviet life as of British. Never-

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theless, although Soviet organisation has been such that it has been possible to satisfy the needs of the people, there is a considerable shortage of all but the basic necessities.

(12) Do they have Rationing?

RATIONING of food in the large cities began four weeks after the invasion. Food above the rationed quantities

may be purchased, as far as it is available, at Govern­ment stores at high (but controlled) prices, or at collective farm markets, under Government superVISIOn. Thus, the development of a Black Market has been avoided, and those who can best afford the extra food are the heavy industrial workers whose earnings soar along with production. In cities under direct attack or along railway lines whose whole capacity is needed for military purposes, and where supplies are con­sequently short, rations have been cut to whatever point was necessary and the special stores eliminated. In such conditions the only criterion for distribution was need.

The rations for the city of Moscow in August 1941 were: Industrial workers-l lb. 12 oz. bread daily plus a monthly ration of 3t lbs. sugar, 4t lbs. meat, 4 lbs. 6 oz. flour or macaroni, 1 lb. 12 oz. butter, and 2 lbs. 3 oz. fish per person.

Persons doing non-manual labour got slightly less. Special supplementary rations were given to persons doing particularly heavy work, in which category locomotive men have lately been included.

(13) What is the State of the People's Health?

N ATION-WIDE medical statistics for the first sixteen months of the war showed a sharp decline in dysentry, malaria

and children's ailments. Typhoid showed no substantial increase. In the winter of 1941/2 outbreaks of typhus were limited to a few areas and were rapidly curbed. Yet Russia was, in all past wars, particularly scourged by this dread ailment. There have been no serious epidemics of any kind.

This magnificent record can be attributed to generally good health standards prior to the war, and the good organisation of health services before and during the war. Such epidemics

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as there were occurred in the areas recaptured from the Germans. These areas were quarantined, and specialists with adequate staffs and supplies of medicaments were sent to them.

In war, as in peace, the aim of the health services has been primarily the prevention, rather than the curing of disease. Where rations have had to be most seriously cut, and the danger of malnutrition arose, special restaurants were established for those whose health had been most seriously affected.

(14) What Part do Children Play in the War Effort?

CHILDREN over 14 can be mobilised to help with the harvest; accompanied by their teachers they are paid adult

wages and the school terms are so arranged as to facilitate such help.

Many children have performed spectacular feats with the guerilla units, acting as decoys and scouts. But to the lot of the average child there only fall more pedestrian tasks. Their own organisations-the Pioneers and Tirnur Youth (the latter named after the hero of a famous series of children's books)­perform a thousand and one organised tasks. They help the families of mobilised men, they run errands, they collect scrap, and the elder girls act as assistants in creches. They learn fire-fighting, help to build shelters, develop "victory vegetable gardens" at their schools, etc. In this work they are helped and advised by adults-usually their teachers.

(15) What Happens to the Schools in Wartime?

A s soon as the U.S.S.R. was invaded the authorities organised the evacuation of children and schools from the border

regions. This evacuation was extended as the enemy advanced. Where existing school accommodation could not cope with the influx additional buildings were provided. Where the new­comers are particularly numerous, schools have bad to be organised on a 3-shift system. Despite all difficulties, the vast majority of children have continued to receive their education, almost without interruption.

Children returned a month late afte~ their summer holidays in 1942, for they had been helping with the harvest. On their

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return they found new duties awaiting them. Caretakers, char­women and other school-servants are now in industry, so the maintenance, heating and cleaning of the schools was made the responsibility of the youngsters themselves, and carried out under the supervision of the teachers. Free lunches are universal.

In every grade studies have been intensified. Practical agri­culture has been made part of the curriculum, as has practical military training. The study of English and French has been introduced into many more schools, and begins in the first year instead of the fourth, as was previously the case. In 1942, ten thousand newly graduated teachers were introduced to the Soviet schools. University and technical school work has been geared up to meet war needs. The 170,000 graduates from universities and technical schools in 1942 was double the normal number, and included specialists in such things as field surgery, transport of war material, fortifications and camouflage.

(16) What is the Role of the Intellectuals?

L IKE every other section of the population the artists, writers, etc., mobilised themselves for action from the very first

moment of invasion. The great composer Shostakovich joined the Fire Service in

his native Leningrad and set to work to compose a work which would suitably interpret the grandeur of Leningrad and its people under siege. His Leningrad Symphony was the result.

Among the writers who have lost their lives at the front is Petrov, p(lrt-author of the immortal Little Golden Calf. Another famous writer, who lost his life in an air-raid on Moscow was Afinogenyev, whose Distant Point has been produced in London.

llya Ehrenberg went to the front, and this great writer's despatches have served to make the epic struggle of the Soviet people more real to countless millions throughout the world. At the same time he completed his novel, The Fall of Paris, for which he was awarded a Stalin prize, to give the Soviet people a picture of the forces of Fascism at work in a democratic country. v

The whole film industry was mobilised to produce a series of magnificent works showing Russia's past struggles and the realities of the present conflict.

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Many of the film studios were evacuated to Central Asia, where they produced, among others: The District Party Delegate, The Defence of Tsaritsin, Man of Our Town, Timuy's Oath (on the role of children in the war), and the superb One Day of The War, a remarkable documentary filmed on June 13th 1942 by 160 cameramen in different parts of the country.

The theatre has continued to perform, not only in the cities under siege, but has gone to the front to entertain and inspire the troops.

To produce animated war cartoons and special war radio programmes, one of the most successful combinations has included the Kukryniksi (famous cartoon trio) Boris Efirnov (Pravda cartoonist), Shostakovich (world-famous composer) and Marshak (famous children's writer, creator of Timur).

Scientific institutions have largely been removed from the places near the front and are working exclusively on war prob­lems. Artists, writers, poets collaborate to pr_oduce posters, cartoons, stories, etc., having for their aim the building of morale, the spread of information and instruction in defence methods.

The rule of work has prevailed in the intellectual field as in all others: "Everything for the Front-Everything for Victory."

(17) What is the Attitude of the Churches?

O N June 29th 1941 Acting Patriarch Sergei, Primate of the Orthodox Church and Metropolitan of Moscow, issued a

statement to the world that the Church had decided to enlist its entire resources on behalf of the Soviet war effort.

Simultaneously, Metropolitan Alexander of the Living Church, Alexander Karev, head of the All-Union Council of Evangelists and Baptists, and Preacher Cregoriev, head of the All-Union Council of Adventists, issued simiiarpronouncements. Following on these appeals, came calls to their fellow­religionists abroad from Mufti Abdurakhman Rassulev, head of the Soviet Moslems, Archbishop Charekchan, of the Armenian­Gregorian Church, and the Viina Rabbinical Council.

Churches and churchmen played a prominent part in the collections that were taken in 1942 to raise money for fighter squadrons and tank units.

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The only priest of any note who went over to the Nazis in occupied territory was one, Sikorsky, from the Ukrainian­Polish border. He was summarily excommunicated by the Mother Church. The Metropolitan Nikolai, of Kiev, is a member of the Soviet Government Commission to investigate atrocities.

On the occasion of the enthronement of Dr. Temple as Archbishop of Canterbury, correspondence was exchanged between him and the Metropolitan of Moscow, who said:

"Not in vain did God unite the people of the British Commonwealth and those of the U.S.S.R. in one pact whose aim is so great and sacred-the delivery of mankind from the bloody oppression of fascism, from the terrorising of the weak by the strong, from brutal hatred between nations."

In the middle of 1942 there was published by the Moscow Patriarchate a book, The Truth About Religion in Russia, which described the relations between Church ang State, and the activities of the Churches and their members in working for the defence of the Soviet Union. A translation will shortly be pu?lished in Britain.

(18) How do People Live in a Besieged City?

LENINGRAD was relieved in January 1943. For sixteen months it had been besieged; 6,000 cannon, 4,500 mortars,

1,000 planes and 19,000 machine-guns, backed up by 800,000 troops were thrown against it by the Germans in August 1941.

Workmen dropped their tools and took up rifles. Women and children replaced the workers at the bench. There was no thought of surrender. Twelve railroads, a modern canal system, a huge deep-water port, and three excellent highways had been built to supply its three million people and its industries. All of these were cut by September 8th except for the route across Lake Ladoga. When the lake froze it appeared that all was lost.

Then, however, a lorry road was constructed across the ice of the lake. This single road kept the city alive during the winter. Munitions and raw materials received priority, and rations were cut again and again until, for a short time, they reached four oz. of bread a day, and nothing else. Then in the middle of winter the fuel system broke down. There was a time when the only heating was by wood obtained from destroyed buildings and houses. There was no electricity for

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home use; even the schools were without heat, although for five months the temperature never rose above freezing point.

Hunger became so intense that it was no uncommon thing to see persons dropping dead on the streets.

The population worked eleven hours a day, after which they undertook military training, walking to and from their work through the snow-drifts and the rubble. Neither could the water supply be maintained, so that it had to be brought from wells, the river and the numerous canals.

Yet there were no epidemics. Special stations were organised where those who were weakest could rest, recuperate and undergo medical treatment. When the bombing of a water-main supplying the city's largest bakery threatened the bread supplies, the emergency was met by the organised efforts of Leningrad's youth. The city youth organisations provided 2,000 pairs of willing hands to carry the 4,000 pails of water needed from the river side to the bakery many blocks away and up six flights of stairs.

Industry continued to function-so did science, education and the arts. Munitions were produced, even for other sections of the front, and were taken out on the ice road, which was under frequent bombardment from German-held Schlusselberg. On their return trips these lorries brought the city 100,000 tons of supplies through the winter.

Two thousand five hundred students graduated from Lenin­grad University during the siege. Leningrad's entertainers put on 20,000 shows for the men at the front outside the city. Among the other accomplishments of its publishing houses was an edition of 100,000 copies of War and Peace.

In the Spring of 1942 the food situation improved somewhat. Shipping was resumed on Lake Ladoga, the health stations were replaced by special dining rooms, serving special menus to those who had suffered most; 300,000 people were served by these restaurants.

Even the guerillas helped to feed the city, smuggling in 200 cart-loads of farm products from districts under their control to the east of Leningrad.

Three hundred thousand people turned out each day to clean the streets when the snow began to melt, thereby preventing buried rubbish from causing disease and injury. Twenty-two thousand five hundred acres were planted by 270,000 persons­after working hours.

In the spring there was even a partial resumption of street-14

car services; two theatres were re-opened, twenty-three cinemas and two amusement parks likewise.

The second winter threatened to reproduce all the honors of the first, but the city had learned from its winter of adversity and knew better how to cope with the situation.

A large part of the population had been evacuated; wooden buildings had been demolished to provide a store of fuel, and to reduce the risk of fire. All the citizenry had been collecting fuel on the basis of two cubic metres of wood for himself, and two for the city's schools and hospitals. Posters showed how to make temporary fireplaces in the home.

On November 7th 1942 huge outdoor murals covered the side of buildings in honour of the 25th anniversary of the Soviet State.

The great Soviet composer-Shostakovich-completed his Leningrad Symphony in between fighting fires as a member of the City's Civil Defence.

When the siege was raised on January 18th the whole world paid its homage to a great city, the birthplace of the Revolution, whose steadfastness rivalled that of Stalingrad. And all the U.S.S.R. rushed to send sustenance to its citizens.

(19) What Happens in the Occupied Areas?

G ERMAN policy aims at exterminating a sufficiently large portion of the Slavic peoples to prevent them from being

numerically strong enough ever to resist Germany again on the field of battle. The remainder, such is the pretty plan, are to be made into colonial slaves exploited by Germans, both as overlords and as settlers on the land.

That this is established policy is shown by orders found on German prisoners and in re-occupied areas. It is fully corroborated by reports from other parts of occupied eastern Europe. Occupied areas are plundered of everything movable. Schools, churches, museums and cultural institutions are destroyed or converted to military use. Food is requisitioned without consideration of the needs of the inhabitants, and to get winter quarters for their troops, the Germans have not hesitated to turn old men, women and small children into the open, or, in some cases they have been shot, and, in others herded into an empty building which has been then set afire. Immediately following occupation, brothels have been opened for the troops into which the local women have been driven.

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(20) Who Fights in the Red Army?

THE answer to this and similar questions will be found in 50 Questions on the Red Army in Wartime, by Ivor

Montagu. One additional point-early in 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps, on his return to London, said that the U.S.S.R. had 9,000,000 men under arms. Owing to the need to retain key men in industry it is doubtful if the number is now much larger. But, for any emergency, the U.S.S.R. has some 15 per cent. of its popu­lation (27,000,000 men) trained for military service, all of whom could be mobilised should need arise. This is accomplished by the part-time training of every able-bodied male between 16 and 50. In November 1942 there were soldiers of 67 nationalities in the Red Army.

(21) How are the Armed Forces Organised?

THE Red Army and Navy are under separate commissariats: the Commissariat of Defence under Stalin, and of the

Navy, under Admiral Kuznetsov. Both are subject, in the general direction of the war, to the State Committee of Defence, the chairman of which is Stalin. Army and Navy each has its own planes of all types to operate in conjunction with them.

There is a separate Command for Soviet forces in Asia, in the form of two special Red Banner Far Eastern Armies, to guard the Soviet borders along Japanese-occupied territory.

The Commissariat of Internal Affairs has its own troops for special duties such as defence against invading paratroops, etc. Four Naval Fleets are maintained-the Baltic, Black Sea, Pacific and Arctic. There are also flotillas on the Caspian Sea and the rivers Amur and Volga.

(22) How are the Guerillas Organised?

A FEW days after the Nazi invasion Stalin made a speech in which he called on the Soviet population in occupied

areas to destroy everything immovable and form themselves into guerilla units to harass the enemy. The guerilla move­ment soon took on great momentum. Red Army men separated from their units, or whole units separated from the army, organised themselves as guerillas. Men and women, boys and girls, anxious to fight the invader in occupied territory, went

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off into the forests to form guerilla bands. Close contact is kept with the Red Army through scouts. Guerillas often work with the regulars in carrying out raids, or even synchronising attacks. The army keeps the guerillas supplied with arms and information; the surrounding villages keep them supplied with food, and warn them of Nazi activities. Whole areas under guerilla control are supplied with newspapers, leaflets and pamphlets by plane. Even films are brought in. The guerillas are in fact considered as an integral part of the Red Army and work with them is organised on this basis.

(23) How is Civilian Defence Organised?

THE principal organisation is Osoaviakhim (The Society for Defence against Aerial and Chemical Warfare), which was

founded in 1920. The head of this organisation is Major­General of Aviation Kobelev. In peacetime membership and training were voluntary, but on July 2nd 1941 compulsory train­ing in air and chemical defence was introduced for men between 16 and 60, and women between 18 and 50. Children between 8 and 16 are trained in self-protection during air-raids. Training is given workers at their place of employment, students at their place of study, and other citizens at their homes. Directed by Osoaviakhim, the city and regional Soviets furnish the equipment.

(24) What Happens to Red Army Men on Demobilisation?

THE State accept responsibility for finding employment for all demobilised men, immediately on return to civil life.

It is laid down that such employment must be at a rate of wages not lower than that of which the demobilised man was in receipt on joining the forces. In most cases the job will be at a higher rate because the Red Army is not only a fighting machine but a high-powered university and technical school in which the qualifications of all are improved.

(25) What Happens to the Families of Red Army Men?

D EPENDANTS' allowances are payable on behalf of children below the age of 16 (or 18 if they are still at school);

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brothers and sisters within the same age limits, if they are normally dependent upon a member of the armed forces; fathers of men if they are over 60, and mothers over 55; wives and other normally dependent relatives. Applications for such allow­ances must be acted upon within 3 days of their receipt. The trade unions have the responsibility of finding jobs for those wives who are not debarred by ill-health or family responsibilities from taking them. It is a generally accepted rule that the wife be offered the opportunity of training for her husband's job if it is of such a character that she is likely to become efficient within a short time. By the end of 1942, 400,000 wives had been sent to trade schools in the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic.

Collective farm families having a member in the armed forces pay only half of the increased income tax rate, whilst those families having two members in the forces pay income tax at the pre-war rate. In the R.S.S.S.F. alone 300,000 children of members of the forces have been placed in nurseries and 108 homes for aged dependent parents have been established.

(26) What are the Honours Given in the U.S.S.R.

UNTIL the war there was no distinction between civilians and military honours. For instance, soldiers who distinguished

themselves in the frontier battles with Japan were made Heroes of the Soviet Union. So were the gallant fliers who conquered the Arctic. There are two types of award-Titles and Orders. The highest distinctions are the titles of Hero of the Soviet Union granted for individual or collective heroism, and Hero of Socialist Labour for industrial achievements. These two titles carry with them the Order of Lenin. In every field of activity similar titles are awarded, e.g .. People's Artist, Honoured Artist of the Republic. etc.

Official Soviet decorations include: The Order of the Red Banner, The Order of the Rea Star, The Order of the Banner of Labour, The Badge of Honour. Since the war there have been added the Orders of Nevsky, Suvorov, and Kutuzov for officers of the forces, and the Order of the Patriotic War which is awarded to airmen, soldiers, sailors and ' guerrillas for bravery or special achievement at the front. Requirements for this Order are outlined in detail~the number of enemy planes to be

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destroyed, the number of mine throwers, tanks, machine-guns, guns captured or destroyed; the capture of an enemy sentry or enemy secret despatches. The first person to be awarded the Order of Suvorov was Lt.-General Badanov, a tank corps commander and veteran of the Civil War, for successful opera­tions carried out by his corps in which it penetrated deeply behind the enemy lines.

A further collective award has been introduced in this war -that of the designation of Guards to army and navy units with outstanding record. Badanov tank corps was one thus honoured. By a decree issued in the spring 1942, the special title of Guardsman prefixed to his rank was introduced to the members of all units that had earned the collective title. Each Guardsman is awarded a Guards' badge.

The whole series of new badges has been introduced for outstanding snipers, machine-gunners, tank drivers, submarine men and so forth.

(27) What is a Collective Farm?

A COLLECTIVE farm is an agricultural producer's co-operative. There are a quarter million such farms with

an average of 12,000 acres under cultivation and 75 families per farm. Some collective farms are smaller than this and many of them seem to be larger.

In addition there are 4,000 State farms which are large-scale experimental undertakings which concentrate on particular specialities. Collective farms hold their land from the State rent free" in perpetuity." The members own their own houses plus a small kitchen garden and a limited quantity of live-stock. The produce of this land is for their own use and any surplus can be disposed of as they wish.

The bulk of the land is owned and operated collectively. Tractors and other mechanised aids to agriculture can be obtained from the machine-tractor stations which operate in every district and which also have a staff of trained agricultural scientists available for advice and training.

The produce is divided after taxes have been paid according to the number of workdays each person has put in. A day's work at different jobs has different values in terms of workdays. Each member must perform a minimum of 150 days' work on the farm per annum. The machine-tractor stations place 400,000

19

tractors, 127,000 harvester combines a"nd 80,000 lorries at the disposal of the collective farms.

(28) How is Agricultural Labour Found in Wartime?

WHEN war broke out, the harvest was just beginning and it was vital to complete it rapidly in the threatened

areas. To assist in this and to offset the growing labour shortage caused by mobilisation school children between the ages of 12 and 16 (and some younger) spent their summer holidays helping with the harvest. Most of the older children were taught to drive tractors, combines, etc. Those living in rural areas con­tinued to help on the land after school hours on the resumption of term.

In the spring of 1942, courses of training in' practical agriculture were introduced for children in rural schools. The training occupies 8 hours a week, and the work done is paid on the same basis as that of adults. Simultaneously an ever larger number of women have taken the place of men in the fields.

In April 1942, a decree made every able-bodied civilian male between 14 and 55 and every able-bodied civilian female between 14 and 50 subject to mobilisation for farm work in the busy periods. Those already employed in industry and transport are exempt. Food and housing are supplied to those mobilised. Their pay is that of ordinary workers on State farms plus a percentage of the food produced plus half the salary they received prior to mobilisation.

(29) How has the Transport System Operated?

M ANY people believed that transport was the weakest link in the Soviet chain. Far from this being the case, Soviet

transport has proved both efficient and elastic, particularly the railway system. In 1914 the U.S.S.R. had 36,350 miles of rail­road. In 1939 this had increased to 64,000 miles, but although the U.S.S.R. is three times the size of U.S.A. the net mileage of its railway is even now only one-third of U.S.A. Even before the war the volume of passenger traffic per mile of line was enormous and a greater weight of freight was carried per mile than in any other railway system in the world.

20

The efficiency of Soviet railways was put to a stern test when it became necessary to evacuate gigantic undertakings from the western parts of the U.S.S.R. to Asia, whilst simultaneously rushing troops westwards. The railways stood up to this test amazingly well as can be seen from the efficient manner in which both operations were carried through. In the ten years prior to invasion, the Soviet Union developed its water transport system by a series of canals linking the White Sea with the Baltic, the river Moscow with the river Volga and so forth.

Soviet airlines in 1941 were longer and carried more freight than those of any other country. The pioneering work performed in the Arctic area has provided useful experience for aerial communication across Siberia and Alaska to U.S.A.

Although the main trunk roads of the U.S.S.R. are excellent, good roads are comparatively few and far between. It was only in 1932 that Soviet automobiles began to be produced and whilst the number of lorries has increased steadily between that time and the present day, road transport remains subsidiary and is mainly used for short calls.

(30) How Much Territory was Lost?

l"HE total area of the U.S.S.R. is 8,350,000 square miles, of which 600,000 were in Nazi hands at the end of 1942,

including the entire territory of 7 Union Republics-Ukrainian S.S.R., Belorussian S.S.R., Karelo-finnish S.S.R., Lithunian S.S.R., Latvian S.S.R., Esthonian S.S.R., and Moldavian S.S.R. In the last month of 1942 and the first two months of 1943 large tracts of territory have been regained. In the first 81 days of the Soviet winter offensive, it was officially stated in Moscow, 100,000 square miles had been liberated (the total area of Gt. Britain is 88,753 square miles).

In the area under German occupation at its peak period there was a normal population of 77 million, of whom 38 million fell into German hands.

Those who had gone were men in the armies, those who left with their evacuated factories and evacuated children. During the period of German occupation many more crossed the lines back into Soviet territory. From the first threat there was a planned evacuation of large sections of the population. The children were sent from the cities to escape bombings and later large numbers were sent to the east.

21

In those districts where there was a large Jewish population, an effort was made to evacuate the Jewish civilians because of the special terror meted out to them by the invader.

In each case the evacuation was carefully organised in unit groups-the children went as school units with their teachers, the factory workers with their factories, the scientists with their institutes and so forth.

(31) What Happens to Orphans?

FOLLOWING the last war, and the subsequent famine, the problem of the bezprizorni (homeless children) was one of

the most difficult the young Soviet government had to face. How they dealt with it is graphically described in the novel "The Road to Life," which has recently been republished in this country.

The Soviet authorities learn their lessons well. And one of the first things they did on the invasion of their country was to organise the care of children who might be orphaned or rendered homeless in the struggle.

Boarding schools have been established in safe areas for evacuated children of all ages, whilst a system of guardianship has been got under way, through which a family takes care of a child and is given financial help by the government to enable it to do so.

There has also been the widespread adoption of orphans, which is permitted when there is satisfactory proof that those parents are dead. Once this is established, adoption is encouraged, even campaigned for under the slogan, "There are no orphans in the Soviet Union."

Trade Unions and Co-operative Societies have been to the fore in raising funds to assist in the maintenance of the boarding school and the guardian system.

Under conditions prevailing in the Soviet Union at war, large numbers of people have become separated from their families. A central information bureau has been organised in Buguruslan-in the Chkalov region in the Urals-to which alI enquiries are addressed regarding evacuated persons, or others whose location has been lost.

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(32) How are we Allied t.o the U.S.S.R.?

ON July 12th 1941 a partial alliance was entered into between the U.S.S.R. and Great Britain. Until then the official

position, declared by the Foreign Office, was that we were co-belligerents, but not allies.

On May 26th 1941 a Twenty Years' Pact of Mutual Assist­ance was signed in London, with M. Molotov, the Commissar for Foreign Affairs, representing the Soviet Government, and Mr. Anthony Eden, the British Government.

Article I of the Treaty declared:-"In virtue of the alliance .... the High Contracting

Parties mutually undertake to afford one another military and other assistance and support of all kinds in the war against Germany and all those States which are associated with her in acts of aggression in Europe." Article II declared that the two Governments undertook

"not to enter into any negotiations with the Hitlerite Govern­ment or any other Government in Germany that does not clearly renounce all aggressive intentions, and not to conclude except by mutual consent any armistice or peace treaty with Germany or any other State associated with her in acts of aggression in Europe."

For the rest, the Treaty contains an undertaking to work together after the war with other like-minded States for the maintenance of peace and the resistance of aggression. The Treaty remains in force for twenty years. (See also Question 35.)

(33) What are the Relations of the U.S.S.R. with the other United Nations?

THE U.S.S.R. is associated with the U.S.A. through two wartime agreements: the United Nations agreement of

January 1st 1942, pledging each country "to employ its full resources, military and economic, against those members of the Axis with whom they are at war, and to co-operate with the Government's signatory hereto and not to make a separate peace or armistice with the enemy"; and the Lease-Lend Agree­ment signed on June 11th 1942. With China it has a Non­aggression Pact and it continues to supply material help.

In the last eighteen months diplomatic relations have been established for the first time with Australia, Canada, the Union

23

of South Africa, Cuba, Luxemburg, Mexico, and Holland. Diplo­matic relations also exist with Poland, Colombia, Uruguay, U.S.A., Czecho-Slovakia, Greece, Yugo-Slavia, China, and Norway, as well as Great Britain.

M. Bogomolov represents the U.S.S.R. with the Governments of the occupied countries in London. Excellent relations are maintained with the French National Committee (the Fighting French).

(34) What is the U.S.S.R.'s Position in the Far East?

THE U.S.S.R. is technically a neutral in the Pacific War. It has a Non-aggression Pact and trade agreements with

China; a Non-aggression Pact with Japan; a Mutual Assistance Pact with the People's Republic of Mongolia. In the years prior to 1941 it had many serious clashes with the Japanese, along the Manchurian border; consequently the U.S.S.R. main­tains a large army in the Far East-the First and Second Special Red Banner Far Eastern Armies, centred at Vladivostok and Khabarovsk.

Help continues to be sent to China over the long road from the Turk-Sib railway, across Sinkiang to Chungking, and it has military and aviation instructors assisting in the training of the Chinese Army. Soviet neutrality in the Far East has enabled their vessels to bring American supplies to Vladivostok and other Pacific ports.

(35) What is the Soviet Attitude to the Post-War World?

THEY endorsed the Atlantic Charter on September 24th 1941 in London, and again in signing the United Nations

Agreement in January 1942. Stalin in his speech of November 6th 1941 made it clear that

the U.S.S.R. stood for no territorial conquests and the self­determination of nations.

The Polish-Soviet Declaration of Friendship, signed in December 1941, declared that a just and durable peace can only be assured through the organisation of a system of collective security. The punishment of the Hitlerites, but the continuance

24

of the German nation, was emphasised by Stalin in his speech of February 23rd 1942, wherein he said: "It would be ridiculous to identify Hitler's clique with the German people and the German State. History shows that HitJers come and go, but the German people and the German State remain." In its notes on German atrocities of November 25th 1941, January 6th and April 27th 1942, the Soviet Government declared to the world that the "criminal Hitlerite government and its accom­plices must and shall pay a deserved penalty for the crimes committed by it."

The Treaty of Alliance between Great Britain and the Soviet Union contains an undertaking that the two Governments will work together with like-minded Powers after the war to preserve peace and resist aggression. It adds that "pending the adoption of such proposals they will, after the termination of hostilities, take all measures in their power to render impossible any repetition of aggression and violation of the peace by Germany or any of the States associated with her in acts of aggression in Europe."

The two Parties also undertook to "work together in close and friendly collaboration after the re-establishment of peace for the organisation of security and economic prosperity in Europe," and to render each other economic assistance.

(36) How has the Population risen?

IN 1897 the Russian Empire had a population of 106,400,000; in 1920 it was 134,000,000; in 1941 it was 193,000,000,

approximately 9 per cent. of the population of the world. The greatest concentrations of popUlation are to be found in the European section of the Union, particularly the Ukraine. The growth of some of the main cities has been phenomenal, as witness:-

Moscow Kharkov Leningrad Gorky

1926. 2,000,000

417,000 1,600,000

185,000

1939. 4,137,000

833,000 3,191,000

644,000

Between 1926 and 1940 the population of the Union rose by 15.9 per cent., as against an increase of 11 per cent. in U.S.A. and 5 per cent. in Great Britain.

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Many new towns have sprung up in the Soviet Union, of which perhaps the most famous is Magnitogorsk in the Urals, where hardly a hamlet existed before. Now the population is over a quarter of a million. Among other new towns of note is Igarka, a timber port on the River Yenesei, situated well inside the Arctic circle, quite the most northerly town in the world.

(37) How are we Co-operating with the U.S.S.R.?

ON May 26th 1942 a Treaty of Alliance between Great Britain and the U.S.S.R. was signed in London by Messrs. Anthony

Eden and V. Molotov. It was shortly afterwards ratified by their respective parliaments. The Treaty was of twenty years' duration.

On June 11th, an official statement was issued in London and Moscow, which said;-

" In the course of the negotiations between V. M. Molotov and Mr. Winston Churchill, complete agreement was reached between the two countries with regard to the urgent task of creating a Second Front in Europe in 1942."

When Molotov was in Washington at the end of May 1942 a joint statement was issued by representatives of the U.S. and Soviet Governments, which said;-

"In the course of the conversations full understanding was reached with regard to the urgent tasks of creating a Second Front in Europe in 1942. In addition the measures for increasing and speeding up the supplies of planes, tanks and other kinds of war materials from the U.S. to the U.S.S.R. were discussed. Further, were discussed the funda­mental problems of co-operation of the Soviet Union and the U.S. in safeguarding peace and security to the freedom­loving peoples after the war. Both sides state with satisfaction the unity of their views on all these questions." The fact that the Soviet Government considered the opening

of a Second Front to be the most important of all forms of co-operation was made abundantly clear by Stalin in his speech in Moscow on November 6th 1942, wherein he said;-

"The chief reason for the tactical successes of the Germans on our front this year is that the absence of a Second Front in Europe enabled them to hurl on to our

26

front all their available reserves and to create a large superiority of forces in the south-western direction."

The only way to ensure the maximum results from the magnificent Soviet victories of the winter 1942-43 is the speedy opening of the Second Front, promised for 1942, in 1943.

On November 13th 1942, Mr. Richard Law, Foreign Under-Secretary, told the House of Commons that goods despatched from Britain and the United States by the northern route in 12 months had been:-

Aircraft-3,052; tanks---4,084; vehicles-30,031. Miscel-laneous totalled 831,000 tons of coal, small arms, munitions, machines, machine-tools, non-ferrous metals, food and medical supplies.

In addition, 42,000 tons of aviation spirit had been despatched.

Up to December 31st 1942, according to Mr. Stettinius, American Lease-Lend Administrator, Britain and U.S.A. had sent to Russia, 5,800 tanks and 4,600 aeroplanes. In the speech by Mr. Law, already quoted, he said that while not all the supplies despatched have reached there, a great bulk have done so.

Speaking in the House of Lords on February 3rd 1942, Lord Beaverbrook pointed out that in 2-!- months' offensive fighting the Russians had captured 7,000 tanks and 4,000 aeroplanes, on which he commented: "Therefore, in 2-!- months of fighting the Russians have, so to speak, received from the Germans, or, if you prefer, have taken from the Germans, more than they have received from Britain and the United States in 20 months."

Whilst the supplies reaching the Soviet from her allies have been considerable, nevertheless the U.S.S.R. has not only had, so far, to provide the man-power for the bulk of the fighting but also provided from their own industry the overwhelming majority of the machines and munitions necessary to wage modern war.

(38) What are the Supply Routes to Russia?

M AIN route from this country is the northern route to Murmansk (open all the year round) and Archangel

(ice-bound during the winter). The convoy' on this route have been the special object of attention by U-boats, lind no tribute could be too high to the heroism of the men who man these ships. The losses in ships, men and material has been high, but large quantities of material have got through.

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Another important route has been through Persia to the Caucasus. Quantities of goods sent from U.S.A. have taken the long route (14,500 miles) from New York, round the Cape, to Basra, into Persia. Other supplies from the States go on the 5,000 mile trans-Pacific route Seattle (or San Francisco). In addition two air-routes much used for Soviet-American com­munication and supplies are: Via Alaska, and from New York, via Natal (Brazil), and across the west coast of Africa to the southern parts of the U.S.S.R.

Supplies to China, and from China to the U.S.S.R., travel the Sinkiang Road. China gets considerable quantities of material from the U.S.S.R., and sends goods in return, such as tin and tungsten.

(39) What is the U.S.S.R.?

THE Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is a federation of 16 republics, founded in December 1922 by a treaty of

union between the four original repUblics: The Russian federa­tion, the Transcaucasian republic, the Ukrainian republic, and the Belorussian republic. It is governed today by the Constitution adopted in 1936, and known throughout the Union as the Stalin Constitution.

Its parliament is called the Supreme Soviet- the word " Soviet" simply meaning Council. It is divided into two houses: The Council of the Union, which like the British House of Commons is elected from geographical constituencies, but which unlike the British House of Commons has very large con­stituencies of approximately 300,000 electors apiece. The second chamber is called the Council of Nationalities, in which each union republic has equal representation, as do the smaller autonomous republics and regions. All elections are direct and secret; all persons over 18 have a vote apart from persons deprived of the rights of citizenship by a specific court's verdict. The Supreme Soviet is governed by a presidium, of which the chairman is Mikhail Kalinin, who is the head of the Soviet State, to whom foreign ambassadors present their credentials and who exchanges greetings and messages with the heads (the kings and presidents) of other States. The presidium acts as the Supreme Council between sessions.

Finally, there is a Cabinet, known as the Council of Peoples Commissars, with all the usual posts, and in addition, other

28

Commissariats governing industry. There are in all 43 Com­missariats of which 24 deal with industrial production. The Federal Government in U.S.S.R. has control of the foreign affairs, defence, transport, and major industries of the whole Union. The constituent republics to whom belongs the right of secession have control over local industry, justice, education and public health.

(40) What are the Nations of the U.S.S.R.?

THE population of the Soviet Union is composed of 175 distinct nationalities, of whom 72 per cent. are Slavs,

and, to subdivide, again 58 per cent. are Russians. The total population in 1941 was 193 million, of whom 109 million lived in the Russian Federative RepUblic, 39 million in the Ukraine, and lOt million in Belorussia.

The non-Slav popUlation is extremely varied. It includes Karelians, Fiuns, Esthonians, Mariis, Mordvinians, Uzbeks, Turkmenians, Assetians, Tadjiks, Kazakhs, Kirghizians, Lat­vians, Lithuanians, Armenians, Georgians, Jews, and many others.

Each of the 16 major nationalities is represented by one of the Union Republics. Nineteen smaller national groups are organised as Autonomous Republics in the larger republics (15 in the Russian Republic, 1 in the Uzbek RepUblic, 2 in the Georgian Republic, and 1 in the Azerbaidjan Republic); 19 more, including the Jews, have autonomous regions (of which there are 9) or autonomous districts, of which there are 10, in which their languages are used in courts and the schools. All these are represented in the Council of Nationalities. The rights of all nationalities are protected and racial discrimination is the subject of heavy penalties. Everything is done to preserve the cultural tradition of the various component nationalities, which in many cases have had no written language hitherto, have had one provided for them by Soviet language experts.

(41) How do the Nationalities Participate in the War?

E ACH plays an equal part, no matter how far the territories may be from the front. All are represented in the armed

forces and there are few of the nationalities which do nQt

29

have high ranking officers among their number. Particularly noteworthy is the case of Gen. Lev Dovotar, the Jewish Com­mander of a Cossack Cavalry division, who was decorated for his part in the defence of Moscow. He was killed in action a few weeks later. In Czarist days the Cossacks were a specially favoured section of the community who were used for sup­pressing popular discontent and in carrying out pograms. That a Jew should be accepted as the dashing leader of Cossack horsemen is an indication of the way in which 25 years of Soviet Socialism has broken down national barriers. Before the war, Red Army units were of mixed nationalities, but now where possible Red Army men are put into units among their own people, so that traditions, customs and language ties will not be broken, and the feeling of national self-defence will be developed.

Behind the lines all the peoples co-operate in producing for the war. A majority of the oil comes from the Caucasus and is produced by the peoples of Transcaucasia. Cotton is grown and spun by the people of the central Asiatic republics. The fields of Cazakatan are now producing a large part of the country's bread. The Khakassian farmers of Siberia were the originators of the "acres of friendship" movement to plant extra seed crops to give to the farmers returning to the liberated areas. Expression was given to the feeling of the non-Russian peoples of the U.S.S.R. by A. Abdurakhmanov, the Prime Minister of the Uzbek Republic, when he said: "Everything in our republic has been subordinated to the requirements of the country's war effort. The industrial plants erected during the five-year plan have been switched from peacetime needs to the manufacture of armaments, munitions and equipment ....

"In the grim days of war the friendship binding the peoples of the U.S.S.R., which is based on mutual confidence and respect and on fraternal solidarity, has become stronger than ever. It could not have been otherwise, for it has been this friendship that has raised formerly oppressed people and has promoted their rapid advance along the path of progress."

(42) What Wartime Changes were made in the Government?

N INE days after the Nazi invasion a State Committee of Defence was established, in whose hands was concen­

trated the full power of government. The Committee originally 30

consisted of J. Stalin, Chairman; V. M. Molotov, Vice-Chair­man; K. E. Voroshilov; G. M. Malenkov; and L. P. Beria. Later, three more persons were added to the list: L. M. Kaganovich, N. A. Voznesensky, and A. 1. Mikoyan.

Although this Committee has been the directing body in wartime, the other regular government organs have continued to function. Decrees are issued by the presidium of the Supreme Council, and the Supreme Council itself has been brought together for the ratification of the Anglo-Soviet Mutual Assistance Pact and other business. However, the regular meet­ings of the Supreme Council were suspended and elections scheduled for December 1941 were postponed.

(43) How are Bureaucrats Treated?

THE following short paragraph from the Moscow newspaper Pravda will show:-"For her bureaucratic and heartless treatment of the

families of men serving in the armed forces, 1. P. Grishakova has been dismissed from her post of Commissar for Social Welfare in the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. Her place has been taken by Sukhov, vice-president of the Council of Peoples' Commissars of the R.S.F.S.R."

(44) What is Stalin's Position?

JOSEPH STALIN is Chairman of the Council of Peoples' Commissars, or Premier. He is Chairman of the State

Committee of Defence of the U.S.S.R., which is the principal directing body in wartime. On July 20th 1941 he was also appointed Defence Commissar by the presidium of the Supreme Soviet, replacing Timoshenko, who became a vice-Commissar. In February, 1943, Stalin was appointed a Marshal of the Soviet Union. In addition, he is an elected deputy from Moscow to the Supreme Soviet and a member of its presidium.

His position in the Communist Party is that of Secretary of the Central Committee and a member of its Political Bureau. Stalin has personally taken charge of the operations in the field and a more detailed explanation of his position in regard to the Red Army is contained in the pamphlet, The Red Army at War: 50 Questions Answered, by Ivor Montagu, which is published by the Russia Today Society at 6d.

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(45) What is the Communist Party of the Soviet Union?

IT is a political organisation which has 4,610,000 members and candidates for membership. Three-quarters of a

million of this number have joined since June 1941. The Communist Party came into existence in 1903 and its aim is the establishment of Communism in the U.S.S.R. Communism is a system under which all the means of production are owned in common, and production and the individual sense of social responsibility are so highly developed that it would be possible to distribute products on the basis of: From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.

The stage of Communism has not been reached yet in the Soviet Union, but Socialism has. Socialism is a transitional stage and was reached by 1936 and crystallised in the Stalin Constitution.

Under Socialism also, the means of production are owned in common, but distribution is according to quantity and quality of work performed by each individual.

In March 1917 the Tsar was overthrown, but the Govern­ment that took his place was unable to meet the needs of the people. On November 7th 1917 the workers of Russia, led by the Bolsheviks-as the Communists were then known-turned out the Government, and took power into their own hands. The Congress of Soviets of Workers, Peasants and Soldiers' Depnties approved this action, and elected the Soviet Govern­ment, which has led the peoples of the U.S.S.R. from triumph to triumph since.

The triumphs of the Soviet Government in peace and war are due to the leadership of the Communist Party, which knew that although power had been won the struggle was not ended, and Socialism was not something that could be ushered in over­night. The Party and the Government set to work to combat the enemies of their country, both internal and external, to raise production, which had fallen to disastrously low levels, to make the country strong, and to make the people happy and prosperous.

The Communist Party is the only political party existing in the Soviet Union, but on all elective bodies, from the Supreme Soviet to the smallest village Soviet, there is a considerable proportion of non-Communists, generally described in the Soviet Press as non-Party Bolsheviks. At the last elections to the

32

Supreme Soviet, 870 Communist, and 273 non-Party Bolsheviks were elected.

The growth of the Communist Party in the course of this war has been phenomenal, as the following quotation from Pravda shows:-

"During the year of war between July 1st 1941 and July 1st 1942, 751,895 joined the Party-three times as many as in the year preceding .... The moral influence of the Communist Party, its prestige and authority among the people, have grown as never before. The Soviet people see that on the battlefield, and in the rear, in the factories, on the railways, in the countryside, the Bolsheviks devote all their efforts, their whole life, to the struggle against the invaders.

"Since the outbreak of war, hundreds of thousands of soldiers, airmen and tankmen, sailors, artillerymen and infantrymen, who have proved on the battlefield their loyalty to the great cause of the Party of Lenin and Stalin, have joined the Party."

(46) What are the Avenues for Criticism in the U.S.S.R. ?

IN the introduction to a latest of their monumental work, Soviet Communism, Beatrice and Sidney Webb say:

"Tested by the Constitution of the Soviet Union as revised and enacted in 1936, the U.S.S.R. is the most inclusive and equalised democracy in the world."

This democracy expresses itself in a wide and free discussion of every aspect of Soviet life and organisation ranging through the Press from the great organs of Moscow and Leningrad to the smallest regional newspapers. Every aspect of life and politics is discussed in works committees, in great factory meet­ings, on collective farms and ih the forces.

Millions of farmers and worker correspondents fill the columns of the newspapers with critical discussions, aiming at the correction of mistakes, and the further improvement of what is already being done well. If they think a factory manager or a chairman of a Soviet is not doing his job well or to the best interests of the community, they will, unhesitatingly, send

33

in letters of CrIticism pointing out the evils and showing how they can be corrected.

Every enterprise has its wall newspapers in which the same freedom of discussion is encouraged. And when the new Con­stitution was inaugurated it was preceded by a nation-wide discussion in every organisation and every economic unit throughout the land. No less than 100 thousand amendments were sent in to the Constitution commission which had prepared the original draft. The freedom of discussion is reflected in Soviet literature and the Soviet theatre. Never has there been in any country more effective satire than that of I1f and Petrov in their novels, The Little Golden Calf and Diamonds to Sit On, or in the short stories of Zoshchenko.

In the theatre, one of the most successful war plays is entitled The Front, which prods those Soviet generals who refuse to learn and keep reminding their comrades-in-arms of their glorious past deeds when their lack of understanding of new weapons and new tactics comes to light.

Lastly, every deputy to the Supreme Soviet and to the local Soviets is liable to recall if he does not satisfy his constituents at the periodical reporting meetings. This right of recall was emphasised by Stalin himself in his election address in December 1937, in which he said: "My advice, the advice of a candidate to his electors, is to remember this right of the electors who recall the deputies before their term expires, to watch over their deputies, control them, and should they take it into their heads to swerve from the right path, to get rid of them, to demand the calling of new elections. The government is obliged to call new elections. My advice is to remember this law and make use of it if need be."

(47) What Changes Have There Been in the Economic Organisation?

V ERY few structural changes have been made. The industries are still run by plan, though the objectives of the five­

year plan, which was to be completed in 1942, has had to be scrapped. The former chairman of the State Planning Com­mittee and pre-war Vice-Premier for Economic Affairs, Nikolai Voznesensky, is on the State Defence Committee, and figures are released from time to time indicating plan fulfilment. One or two changes in the industrial commissariat have been

34

made, as conversion to war production took place, e.g., the Medium Machine Building Commissariat was changed to the Commissariat of the Tank Industry. .

The most important wartime changes have been the rapid and total conversion from non-war industries; the evacuation of industry to the East and consequent acceleration of eastern industrialisation; and the stimulation of local industries in the local consumers needs.

In line with this has been the expansion of producers' co-operatives in many rural areas to supply manufactured goods from local raw materials. These are, in many cases, linked to collective farms. Before the war such co-operatives manufactured a fifth of the country's consumers' goods.

(48) How is the War Financed?

THE largest standard tax in the U.S.S.R. is the turnover tax on industry and State and co-operative trade. In the

budget for 1941 this tax was estimated to produce 124,500 million roubles out of a total estimated revenue of 216,840 million roubles. The tax, which is levied at source, ranges from 0.5 to 2 per cent. There is also a tax on the profits of industrial enterprises, which was estimated to produce 31,000 million roubles in 1941. The main taxation on agriculture takes the form of fixed deliveries-in-kind at prices below the market price. In addition, there is an income tax of 8 per cent. on the produce of collective farms in excess of the deliveries. The industrial worker pays three taxes, of which the war tax is a special levy imposed in January 1942. On an annual wage of 1,800 roubles he pays an income tax of 14.4 roubles, a cultural tax of 12.6 roubles, and a special war tax of 120 roubles. A worker earning 4,300 roubles a year pays an income tax of 172 roubles, a cultural tax of 150.5 roubles, and a war tax of 360 roubles. Collective farmers pay personal income tax only on the produce of their own small kitchen gardens (see Question 27), but they are now paying the war tax based on earnings.

Individual farmers and artisans pay taxes at a much higher rate. The war tax is paid by all citizens from the age of 18 and there are no exemptions for dependents. There is an addi­tional tax of 5 per cent. on unmarried and childless citizens. There is a general exemption from taxation for those ia the services, and pensioners (both invalid and old age). Apart

35

from the war tax, there are other tax reductions for those with two or more dependants.

Government bonds (interest bearing and prize-winning) have been issued annually by tbe U.S.S.R. for many years. On April 13th 1942, a ten tbousand million rouble loan was floated and ten days later it was over-subscribed. Income from these bonds is tax free. Shortly prior to the floating of this loan a Defence Fund had been launched; by April 1st, 2,300 million roubles in cash and 2,000 million in bonds, gold and other valuables had been donated to the government. The money was used on war production, by tbe Red Cross and for comforts for the troops. The world was startled to see the prosperity of individual citizens. Many collective farmers gave personal donations up to 100,000 roubles. To this fund tbe priests and churches have also contributed liberally.

Typical of the letters received by Stalin from priests was one from Alexander Troitsky, priest of the Shubinsk parish in the Molotov region, who wrote:-

"From the first day of the great patriotic war I called upon the parishioners of the church to help the Red Army . . . . . Already at that time the believers contributed 20,000 roubles, and out of my own savings I contributed 30,000 roubles for the defence needs of the Fatherland.

"Now, following tbe example set by the patriots of our Fatherland, I have decided to acquire an aeroplane for the Red Army out of my own savings and am contributing 100,000 roubles towards this great cause. I have already handed over 50,000 roubles to the State Bank, and I will pay in the remaining 50,000 roubles by January 15th 1943." From every grade of Soviet citizen has this kind of response

come.

(49) What Has Happened to the Governments of the Occupied Republics?

THE governments of the occupied republics were evacuated and now operate from Moscow. They are in close touch

with guerrilla activities in their areas and tbe activities of tbeir national divisions in the Army. They broadcast to their people giving them news about the war and their armies and building up their morale with information on what they can do to speed the defeat of the enemy. When their nationals are decorated, it is the representatives of the republic governments tbat issue

36

the rewards. On September 15th 1942, one of these repre­sentatives, the chairman of the presidium of the Supreme Soviet in the Latvian republic, Dr. A. Kirchenstein, was awarded the Order of Lenin on the occasion of his 70th birthday.

(50) What Organisations in Britain are Working for British-Soviet Friendship?

THE oldest of such societies is the Russia Today Society, founded at the end of 1927, for the purpose of spreading

knowledge about the Soviet Union, counteracting slanders directed against it and building up friendship between the two countries. It has branches in all the main towns of Britain and organises a great deal of activity in the form of public meetings, film shows, social events, etc. Before the war, it organised three delegations a year to visit the Soviet Union, and many tourist parties.

It publishes its monthly magazine, Russia Today, and a fortnightly News-letter, as well as many pamphlets and books. Its head office is situated at 150, Southampton Row, W.C.1.

Other existing organisations include the National Council for British-Soviet Unity, whose address is 101, Abbey House, Victoria Street, S.W.1. This body federates the activities of the various British-Soviet Committees set up throughout the country and other organisations existing for the purposes of fostering friendship with the U.S.S.R.

The Society for Cultural Relations with the U.S.S.R. is to be found at 98, Gower Street, W.C. This organisation does invaluable work in spreading a knowledge of Soviet cultural achievements in this country, and prior to the war organised many parties of doctors, scientists, and artists to study similar work in the U.S.S.R. It publishes the Anglo-Soviet Journal every quarter, price 2s.

Other organisations include the British-Soviet Youth Alliance, of 104, Wigmore Street, London, W., and the Anglo-Soviet Public Relations, of 30, Maiden Lane, London, W.C.2.

(51) What are the Best Books on the U.S.S.R.?

P RIDE of place must go to Soviet Communism, by Beatrice and Sidney Webb, published by Longmans in two volumes

at a guinea. There are so many others which can be highly recommended

37

that any selection must be highly invidious. Nevertheless, the following represent a good selection which is also varied in character: -

Landmarks in the Life of Stalin, by E. Yaroslavsky (Lawrence ~ Wishart, 5s.).

Mission to Moscow, by Joseph E. Davies (Gollancz, 16s.). The Socialist Sixth of the WorlJ, by the Dean of Canterbury

(Gollancz, 4s. 6d.). From Czardom to the Stalin Constitution, by W. P. Coates

(Allen & Unwin, lOs. 6d.). English Woman in U.S.S.R., by Violet Lansbury (Putnam,

7s. 6d.). Russia at War, by Erskine Caldwell (Hutchinson, 5s.). Children ill the U.S.S.R., by Deana Levin (Faber, 6s.). Soviet Ecollomy in the War, by Maurice Dobb (Routledge, 3s.). Soviet Planning alld Labour, by Maurice Dobb (Routledge,

4s.). Soviet Caucasus, by D. Tutaeff (Harrap, 8s. 6d.). The Ukraine and Its People, by H. P. Vowles (Chambers,

2s. 6d.). Russia in Peace and War, by Pat Sloan (Pilot Press, 6s.). Salute the Soviet, by Mrs. Cecil Chesterton (Chapman & Hall,

. ISs.). The Soviet Theatre, by Joseph McLeod (Allen & Unwin,

12s. 6d.).

In addition, there are many cheap booklets and pamphlets among which special mention should be made of: The SoViet Constitution (R.T.D., 4d.); Salute the British-Soviet Alliance (R.T.D., 3d.); Religion in the U.S.S.R. (R.T.D., 3d.); The Theatre is Our Weapon (R.T.D., 6d.); Friends of the U.S.S.R. (R.T.D., 6d.); Russia's Enemies in Britain (Lawrence & Wishart, Is.); Atlas of the U.S.S.R. (Oxford U.P., 4d.); Rights of a Soviet Citizen (N.C.B.S.U., 2d.); Soviet Literature, Art and Music (Practical Press, Is. 3d.), and Soviet Science (Watts, Is. 3d.).

38

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