reducing rubbish and recycling refuse ...... contents page synopsis 5 1. introduction 6 2. waste...

ELECTRONIC VERSION - REFER TO HARD COPY FOR SOME TABLES

WASTE MANAGEMENT

REDUCING RUBBISH and RECYCLING REFUSE

BACKGROUND INFORMATION BRIEF NO 22

JOHN E.S. McCULLOCH & ROBERT TROEDSON

QUEENSLAND PARLIAMENTARY LIBRARYPublications and Resources Section

BRISBANEOctober 1991

2

© Queensland Parliamentary Library, 1991

Copyright protects this publication. Except for purposes permitted bythe Copyright Act 1968, reproduction by whatever means isprohibited, other than by Members of the Queensland Parliament inthe course of their official duties, without the prior written permissionof the Parliamentary Librarian, Queensland Parliamentary Library.

Inquiries should be addressed to: Director, Research Publications &Resources, Queensland Parliamentary Library, Parliament House,George Street, Brisbane. Director: Ms Mary Seefried. (Tel: 3406 7116)

Information about Research Publications can be found on the Internetat:

http://www.parliament.qld.gov.au/library/research/index.html

CONTENTS

PAGE

SYNOPSIS 5

1. INTRODUCTION 6

2. WASTE MINIMISATION 10

3. RECYCLING 12

3.1 Introduction 12

3.2 Definitions 12

3.3 How does recycling work? 12

3.3.1 The recycling network 12

3.3.2 The collection of recyclable materials 14

3.3.3 Promoting recycling schemes 19

3.3.4 The extent of recycling 23

3.4 Why recycle? 24

3

3.4.1 Why local authorities become involved 24

3.4.2 Recycling and the environment 30

3.4.3 Recycling to conserve resources 34

3.5 What can be recycled? 35

3.5.1 Paper 35

3.5.2 Metal 40

3.5.3 Glass 43

3.5.4 Plastic 48

3.5.5 Other 50

3.5.5.1 Oil 50

3.5.5.2 Waste water 53

3.5.5.3 Sewage sludge 54

3.5.5.4 Tyres 55

3.5.5.5 Road and building waste 56

3.5.5.6 Chemicals 57

3.5.5.7 Food scraps and garden waste 58

3.5.5.8 Agricultural waste 58

3.6 Neutralysis 61

4. WASTE TREATMENT 63

4.1 Introduction 63

4.2 Thermal Processes 63

4.2.1 Mass combustion 63

4.2.2 Refuse - derived fuel 64

4.2.3 Fluidised bed combustion 64

4

4.2.4 Pyrolysis 65

4.3 Physical Treatment 65

4.4 Biological Treatment 66

5. WASTE DISPOSAL 68

6. LEGISLATION 71

6.1 Queensland 71

6.2 New South Wales 71

6.3 Victoria 72

6.4 Tasmania 73

6.5 South Australia 74

6.6 Western Australia 74

6.7 Federal 75

7. CONCLUSION 76

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 77

9. GLOSSARY 87

10. INDEX 88

5

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Synopsis

With the recent controversies surrounding the Rochedale dump site in Brisbaneand the pollution of Sydney beaches caused by pumping untreated sewage intothe sea, it is timely to address the whole question of waste management inAustralia.

At the present time Australia has the dubious reputation of being second onlyto the United States as the world's greatest throw-away society per head ofpopulation. Most of our garbage in this country is buried in landfill sites, muchof the remainder is burned, and only a small fraction is recycled.

By world standards this is not a good record. Japan and some Europeancountries, driven by more acute landfill shortages, recycle around 40% of allwaste, and in some countries recycling has been made mandatory.

However, although it is technically possible to recycle around 80% of allhousehold garbage, market prices tend to dictate what may and may not berecycled. Only about 20% has direct commercial value at the present time,though this will doubtless increase as recycling technology improves.

The argument that a large empty country like Australia has endless landfillspace, while physically true, is certainly not politically sustainable. Withheightened public concern for the environment, as well as an awareness of thedangers inherent in uncontrolled waste desposal, resistance to the siting of anynew rubbish dump is almost inevitable.

This Background Information Brief is divided into two main sections - wastedisposal and waste recycling. However, chapters on waste minimisation andwaste treatment are also included, and there is a review of the relevantlegislation in force around the country.

An extensive bibliography, a glossary, and an index are included.

6

1. INTRODUCTION

Human activity inevitably produces wastes. These could be simply defined asitems unwanted by their owner that cannot be readily sold or given away tosomeone else. Throughout history, the basic approach to waste has been todispose of it, and the methods have been dump, bury or burn, in combinationwith moving either the people or the disposal site if proximity of living anddisposal became too unpleasant.

In our era the fundamental limitations to this approach to waste have becomeunavoidably obvious. The growth of populations and the finite capacity of landand water to act as repositories for dumped or buried waste mean that we canno longer simply move our rubbish or ourselves somewhere else. We haverealised that the air too is finite and that discharging burnt, particulate orgaseous matter into it is not only discomforting but increasingly unhealthy. Tomake matters worse (or perhaps to bring them to a head!) our "sophisticated"lifestyle has enabled us to discard much that earlier generations would havereused.

Possibly even more threatening than limited disposal capacity, ourtechnological progress has altered the nature of the waste we produce toinclude chemicals and other products that are either poisonous or permanentor both. So we find that toxins we dump seep back into waterways and thosewe wash away return in the fish we eat. Other toxins we have to store for thefuture, but the hoped-for means of disposal remain elusive while the stockpilesgrow and the containers rust.

In the face of the obvious many changes are occurring. Waste is no longerbeing defined simply as unwanted or useless materials, but rather as those thatthe immediate owner cannot economically use and which cannot be disposed ofwithout taking into account the true costs of disposal. The implication is thatmany of these materials could become a resource for someone else.

Further, two new approaches have been added to the traditional dump, buryand burn, and a hierarchy of treatments has been conceived (Figure 1.1). Thefirst new approach, at the top of the hierarchy, is waste minimisation, whichincludes methods of avoiding or at least minimising the creation of waste in thefirst place. The second is recycling, which includes the household conceptsthat our grandparents knew such as composting, reuse and repair, but isexpanded to include industrial processing of materials that is impossible withinhouseholds. As well, the old approaches (dump, bury and burn) have beenrefined so that a range of technologies is available to lessen their impact whenthey still cannot be avoided.

7Figure 1.1 A Strategy for Waste Management

Waste PreventionProduct substitutionNon production of material

Source ReductionProduct formulation

Waste Process modification Present Minimisation Equipment redesign Emphasis

RecyclingMaterial sortingMaterials separation physical chemical biologicalMaterials re-definingNew product development

TreatmentThermal destruction incineration Higher pyrolysis Technology wet air oxidationChemical destruction chemical oxidation

chemical reduction absorptionPhysical precipitation filtration evaporation condensation PastBiological Emphasis aerobic anaerobic

DisposalLandfillResiduals Repository

Source: Hubick, Kerry. Management and Technologies of Wastes, A Perspective - Australia 1990. p.3.

8

The degree of change is such that new terminology is required. The age of wastedisposal (as a primary concept) is over, that of waste management has arrived. Itwould be helpful to have a precise definition of these terms, but many varyingdefinitions have been published. Even the term "waste" has a range of descriptionsdepending on the context in which it is used.

Among the simple definitions available for "waste" are the following:

"Expendable or useless remains".1

"Unavoidable materials for which there is no economic demand and for whichdisposal is required" 2

"Any matter (whether of value or not) discarded or left over in the course ofindustrial, commercial, domestic or other activities" (Waste Management Act 1987[South Australia]).

However, legislative definitions are usually more restricted and in the SouthAustralian Act quoted above, sewage, mining, radioactive, smoke and gaseouswastes are specifically excluded from the definition.

Definitions are also available for several of the more common categories of waste. Solid waste is a term that is sometimes used for municipal wastes and sometimesfor virtually all wastes, for example, "any garbage, refuse, sludge from a wastetreatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air-pollution control facility andother discarded material, including solid, liquid, semisolid or contained gaseousmaterial resulting from industrial, commercial, mining and agricultural operations,and from community activities".3

In Australia, the term solid waste is generally used to include domestic and non-hazardous industrial waste, in five categories outlined by Moore (1990)4:

(ii) domestic soft waste(ii) domestic hard waste (furniture, garden trimmings)(iii) non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste(iv) demolition waste(v) council waste (non-domestic)

Hazardous wastes may be simply defined as chemicals, or mixtures of chemicals,that present a risk to people or the environment, and that the producer or user hasno further use for and wishes to discard.5 A more technical definition was published 1 O'Gallagher, Brian. Waste Management Technologies. Opportunities for Research and

Manufacturing in Australia. p xiii.

2 Australian Chemical Industry Council. Quoted by Hubick, Kerry. Management andTechnologies of Waste, A Perspective - Australia 1990. p.1.

3 U.S. Congress. Office of Technology Assessment (1989). Quoted by Hubick, Kerry. ibid,p.11.

4 Moore, S. (1990). Quoted by Hubick, Kerry. ibid, p.13.

5 Withers, Sonia (Comp). Safety in Hazardous Wastes. p.13.

9in a report by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) presented to the USCongress in 1973. Hazardous waste was defined as:

"any waste or combination of wastes which pose a substantial present or potentialhazard to human health or living organisms because such wastes are lethal,nondegradable, persistent in nature, biologically magnified, or otherwise cause ortend to cause detrimental cumulative effects. General categories of hazardous wasteare toxic chemical, flammable, radioactive, explosive and biological. These wastescan take the form of solids, sludges, liquids or gases."6

Intractable wastes are a special category of hazardous wastes, for which there areno available means of safe disposal. These include some highly toxic chemicals andradioactive materials.

Waste management has been defined as "the control or management of ... wastesusing technological solutions".7 This Background Information Brief explores theconcepts, methods, problems and promise of the emerging technology of wastemanagement in our post throw-away era. The BIB is structured on the hierarchy ofapproaches given in Figure 1.1, however they are not mutually exclusive and manyoverlaps will be apparent. For example, waste treatment may produce somematerials for recycling and others for disposal.

6 USA Environmental Protection Agency. Quoted by Dawson, Gaynor W. and Mercer,

Basil W. Hazardous Waste Management. p.49.

7 O'Gallagher, Brian. Waste Management Technologies. Opportunities for Research andManufacturing in Australia p.1.

10

2. WASTE MINIMISATION

The term "waste minimisation" is used here to include the concepts of avoidingand/or reducing the amount of waste produced at source. These are the top twoapproaches of the waste management hierarchy. In 1989 waste reduction wasdescribed as "the environmental ethic of the next decade".8 These concepts do notimply an idealistic hope that all waste production will ultimately cease, rather theextremely practical concept that any reduction in the source production of wastelessens the amount that ultimately has to be managed in some way.

All waste management investigations ("audits") should firstly consider whether anywaste production can be avoided, reduced, or replaced by alternative materials thatare easier to manage, before considering methods of managing waste that isproduced. Dow Chemical Company has developed a waste minimisation programtermed WRAP (Waste Reduction Always Pays). For each process being examined,all sources of waste are identified and prioritised, and goals and procedures forwaste reduction are determined according to those priorities. The company hasreported savings of millions of dollars in various individual industrial processes.9

The Victorian Environmental Protection Authority has a Waste Minimisation TaskForce to assist in the implementation of the Government's waste minimisationpolicy. The Task Force promotes waste minimisation primarily by identifyingtechniques that are economically advantageous (ie. that make it cheaper to reducewaste production than to dispose of waste produced). However they also administerthe Clean Technology Incentive Scheme, which provides financial assistance in theform of interest-free loans for firms wishing to test or adopt innovative waste-reducing technologies.10

Examples of waste minimisation techniques include the following:

* Development of industrial processes that use alternative raw materials andso avoid toxic by-products, for example alternatives for cyanide andchromium in steel-making processes.

* Avoiding the mixing of various categories of waste, to facilitate the treatmentand possible recycling of each component.

* Improved precision and monitoring of industrial processes, to reduce surplusinputs and outputs such as off-cuts.

* Improved quality control, to reduce the number of items that are rejected andhave to be discarded or reprocessed.

8 Castledine, Judy. `Waste Minimisation - The Dow Experience'. Key Community Issues in

Hazardous Waste Management. p. 22.1.

9 Castledine, Judy. ibid. p.22.7.

10 Joy, Robert. `Waste Minimisation in Victoria, Policy and Future'. Key Community Issuesin Hazardous Waste Management. p.21.1.

11* Reduced weight or volume of packaging. Plastic PET (polyethylene

terephthalate) bottles, glass beer bottles, and cardboard containers all weighless now than when they were first introduced. Glass stubbies weighed 260 gin 1980 and 170 g in 1989, with further reductions planned.11

* Use of bio-degradable packaging. Experimental plastics made from starch(from cereals or potatoes) are potentially suitable for dry packaging, shoppingbags and the like, while those made from rapeseed oil can be used for bottlesand other containers of liquids.12

11 Hubick, Kerry. Management and Technologies of Waste, A Perspective -

Australia 1990 p.31.

12 Natural Plastic. New Scientist. 24 August 1991 p.16.

12

3. RECYCLING

3.1 Introduction

When the production of waste materials cannot be avoided, the best managementoption is to recycle them in some way. Recycling helps achieve the twin objectives ofthe conservation of virgin resources and the minimisation of landfill. We should notthink about recycling solely in terms of the paper, plastic, glass and metal that weare most familiar with. This section explores some of the complex issues involved inthe recycling debate, including a few of the more unusual recyclable materials.

3.2 Definitions

Two definitions of "recycling" are given. The first is a technical definition by BarrySmith, the Editor of Waste Management and Environment:

Technically speaking it could be argued that for something to berecycled it should be put to the same end-use. Recycled glass is usedfor the manufacture of new bottles, aluminium cans are recycled intoaluminium feedstock for the manufacture of more cans. PET thereforeisn't recycled, according to the definition, because it isn't used for theproduction of PET bottles the second time around. Paper could beconsidered as recycled when it is used for paper production, but is itrecycled when it ends up as cardboard?13

The second definition, and the one used in this paper, is taken from the IndustryCommission Report on recycling in Australia:

The recovery of used products and the reprocessing of materials backinto their original form or into new forms or products, and to the reuseof, products after cleaning or similar treatment.14

3.3 How does it work?

3.3.1 The recycling network

The following table shows how materials flow in the recycling network. Users havethe opportunity of dumping their used products into the waste management stream(disposal) or into the recycling stream (collection).

The recyclable materials are then sold to reprocessors or manufacturers (who maywell be one and the same), and manufacturers are then able to choose betweenvirgin or recycled materials for their finished products.

Exports and imports of both finished products and of recyclable materials form

13 Smith, Barry. `Recycling perhaps waste utilisation definitely'. Waste

Management and Environment. V.1 No.10, October 1990 p.22.

14 Industry Commission. `Recycling in Australia'. Report No.6, V.1, 22 February1991, p.17

13further links in the recycling network.15

TABLE 3.1 THE RECYCLING NETWORK

Source: Industry Commission. Recycling in Australia V.1 p.19.

15 ibid.

14

3.3.2 Collection of recyclable materials

The most convenient method of removing household recyclables is by kerbsidecollection. However, this may not be the most cost-effective method from thecollector's point of view, and it may be preferable for householders to take theirrecyclables to a central depot.

In 1990 the Willoughby City Council in Sydney conducted a trial to check on thewillingness of residents to separate recyclables from their garbage given varioustypes of containers in which to put the recyclable materials for collection. Containeralternatives used in the trial included wheelie-bins, stackable plastic crates (3 ofdifferent colours for paper and cardboard, glass, plastics and metal), 45 litre waxedcardboard boxes and large re-useable nylon bags.

The trial indicated a preference for the wheelie-bin with both participation and yieldbeing greatest for this system. Some of the reasons cited for this included theconvenience of use and ease of storage outside the house regardless of weatherconditions. The plastic crates were the next preferred method though they proved tohave insufficient capacity, were more difficult to handle and were open to theweather. In addition, there was a high loss rate during the trial. The nylon bagworked fairly well though there were a few problems from broken and sharpmaterials, and the bags became soggy and unpleasant to handle during rainyweather and had a limited life-span. The least popular were the cardboard boxeswhich proved too small and not durable enough.16

The following table shows the participation and yield rates in the Willoughby CityCouncil trial:

TABLE 3.2

16 Templeton, Jill. `Bins come out ahead in container recycling trial'.

Waste Management and Environment. V.1 No.10, October 1990 pp.26-27.

15Despite the fact that the big bins were so successful in this trial, the IndustryCommission found that their general use caused the collection of general refuse toincrease while the collection of recyclables actually decreased:

TABLE 3.3 EFFECT OF BIG BINS ON COLLECTION OF RECYCLABLESAND GENERAL REFUSE(percentages of Councils using big bins)

Regions

Collectionquantitiesunchanged

Collection ofrecyclables

increase decrease

Collection ofgeneral refuse

increase decrease

Sydney RegionInner N.S.W.Outer N.S.W.Melbourne regionInner VictoriaOuter VictoriaBrisbane regionOther QueenslandPerth regionOther West AustraliaAdelaide regionOther South AustraliaHobart regionOther TasmaniaAust. Capital TerritoryNorthern Territory

State capitals and ACTOther regions

Australia

%563650484050406763634500

100

100

5252

52

%8713130250111309000

0

108

9

%1643613131360111309

10000

0

1616

16

%4057195240382033383855

10000

0

4336

40

%406 07000000000

0

12

2

Source: Industry Commission, Recycling Report No.6, V.1 p.183.

The additional capacity of the big bins often acts as a disincentive for residents toparticipate in recycling schemes which were in operation prior to the introduction ofthe big bins. In fact, this issue was identified by a small number of councils as animportant factor leading to the rejection of big bins as a viable alternative to theirconventional garbage collection services.17

17 Australian Environment Council. Impact of big bins on waste management and

recycling p.14.

16

An analysis of big bin usage by State, population and dwelling is set out in Tables3.4 and 3.5.

TABLE 3.4 LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS USING BIG BINS

State Total Numberof Authorities

AuthoritiesUsing Big Bins Per Cent

N.S.W. 175 48 27

VIC.(1) 210 25 12

QLD.(1) 134 10 7

W.A. 139 23 17

TAS. 47 0 0

N.T. 7 1 14

S.A.(1) 124 10 8

Total 836 117 14(2)

(1) Incomplete information provided by these States.(2) Weighted average.

TABLE 3.5 DWELLINGS SERVICED BY BIG BINS

State

Total No. ofBig Bins in

use (1)

TotalPopulation

(2)

Number ofDwellings

(3)

% ofDwellingsUsing Big

Bins

N.S.W. 717,710 5,581,300 1,662,758 43.2

VIC. 316,350 4,188,300 1,238,945 25.6

S.A. 30,023 1,378,900 432,136 6.9

QLD. 410,656 2,616,300 698,232 58.8

W.A. 152,608 1,458,700 403,600 37.8

N.T. 6,400 150,300 29,049 22.0

TAS. 0 448,600 135,598 0

A.C.T. 0 267,600 68,591 0

Total 1,633,747 16,090,000 4,668,909 35.0(4)

(1) 1986 Statistics courtesy of Sulo MGB Australia(2) 1987 (ABS)(3) 1981 Census (ABS)(4) Weighted average

Source: Australian Environment Council, Impact of big bins on waste management andrecycling p.4.

17

The Industry Commission sent out questionnaires to 447 of the 833 LocalGovernment Councils in Australia in 1990 and received replies from 329. These 329Councils represented about 76% of Australia's population, which gives someindication that the final result was reliable.18

About 50% of the Councils are involved in the collection of recyclable materials fromhouseholds. Some provide central collection facilities while others pay contractorsfor kerbside collection schemes.19

The Australian community has become increasingly prepared to make recyclablesavailable for collection, and has shown a willingness to sort glass, newsprint, PETand aluminium cans. However, over the last couple of years this has led to suppliesof some materials such as newsprint far exceeding demand. Approximately 71% ofall waste collected by Councils around Australia comes from households, with thebalance coming from retail, commercial, industrial, and government premises. Thismay be then sorted to a greater or lesser extent to extract recyclables, dependingupon the policy of the particular Council.

The following chart indicates the sources of waste collected by Local GovernmentCouncils in 1989:

18 Industry Commission. Recycling in Australia Report No.6, V.1, 22 February 1991

p.35.

19 ibid. p.3.

18

TABLE 3.6 SOURCES OF WASTES COLLECTED BY COUNCILS, 1989

19

Collectors often provide appropriate containers at service stations or hotels for glassand aluminium cans, and some of the large paper manufacturers collect waste officepaper and newsprint from high rise office buildings in capital cities.20

3.3.3 Promoting recycling schemes

As indicated in the following table, some Local Government Councils activelypromote recycling in a variety of ways such as media advertising, information tohouseholders, and talks to schools.

20 ibid. p.60.

20

TABLE 3.7 COUNCILS PROMOTING RECYCLING AND MAIN METHODSOF PROMOTION, 1989 (Shares of Councils)

RegionMediaAdvertisement

Informationto house-holds

Talkstoschools

Assistanceto communityorganisations

Othermethods

Somepromotion(1)

Nopromotion

Sydney Region%53

%50

%26

% %45

%79

%21

Inner NSW 14 5 10 5 33 38 62

Outer NSW 22 9 13 25 53 47

MelbourneRegion

48 52 5 5 67 93 7

Inner Victoria 42 31 12 4 38 65 35

Outer Victoria 57 48 14 5 24 71 29

BrisbaneRegion

57 14 14 14 71 100

OtherQueensland

14 9 3 9 23 34 66

Perth Region 38 14 5 33 62 38

Other WestAustralia

11 11 89

Adelaide Region 9 13 30 48 52

Other SouthAustralia

12 6 29 24 76

Hobart Region 20 20 60 60 40

Other Tasmania 8 8 17 83

Aust. CapitalTerritory

100 100 100

NorthernTerritory

100

State capitalsand ACT

40 36 10 2 49 76 24

Other regions 23 15 8 3 24 42 58

Australia 30 24 9 3 35 57 43

(1) The percentage undertaking some promotion in each region is less than the sum of thepercentages using each method. This is because many Councils use more than one method ofpromotion.


21

There is a wide divergence, however, in the amount of money spent by individualCouncils. Some of them, especially those in the Melbourne and Sydney regions,spend very substantial amounts as the following table shows:

TABLE 3.8 COUNCIL EXPENDITURE ON PROMOTION, 1989 (1)

Region Totalexpenditure

Average expenditure:(2)per Council per person

Sydney regionInner NSWOuter NSWMelbourne regionInner VictoriaOuter VictoriaBrisbane regionOther QueenslandPerth RegionOther West AustraliaAdelaide regionOther South AustraliaHobart regionOther TasmaniaAust. Capital TerritoryNorthern Territory


Australia

$'000214191928178275939295

1141

600

655191

846

$'0005

<1<151

<17

<11

<1<1<1<1

60

4<1

1

cents622997533111

<1

22

61

4

(1) Some Councils reported nil expenditure for their promotional activities, on the basis that anyoutlay could not be separated from other expenditure. For example, many Councils distributedliterature to householders which contained information on a variety of matters besides theCouncil recycling scheme. For this reason, values given may underestimate actual expenditure.


Despite these efforts, however, and the fact that substantial recycling is occurring, itstill represents a mere 3% of Australia's waste:

22

TABLE 3.9

23

Materials such as aluminium beverage cans are very easy and cost effective torecycle, and this is reflected in a high recovery rate of 62%. This contrasts withpaper and aluminium (about 33%) and glass (25%) which are not quite so costeffective to reprocess.21

3.3.4 Extent of Recycling

The following table details by class of material the extent of recycling in Australia:

21 Ibid. p.1

24

3.4 Why recycle?

3.4.1 Why Local Government Councils become involved

Many councils have included recycling as an integral part of their wastemanagement strategy. For some the sale of recyclables is a source of revenue, forothers the main reason is to conserve landfill space or reduce pollution, and for mosta compelling motive is the pressure of community demands.

The following table shows the main reasons for Local Government Councils tobecome involved in recycling schemes:

25

TABLE 3.11SHARES OF COUNCILS INVOLVED IN RECYCLING ANDMAIN REASONS FOR INVOLVEMENT 1989

Region

Share ofCouncilsinvolved inrecycling

meetcommunitydemands

decrease costof wastemanagement

Main reason for involvement:(1)

other

save naturalresources

reducepollution

increaserevenue

% % % % % % %

Sydney region 86 29 45 18 8 - -

Inner NSW 63 45 27 27 - - -

Outer NSW 74 26 28 15 25 - 6

Melbourneregion

93 38 26 26 2 - 8

Inner Victoria 90 22 31 27 7 12 2

Outer Victoria 68 33 18 18 15 3 15

Brisbane region 75 50 - 33 - - 17

OtherQueensland

37 23 16 27 14 - 20

Perth region 85 35 30 20 15 - -

Other WestAustralia

51 8 19 - 72 - -

Adelaide region 57 50 - 25 19 6 -

Other SouthAustralia

32 20 15 45 - 20 -

Hobart region 100 43 29 29 - - -

Other Tasmania 33 23 8 31 31 - 8

Aust. CapitalTerritory

100 - 100 - - - -

State capitalsand ACT

83 37 28 23 7 1 4

Other regions 55 24 22 22 21 4 7

Australia 61 28 24 22 16 3 7

(1) Shares by reason for involvement are of Councils involved in recycling only, not allCouncils. Many of the Councils involved in recycling did not provide estimates of thequantities of recyclable materials collected. The share of Councils actively involved inrecycling might, therefore, be less than 61 per cent. Percentages may not add due torounding.


Besides the obvious benefit of conserving scarce landfill space, an increasingnumber of Councils are finding a use for some recyclable materials. Many areundertaking the crushing of bricks and concrete and then using the crushedmaterial in road works. Others are composting vegetable scraps and garden refuseand then using it as mulch in municipal parks and gardens. Some, like the City of

26

Marion in South Australia have depots where householders can deposit gardenwaste in exchange for mulch or chippings.22

Several Councils justified their involvement in recycling through reductions inwaste disposal costs. Obviously the more that they are able to recycle the less theyhave to dump, and as the following table reveals, disposal charges per tonne areoften very high.

22 Ibid. p.66

27

TABLE 3.12 COUNCIL DISPOSAL CHARGES AND LIFE OF CURRENTLANDFILL SITES

CHARGESCURRENT SITE LIFE

Total Remaining1988 1989 1990 (At 1 January 1990)

$ per tonne yearsSYDNEY WMA Councils Commercial via Transfer Stations(TS) Councils Commercial

10.8010.80

25.4025.40

13.0016.00

30.5037.50

14.5018.00

32.0039.00

18 8

MELBOURNE Berwick Councils Commercial via Nunawading TS Whittlesea Councils Commercial via Heidelberg TS

2.857.00

22.50

6.709.90

21.00

2.128.50

30.00

8.1012.1524.00

3.5016.0045.00

13.5016.9031.00

11

4

3

2

BRISBANE Brisbane City Council Commercial

9.00 21.00 17.00

15 3

PERTH Redhill Councils Commercial via Bayswater TS Brockway Councils Commercial

9.0010.0030.00

1.4512.50

10.0012.5032.50

1.4512.50

10.0012.5032.50

1.4512.50

20

20

10

2

ADELAIDE Pedler Creek Councils Commercial

5.206.50

5.607.20

6.308.00

28 15

HOBART McRobies Gully (charges set but yet to be implemented) 45 30CANBERRA Council na 9.70 10.10

21 8


28

Besides the obvious saving in landfill and other disposal methods, recycling schemescan sometimes generate reasonable income for Councils as indicated below:

TABLE 3.13 SAVINGS FROM RECYCLING, 1989

Outlays forcollection ofrecyclables

Transfer anddisposal costsper tonne (1)

Savings from recycling

avoidedcosts(2)

net saving(3)

Sydney regionInner NSWOuter NSWMelbourne regionInner VictoriaOuter VictoriaBrisbane regionOther QueenslandPerth RegionOther West AustraliaAdelaide regionOther South AustraliaHobart regionOther TasmaniaAust. Capital TerritoryNorthern Territory


Australia

$'000

1016840

266829556213133014202000

1960

4433480

4913

$

15.3812.097.43

10.7216.847.707.86

11.9914.617.53

11.908.39

10.8211.0912.5714.01

12.5410.85

11.89

$'000

15382061499868462

5583721170

24170

222640

3687923

4506

$'000

522122149

-1682-211

6537341-213-14

-178170

22680

-746443

-407

(1) Equal to expediture on waste transfer and waste disposal divided by the number oftonnes of waste disposed of.

(2) Equal to transfer and disposal costs per tonne multiplied by the quantity of wasterecycled.

(3) Equal to avoided costs less outlays for collection of recyclables.


In Australia householders pay a standardised cleansing rate to councils to dispose ofwaste. Every ratepayer in a particular Local Council area pays exactly the sameamount irrespective of the amount of waste collected from his dwelling. Under thismethod there is no incentive for households to reduce the amount of waste theydispose of.

In the United States some Councils have introduced volume based garbage chargeswhich provides a direct incentive for households to reduce the amount of waste theygenerate. This may be achieved by more prudent buying, home composting, or bymaking materials available for recycling.

The city of Seattle, for example, introduced a variable bin rating system andadditional recycling programs in 1989. The quantity of waste disposed of in thatyear decreased by 25% over the previous year. Seattle considers the variable ratingsystem to be its most effective recycling program and aims to reduce the amount ofsolid waste for disposal by 60% in 1996. Perkasie, Pennsylvania reported a 35-45%

29decline in the amount of waste delivered to its transfer stations in the year followingthe introduction of a prepaid bag system in conjunction with extensive recyclingfacilities. In other words, with volume based charging systems, people who reducetheir waste and take part in recycling, avoid costs of waste collection and disposaldirectly.23

It may well be argued that waste disposal charges which are directly related to thequantity of waste generated would increase the likelihood of illegal dumping. MostCouncils did not perceive this as a major problem, and when the Berwick andSpringvale Councils in Victoria increased their disposal charges by more than 50%in 1989, they reported no consequent increase in illegal dumping.24

23 Ibid. p.54.

24 Ibid. p.57.

30

The following table illustrates this point:

TABLE 3.14 EFFECT OF HIGHER DISPOSAL CHARGES ON ILLEGALDUMPING (SHARES OF COUNCILS)

Region

Estimated increase in illegal dumping

insignificant moderate substantial

Sydney regionInner NSWOuter NSWMelbourne regionInner VictoriaOuter VictoriaBrisbane regionOther QueenslandPerth regionOther West AustraliaAdelaide regionOther South AustraliaHobart regionOther TasmaniaAust. Capital TerritoryNorthern Territory


Australia

%2757444029422954847361417564029

4850

50

%5233444257464341121426510

2310014

3639

38

%2010121814122964131392513057

1611

12

Percentages may not total 100% due to rounding.


3.4.2 Recycling and the environment

Many people see recycling as desirable because it saves energy, reduces pollutionand the production of greenhouse gases, and protects the ozone layer from furtherdepletion. However, although this may be true in many instances, it is important toinvestigate the whole recycling network before making a blanket assumption.

As the Industry Commission Report points out, energy savings for metals areconsiderable. Sometimes these savings are more than 90% for reprocessedaluminium and steel, and although less in the case of copper and lead, are still quitesubstantial.25

Newsprint produced from recycled paper requires only 400 kW per tonne of recycled 25 Ibid. p.86.

31pulp, compared to 2400 kW per tonne of virgin wood pulp,26 an electricity saving of83%.

In the manufacture of glass a proportion of cullet (recycled glass) is usually used,and for every 10% of this material used, there is a 5% saving in energy. In Australiathe normal proportion of cullet used is about 25%. Refillable glass bottles useenergy both in the manufacture of the bottles and in washing them for reuse. Inaddition, refillable bottles require 30 to 40% more energy to produce than non-refillable ones because they are 30 to 40% heavier in order to withstand constantreuse.27 When ascertaining the amount of energy used with refillable bottles, thecost of transport (in terms of both energy used and pollution) must be taken intoaccount. Nevertheless, it appears from a study in the State of Maine in the UnitedStates, that the use of refillable bottles resulted in the brewing industry using 12.5%less energy, and the soft drink industry 45% less. These figures took transport costsinto account and assumed ten trips per bottle.28

Recycling of plastics also saves energy. The plastics industry indicates that thiscould be as high as 95%.29

Where energy is saved in the recycling process, there is also a proportional saving incarbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The amount as shown in the following tabledepends on the type of fuel used to generate the energy in the recycling process. Coal-fired electricity, the main energy source used in Australia, has a high CO2

emission rate relative to other energy sources.

TABLE 3.15 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) GENERATION BY COMBUSTION OF FUEL TYPES

Fuel CO2/MJa

Natural gasWoodBituminous coalElectricityb

55 79

104 390

a) Based on net calorific values. b) Based on data for Victoria, which generates electricity frombrown coal and has an energy conversion rate of 24 percent.

Note: Emission rates are average values and will vary according to the grade of fuel andcombustion conditions.


The following tables set out the energy consumption and carbon dioxide (CO2)emissions in manufacturing and reprocessing various materials:

26 Ibid.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid.

32

TABLE 3.16 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EMISSIONS AND ENERGYCONSUMPTION (GIGAJOULES) IN MANUFACTURE ANDREPROCESSING OF VARIOUS MATERIALS

MATERIAL ACTIVITYa CO2 SAVINGS ENERGY SAVINGS

Steel

Aluminiumb

Paperc

(Kraft)

Lubricating oilb

ManufactureReprocessing



Energy contentReprocessingTransport

kg/tonne

2392-2912 104-208

85 800 3900

71 8

- 0.30.03

percent

93-96

95

79

GJ/tonne

23-28 1-2

22010

0.90.1

460.90.5

percent

93-96

95

89

97

a. Estimates for reprocessing and manufacturing do not include energy use and CO2

emissions in collection and transport.b. Manufacture and reprocessing requires electricity. The CO2 emission rate is that for

Victoria where brown coal is used to generate electricity. Where hydroelectricity ornuclear power is used such as in Japan and in the United States, the CO2 emission rateis lower.

c. CO2 emissions may be higher than stated here, as some coal-fired electricity may be usedeven in the Kraft process.

Source: Industry Commission, Recycling in Australia V.1 p.92.

33

TABLE 3.17 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EMISSIONS AND ENERGYCONSUMPTION IN MANUFACTURE, RECYCLING, AND DISPOSAL OFBEVERAGE PACKAGING MATERIAL

MATERIAL Evans 1990 Other Datab

CO2a Energy CO2a Energy

HDPEc

PE coatedd

paperboard

Glass bottlee

Refillable

Non- Refillableg

ManufactureDistribution and disposalTotal (1 trip)

ManufactureDistribution and disposalTotal (1 trip)

Manufacture(raw materials)Distribution and fillingTotal (1 trip)

Reused (25 times)f

Distribution and fillingTotal for each trip

Reprocessing (25% cullet)CollectionDistribution and fillingTotal (1 trip)

gramsper litre

10480184

22180301

1373167

1540

52167219

842167167

1176

MJper litre

1.90.32.2

2.80.33.1

13.20.8

14.0

0.50.81.3

8.10.80.89.7

gramsper litre

9580175

390167557

16167183

242167167576

MJper litre

1.20.31.5

7.10.87.9

0.30.81.1

4.40.80.86.0

a. CO2 emissions depend on type of fuel used, see Box 3.15. b. Estimates from Tetra Pakfor PE coated paperboard produced in North America (manufacture is mostly using wood by-products) and includes sea transport to Australia; estimates for glass from ACI (manufacture ismostly using natural gas). c. Refers to the energy required and CO2 emissions on a per litrebasis for a 2 litre container. d. Refers to a 1 litre container. e. Refers to the energy requiredand CO2 emissions on a per litre basis for a 0.6 litre bottle. f. 25 trips based on ACT MilkAuthority weighted average of household and retail rates. g. Assuming non-refillable bottlesweigh 30 per cent less.


Even though recycling may be one way to prevent harmful wastes from entering theenvironment it may not be the preferred option for pollution

34

control. This depends on appropriate regulation and enforcement of emissions andcorrect pricing by waste management authorities of waste disposal facilities.30

Of course the recycling process itself can actually generate pollution. For example,approx 1.15 litres of water are required to wash each refillable glass bottle, and thewater used is discharged into the sewer with the caustic soda and product residuesit contains.31 In some recycling processes, residual pollutants remain to be disposedof. For example, the leachate toxicity problems at Kingston in Queensland seem tohave been partly caused by toxic acid sludge from waste oil re-refining.32

Although recycling is a useful means of controlling pollution, as in the case of CFC's,oil and lead, it is only one means of achieving this objective.

3.4.3 Recycling to conserve resources

The of finite resources such as minerals will lead to a reduction in the amountavailable in the future. However, as the Industry Commission Report points out:

...the concept of finiteness, and its implications, are not clear cut. Itcan refer to known quantities available, to the technologicallyextractable reserves, to the economically extractable reserves, and soon.33

The link between recycling and the conservation of renewable resources is less clear,as renewable resources such as forests can provide an inexhaustible supply of woodif correctly managed. In addition, as approximately 75% of pulp used in Australia iseither imported or produced from pine plantations, paper recycling would have verylittle impact on `saving' our native forests.34

Recycling is a rather indirect method of addressing resource conservation. TheIndustry Commission sums up the situation as follows:

There is no simple relationship between recycling and conservation.While recycling often does conserve natural resources, energy andwater, it also uses resources - particularly in transport, sorting,cleaning and materials preparation. From a conservation point ofview, it is important that all of these uses of resources be taken intoaccount.35

30 Ibid. p.98.

31 Ibid. p.104.

32 Ibid.

33 Ibid. p.106.

34 Ibid. p.107.

35 Ibid. p.129.

353.5 What can be recycled?

Sometimes materials are technically recyclable, but reprocessing is uneconomiccompared with production from virgin materials. In other cases, technicalconstraints limit the use of reclaimed materials. This helps explain thecomparatively low levels of reprocessing of old newspapers and plastic containers.36

3.5.1 Paper

Australians consume 2.7 million tonnes of paper annually which represents about150 kg per person. Only about a third of the total is recycled and the remainderaccounts for approximately 20% of our landfill space.37 The following table givessome indication of the types of paper products which are recyclable, and those thatare either not technologically recyclable or not generally accepted by reprocessors:

TABLE 3.18 RECYCLABLES AND NON-RECYCLABLES

RECYCLABLE(generally acceptable)

NON-RECYCLABLE(can't be recycled or generally rejected)

* Printing & writing paper* Photocopy paper* Most forms* Computer paper* Envelopes (lick & stick)* File & index cards* Plain manilla folders* Most leaflets, reports* Telephone directories* Newspapers* Most cardboard

* Thermal fax paper* Plastic window envelopes* Gummed labels* Self-adhesive envelopes* Milk/soft drink cartons* Carbonless copy paper* Disposable nappies* Tissues, paper towels* Food bags* All paper cups and plates* Plastic or foil laminates* Waxed paper

Source: Ecopaper submission to IAC Interim Report on Recycling Paper Products - (In Simply Living).

Different kinds of paper can be broadly classified as newsprint, office paper, andother. In 1991 about 565,000 tonnes of newsprint will be used in Australia, of whicharound 190,000 tonnes or 34% will be recycled. However, none of it will be recycledto make newsprint38 although 70,000 tonnes are expected to be exported for thispurpose. The remainder will be recycled into egg cartons, wall boards, wrapping,insulation, fruit packing, compost, cardboard, kitty litter and so on.39 The problem 36 Ibid. p.1.

37 `Paper recycling report raises interesting environmental issues.' WasteManagement and Environment, V.1 No.8, August 1990, .24. It should berealised, incidentally, that 15% of all paper products do not become available forrecycling. These include much of the printed matter used in books, files andarchives, most tissue papers and some packaging. (Industry Commission. Recycling in Australia V.1 p.107.)

38 Compared to a rate of 50% in Germany, 20-25% USA, 45-50% Japan, 26% U.K.and 27% Sweden. Industry Commission. `Recycling in Australia,' V.1, p.227.

39 Lloyd, Chuff. `Looking good on paper.' Australian Business, V.11 No.14, 30

36

in Australia at the present time is the lack of a newsprint de-inking plant, althoughAustralian Newsprint Mills plan to build such a factory, plus a newsprint-to-newsprint plant at Albury in 1993.40 The cost of establishing such a plant has notbeen economical in the past given Australia's widespread population, abundantresources, and relatively high cost of collecting newsprint. The previously buoyantmarket for old newsprint in Asia has now become oversupplied owing to competitionfrom the United States, and it is now becoming more cost-effective to recycle a muchhigher proportion of our own.41

One problem that a Swedish survey detected is the potential pollution problemswhich must be addressed in de-inking plants. If a chlorinated water supply is usedin the de-inking process organochlorins such as dioxin may be produced. Inaddition, large quantities of salt are used which may cause salinity problems at aninland site such as Albury. Heavy metal contaminants and lead are produced in asludge from the de-inking process. This sludge must be purified of heavy metalextracts and the liquid effluent disposed of carefully to prevent environmentaldamage.42

Only about 12.5% of office paper is recycled, while some 20,000 tonnes a year areexported to Asia. The two principal Australian producers, Australian PaperManufacturers and Associated Pulp and Paper Mills use a similar amount toproduce writing paper, envelopes and computer paper.43 In 1987, APM's Petrie Millconverted to 100% recycling at a cost of some $50 million and now makes recycledproducts entirely from waste material. APM has introduced a whole range ofrecycled products including Australia's first 100% recycled general-use office paperin 1989; and in May 1991 recycled photocopy paper which has already won 7%market share.

Its Petrie Mill, besides leading the way in terms of using waste paper instead ofvirgin paper, has also undergone a number of other redevelopments.

January 1991 p.64.

40 Ibid.

41 Salmon, Jan. `Recycling newsprint: a question of supply, demand...and control.' Australian Municipal Journal, V.70 No.1049, June 1991 p.13.

42 `Paper recycling report raises interesting environmental issues.' WasteManagement and Environment, V.1. No.8. August 1990 p.24.

43 LLoyd, Chuff. `Looking good on paper.' Australian Business V.11 No.14, 30January 1991 p.64.

37Seventy-five percent of the water it uses is now recycled and the steam used in thedrying processes also generates two thirds of the mill's energy requirements.44

When 100% recycled paper for printing and writing was first released,manufacturers seem to have been taken by surprise. The argument that peoplewouldn't buy paper that was off-white, grey or non-glossy proved a fallacy, anddespite recycled paper being 40% more expensive until the Federal Governmentdropped the sales tax on it in October last year, demand has been very strong.45 It isconsidered that this kind of paper can be recycled six times, but it is notrecommended for archives. Paper fibre loses 50% of its strength with each recyclingand recycled paper contains some "virgin" fibre to impart strength and durability. Papers with a high recycled content are significantly less chemically stable and lessdurable than papers produced from bleached chemical pulp because of the presenceof lignin and other impurities.46

The Australian Archives recommends that recycled paper with a content of up to100% of recycled fibre can be used for:

* writing, message and scribble pads* exercise books* packaging not requiring strength* internal phone directories* envelopes which are not processed through high speed machinery* information, distribution or circular copies of reports, notices, circulars* printed materials and publications for bulk distribution* information leaflets, circulars, newsletters, advertising materials, etc.* written records (including forms) with only a short retention period, not used intensively, nor requiring durability.

Recycled paper and paper products should not be used for:

* records to be kept for more than ten years* records used or handled frequently eg. plans, maps etc.* publications needed for long term reference* documents provided by government or other authorities including birth and citizenship certificates, legal documents, title deeds etc.

Currently the use of 100% recycled papers is not recommended for high-speedprinting processes, in photocopiers or laser printers. The higher moisture contentand higher dust levels present in recycled paper may cause jamming and damage tothe machines, and may void maintenance agreements and warranties on thesemachines.47

44 `Power, paper and the environment.' Management Update, No.17, August 1991,

p.17.

45 Griffin, Roger. `All you wanted to know about recycled paper.' Simply Living,V.5 No.1, July 1990 p.84.

46 Ibid; for details of paper standards see: Australian Archives, Papers for Use inRecords, (Dickson, Australian Archives Central Office, Storage and PreservationSection, 1990).

47 Paper for use in Records, op.cit. Leaflet entitled, "The Use of Recycled Papers inRecords".

38

One enterprising company in Sydney, Paper Save Security Services, operates aunique office paper recycling scheme. Each year they collect some 7,000 tonnes ofsensitive company documents which are given 24 hour surveillance by guards andclosed circuit television to ensure they are shredded under tight security. Aftershredding, the paper is compressed into 600 kg blocks and loaded into containers forexport to India, Indonesia and South East Asia.48

The Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage points out that asuccessful office recycling program consists of four common elements:

. a capable and enthusiastic program co-ordinator

. a secure market for recycled paper

. a simple and reliable collection system

. an effective employee education and publicity program.

The co-ordinator should have organisational experience and good communicationskills. He or she is responsible for selecting a waste paper dealer, developing thecollection system, enthusing employees to be involved and tracking the program'sprogress.49

Of course, paper recycling is only part of an office waste reduction program designedto save money and help the environment. Usage of paper can also be reduced bymaking two-sided photocopies, circulating memos with a cover slip instead of copiesfor each person, and using the blank side of used paper for notes before recycling,and sending internal mail via re-use envelopes.50

48 Smith, Barry. `Recycling documents to ensure security.' Waste Management

and Environment, V.1 No.3, February 1990 p.23.

49 Queensland. Department of Environment and Conservation. Over and Over:your guide to recycling in Queensland p.17.

50 Ibid.

39The following table lists the various kinds of paper currently in use, their recycledalternatives, suppliers, etc:

40

TABLE 3.19

41

3.5.2 Metal

Recycling metals has been around since humans first used metal tools, and it makessense from both an economic and environmental point of view. Pure metals andmany alloys use far less energy to reprocess than to mine, extract and melt. Eventhe difficulty experienced in reclaiming the more complex alloys is often offset by thehigh prices of the metals. In fact, the value of many metals, and the energy savingsinvolved in their reprocessing, usually ensures that recycling schemes work quiteeffectively without the need for subsidies or other incentives.51 Scrap metal is nowbig business. Mini-mills operate exclusively on recycled steel, and employ hugemagnets and car-chomping equipment. Indeed, until the comparatively recentadvent of metal shredding technology there was no cost effective or environmentallysatisfactory way of recycling derelict car bodies.52

As already mentioned aluminium can be easily and economically recycled.Reprocessing uses a mere 5% of the energy that is required for manufacture fromraw bauxite. Any aluminium product can be recycled such as beverage cans,printing plates, venetian blinds and building materials. The metal may be recycledagain and again without losing any of its properties, and one tonne of cans recycledsaves about five tonnes of bauxite. Australia is a world leader in recyclingaluminium beverage cans with a 62% recovery rate. Comalco, Alcoa and Simsmetalall recycle aluminium cans. In 1990, 1,700 million cans were returned to industryrecycling centres and collectors received over $26 million in return. Comalco'srecycling plant in Sydney reprocesses up to 60,000 tonnes of aluminium cans andscrap each year.53

51 Ibid. p.21.

52 Mackay, Garry, Waste Management and Environment, V.2 No.1, November 1990p.26.

53 Comalco Aluminium Ltd. Recycling in Australia V.1 p.7.

42

The following table gives some indication of the dramatic increase in the recyclingrate of aluminium cans over the last few years:

TABLE 3.20 RECOVERY OF USED BEVERAGE CANS, AUSTRALIA 1978TO 1989

YEAR CANS RECOVERYRATE

PAYOUT

sold returned

197819791980198119821983198419851986198719881989

million

91712901196136014661393159615771827203723212523

million

165297550680733752816820950

110013001566

per cent

182346505054515252545662

$ million

aaa

6.49.210.011.013.015.020.025.030.0

$ per '000 cans

aaa

9.4112.5513.2913.4815.8515.7918.1819.2319.15

a. National data not collated prior to 1981.


In 1988, only 26% of the steel consumed was recycled. This figure should increasebecause the new mini-mills can use 100% recycled steel.54 Much of the steel recycledcomes from ships, rolling stock, railway lines, cars, building demolition, and to alesser extent, household appliances and food containers. Very little steel scrap isrecovered from municipal waste although an average of 13.8 kg of small steel andcans per person are disposed of each year in the major cities. Contamination of usedfood cans is a major deterrent to their recycling in Australia, and trial collectionsconducted in Adelaide, Wollongong, Sydney and Geelong resulted in only a 20%participation rate by householders. Cleaning and delabelling steel cans is time-consuming and costly.55 The smelting of steel scrap uses about 20% of the energyrequired to produce liquid steel from iron ore. However, the energy used incollecting, transporting, shredding and/or compressing some forms of scrap must betaken into account. Steel scrap also uses less water in the smelting process.56

54 Industry Commission. Recycling in Australia V.2 p.30.

55 Ibid. p.37.

56 Ibid. p.41.

43

The following table illustrates the collection and use of steel scrap during the period1978-1988:

TABLE 3.21 COLLECTION AND USE OF STEEL SCRAP, AUSTRALIA 1978-1988

YEAR BHP COMSTEEL SMORGON OTHER EXPORT TOTAL

'000 tonnes

19781979198019811982198319841985198619871988

499596439358269211322262367171184

6574746041556356516571

----

4090120185200230340

215215420259215207192203221223230

544534633604492424386458581859791

13231419138612811057 98710831164142015481616


Australia has a relatively low copper recycling rate (about 19% in 1988). Much ofthis comes from old electrical wiring, radiators, hot water systems, old pipes, boilersand the like.57 Recycling problems arise as some of the telephone cables are coatedwith petroleum jelly to water proof them, while the plastic coating on others isdifficult to dispose of. In addition, alloys such as bronze (copper and tin) or brass(copper and zinc) may present a problem if higher quality copper is required. Thetechnology exists to overcome all these difficulties but the overall cost may make therecycling of some copper scrap uneconomical.58

Thirty-seven percent of total tin consumption was recycled in 1989. It is usedextensively for the tinplating of the sheet steel for manufacturing food cans.59

The recovery rate for lead is even higher, up to 60%. Although it accounts for amere 1% of the total waste stream, it presents contamination problems in landfillsites. Much of the lead, some 100,000 tonnes, is contained in over 11 millionbatteries in vehicles around Australia. Of the 4 million scrapped annually it isestimated that 85-90% are recovered. This leaves between 400,000 and 600,000unaccounted for!60

57 Ibid. p.23.

58 Ibid. p.27.

59 Ibid. p.44.

60 Ibid. pp.14-15.

44

Electronic component scrap such as circuit boards provides one Sydney company,Pacific Precious Metal, with something a little different in metal recycling. Theirplant is one of the few in the world that concentrates solely on treating preciousmetals-bearing scrap. Coming on stream last November it has the capacity toreprocess 1,500 tonnes of low-grade electronics and telecommunications scrap eachyear. From this it could recover a possible 300,000 ounces of gold and 3,000,000ounces of silver or, 8.5t and 85t.61 In addition, there will be small quantities of otherprecious metals including platinum and palladium, as well as small amounts ofcopper, lead, selenium and tellurium.62

3.5.3 Glass

There are two distinct ways to recycle glass. It may be recycled in the form of bottleswhich can be washed and refilled, or used glass (cullet) may be melted down tomake new glass. No national figures exist for the proportion of glass in the wastestream, though in Victoria it was found to comprise 16% of total domestic garbage,and in New South Wales 9%. Glass containers account for the bulk of all glassproduced. Approximately 25% of them are recycled into new glass, and a further11% recovered for refilling. As well as saving landfill space, glass recycling benefitsthe environment by reducing sand and limestone mining and reducing litter fromsoda ash production.

The cullet is a very valuable raw material in the production of new glass. It assiststhe batch to melt quickly and reduces the energy required by the furnaces by 20-25%. In fact, energy requirements are estimated to decrease by 0.4-0.6% for each1% of cullet used.63 Currently around 25% of cullet is included in the production ofnew glass, but this proportion varies throughout the industry.64 The recycling ofglass for reprocessing into new glass has increased by 1% per year over the lasttwenty years Australia wide as shown in the following table:

61 Smith, Barry, `The ultimate cash from trash...precious metal recovery at Pacific

Precious Metals.' Waste Management and Environment, V.1 No.3, February 1990p.22.

62 Ibid. p.24.


64 Ibid. p.53.

45

TABLE 3.22 PRODUCTION AND RECOVERY OF GLASS CONTAINERS,AUSTRALIA 1972 TO 1990

YEAR TOTALPRODUCTION

POST CONSUMERRECOVERYa

RECOVERY RATEFOR

REPROCESSINGb

1971-721981-8219891990c

tonnes

440 000750 000850 000840 000

tonnes

73 000130 000189 000209 000

per cent

17172225

a. Single-fill containers only. b. Not including glass bottles recovered and refilled, although refillable bottles are includedin the total production figures.c. 1990 figures are estimates by ACI.

Source: Industry Commission Recycling in Australia V.2 p.55.

However, the next table reveals that there is a considerable fluctuation in glassrecycling among the Australian states. Nevertheless, all figures are better than therecovery rate of 15% in the United States and Sweden, 20% in Britain and 30% inGermany. In Singapore 85% of beverage bottles are refilled; in the Netherlands90% of beer and soft drink bottles are required by law to be refillable; Switzerlandrecycles enough glass to satisfy 75% of the raw material needs of the glasspackaging industry; and Japan recovers about 54% of empty bottles and 52% of itscullet.65

65 Ibid. p.57.

46

TABLE 3.23 RECOVERY AND REUSE RATES FOR GLASS, BY STATE, 1989 AND 1990a

STATEREFILLABLE

BOTTLESREUSE RATE

SINGLE-FILLBOTTLES

RECOVERYRATE

RECOVERYRATE FOR ALL

GLASSBOTTLES

New South WalesVictoriaQueenslandWestern AustraliaSouth AustraliaTasmania

Australia

per cent

0 (0)b

63 (63)68 (68)69 (69)73 (73)54 (54)

65 (65)c

per cent

27 (30)35 (41)23 (28)41 (46)23 (23)42 (50)

29 (33)

per cent

27 (35)54 (57)31 (33)55 (57)40 (40)na (52)

35 (37)d

a. 1990 figures are indicative estimates by ACI and are shown in brackets. They do not takeinto account imports/exports between states which can have significant impact on smallermarkets such as South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania. b. There is no production and reuse of refillable bottles in NSW. c. This is a national averageestimated by industry. For the High Court challenge to Container Deposit Legislation in SouthAustralia it was agreed that the national average was 56 per cent. d. Includes bottles recoveredfor reuse and reprocessing.


South Australia is the only State to have container deposit legislation in place sincethe 1970's. The Beverage Container Act of 1975 has meant that around 96% of beerand 98% of soft drinks packaged in glass are sold in refillable bottles. An 85%return rate on these bottles has been achieved, with one litre bottles refilledapproximately fifteen times.66

However, any company starting from scratch would endure considerable extra coststo install bottle washing and other ancillary equipment to conform to thislegislation. In addition, it seems that the energy costs in washing bottles may not besignificantly less than the cost of making new glass.67

A glass recycling plant operated by Recyclers of Australia opened in Melbourne in1989, and in its first year processed more than 70,000 tonnes of bottles. Using the

66 Ibid. p.62.

67 `Cold water on bottles.' Waste Management and Environment, V.1 No.1,November 1989 p.24.

47

very latest technology this plant has been able to produce very high quality culletwhich it sells to ACI to produce new glass. The high quality of this material hasenabled ACI to use 70% of cullet in its "stubbies" manufacture. In addition, it hasalso been able to save valuable resources by reducing the weight of its glassproducts.68 The various pros and cons of both methods of glass recycling are listed inthe following table.

68 Smith, Barry, `Recyclers of Australia plant "a bottler." Waste Management and

Environment, V.1 No.1, November 1989 pp.24-25.

48

TABLE 3.24 COSTS AND BENEFITS OF GLASS RECOVERY ANDREPROCESSING OR REUSE

(a) Into new glass

Costs to reprocessor Comment Benefits to reprocessor Comment

Collection from households

Purchase price reflectspurchase collection andtransport costs

Sorting and cleaning. Costsof other raw materials,energy and processing

Cost 5 to 10 cents per kg

Cullet:$40 to $140 pertonne(4 to 14 cents per kg)Weighted average price $65per tonne

Price of new glass

Savings in energy use andincreased furnace life

Energy in processing upto 50 per cent lowerthan that used inproducing glass fromraw materials

Additional costs to society Comment Additional benefits to society Comment

Household effort requiredin cleaning, sorting,delivery(valued up to $75per tonne)in excess of anycash return and personalsatisfaction

The extent to which this isa social cost depends on thelevel of personalsatisfaction, if any

Savings in waste disposal costsand tip space

Benefits from resource andenergy conservation. Lessmining and possibly lessenvironmental degradation

Lower costs and aestheticbenefits from less litter

$32 plus per tonne inSydney and Melbourne

Possible savings fromfewer injuries and bushfires especially if illegaldumping reduced

(b) Reuse

Costs to reuser Comment Beneftis to User Comment

Costs of collection andtransport, costs of cleaning

Refillable beer bottles cost$150 per tonne inMelbourne at end 1989a

Saving of cost of new glasscontainers

Additional costs to society Comment Additional benefits to society Comment

The cost ofreturn(incovenience etc)may be more than thedeposit refunded

Pollution from effluentfrom washing bottles

The extent to which this isa social cost depends on thelevels of personalsatisfaction, if any

Savings in waste desposalcosts and tip space

Benefits from resource andenergy conservation. Lessmining and possiblyenvironmental degradation

Lower costs, aesthetic benefitsfrom less litter

$32 plus in Sydney andMelbourne

Possible savings fromfewer injuries and bushfires especially if illegaldumping reduced

Source: Industry Commission. Recycling in Australia V.2 pp.71-72.

49

3.5.4 Plastic

Like glass, plastics can be recycled in two completely different ways. They may beeither reprocessed and reconstituted into plastic itself, or they may be recycled fortheir energy content. Plastic contains three times as much energy as brown coal,and although the toxic gases released must be strictly controlled, many countriesalready burn it to generate steam, hot water, and electricity.69 This is not an optionthat has been taken up in Australia.

At the present time plastics account for between 5 and 15% by weight of Australia'stotal waste stream. Only about 15% of the one million tonnes produced is currentlyrecycled, and around 450,000 tonnes are discarded annually.70 Unfortunately, verylittle plastic is recovered from household waste as shown in the following table:

TABLE 3.25 RECOVERY OF PLASTICS BY SOURCE, AUSTRALIA 1989

PLASTICS SOURCEFOR DISPOSAL REPROCESSED RECOVERY RATE

Industrial andcommercial waste(excluding wastereused in-house)

Household waste

tonnes

130 000

320 000

tonnes

65 000

1 350

per cent

50

0.4

Source: Industry Commission, Recycling in Australia V.2 p.78.

The problem with recycling plastics is that not all plastic products are manufacturedfrom the same kind of resin. Each resin type needs to be reprocesed separately,including polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high density polyethylene (HDPE), lowdensity polyethylene (LDPE) polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and a few others.71 The recovery and reprocessing rate forhousehold plastic is very low world-wide, perhaps 1% in total. In the United Statesin 1989, for example, 10% of PET, 14% of polyethylene, and about 1% of PVCdiscarded by consumers was recovered and reprocessed.72

69 Queensland. Department of Environment and Heritage. Plastic recycling,

December 1990 p.1.


71 Kannegieter, Tim, `Harsh realities force recycling initiatives.' EngineersAustralia, V.63 No.2, 8 February 1991 p.18-19.


50

At the present time PET bottles constitute the biggest collection program fordomestic plastic waste, as they hold almost the entire 2 litre bottle soft drinkmarket.73 Their recycling has always been rather more complicated than most otherplastic products because of their black plastic base cups.74 However, ACI Petalite isdue to open a new PET recycling plant at Wodonga in late 1991 which may heraldAustralia's first profitable domestic plastic recycling operation.75

With single product plastics there are few problems with reprocessing, however, asACI points out when various types of plastics are co-mingled:

One of the differences between `single-product' and `co-mingled' plasticrecycling is that with the former we know what the markets are (wejust have to get the recycled material up to required specification). With co-mingled recycling the material specification is more tolerantbut the end-use markets have to be developed.76

73 Ibid. pp.90-91.

74 Smith, Barry, `Plastic recycling big business in the US.' Waste Managementand Environment, V.2 No.4, March 1991 p.29.

75 Kannegieter, Tim, `Harsh realities force recycling initiatives.' Engineers Australia,V.63 No.2, 8 February 1991 pp.18-19.


51

The types of products that can be manufactured from recycled plastics are given inthe following table:

TABLE 3.26 PRODUCTS MADE FROM REPROCESSED RESINS

PLASTIC TYPE PRODUCTS

PET

Polyethylene - film - moulding grades

Polyurethane foam

Polystyrene foamcushioning

Mixed plastic

In Australia, the terephthalic acid is used toproduce fibreglass products such as boats, skis,baths and paint. ACI plans to make sheet film. PET is incorporated with other plastics in plasticlumber. Overseas it is used for carpet backing, fibrefill for ski jackets, pillows, sleeping bags, audiocassettes, non-food containers and the terephthalicacid is extracted for use in paints.

agricultural and building film, garbage bagsflower pots, coat hangers, drainage pipe, crate cases,pallets, drums and pails, non-food bottles

carpet underlay

In North America and Europe reprocessedpolystyrene is used for shapes, cassette casings,rigid sheets and foam insulation board

plastic lumber used for landscape timbers, stadiumseating, fencing, farm pens and roadside posts


3.5.5 Other

Although paper, metal, glass and plastic may be the first things that come to mindwhen we think of recycling, there is, in fact, a wide range of other materials whichare currently being recycled. A few are considered here, and even though only abrief account of each is given, this is not in any way a reflection upon the importanceor otherwise of the material recycled.

3.5.5.1 Oil

Waste oil is a toxic substance which may contain lead and chlorinated hydrocarbons,and is therefore very difficult to dispose of safely.

Lubricating oils make up about 5% of Australia's petroleum products and includeproducts not classed as fuels, solvents or bitumens. They are used for a

52

wide range of purposes such as motor vehicle oils, greases, gear and hydraulicsystem oils, heat transmission oils, cutting oils, transformer oils andpharmaceuticals.77

In 1990 about 35% of used lubricating oil was recycled, but only 3% was re-refinedto a base lubricating oil. Around 94% was reused as fuel or process oil.78 As a fuel,used oil is used in boilers, furnaces and ships where it is blended with virgin oil toreduce the contaminants contained in the emissions. When it is burnt in cementkilns to produce cement, however, the process retains the harmful substances.79 It isalso used by BHP at Port Kembla to improve the burning qualities of the coal usedin coke making.80 However, in 1990 about 106,000 tonnes was still disposed of inenvironmentally undesirable ways such as for dust control, vegetation control, orjust dumped.81


78 Ibid.

79 Ibid. p.139.

80 `Recycling success story...waste oil utilisation at BHP Kembla.'


53

The following table indicates the disposal and recycling of used oil in Australia:

TABLE 3.27


The Brisbane City Council has embarked on a recycling project unique in Australia,though already undertaken in the United States. At their Willawong toxic wastesite they are experimenting with mixing a low concentration of used oil with soil, onthe basis that bacteria will use it as a food source and thereby break it down intonon-polluting substances. About 2,000 tonnes of waste oil, highly contaminatedwith lead, is dumped at Willawong each year.82

3.5.5.2 Wastewater 82 `Quality topsoil from waste oil' Waste Management and Environment V.1 No.9,

September 1990 p.37.

54

Wastewater is water that has been used in industrial or other processes and hasbecome contaminated thereby.

Contaminants include:

. sewage

. oily, greasy or fatty material

. fertilisers or manures

. suspended matter like clay or silt

. poisonous substances like pesticides, other chemicals or detergents

. the water may also be warmed or cooled

Wastewater comes from a variety of sources such as homes, shops, offices andfactories, transport and fuel depots, ships, aircraft, mines and quarries; as well asrainwater flowing across natural ground and paved surfaces.83

It has been estimated that by the year 2000 Australia will have exceeded its existingsupply level in all but one of its water demand regions.84 Thus research into waterrecycling is an urgent necessity.

The New South Wales Government established the Recycled Water Co-ordinationCommittee in 1984 to promote the use of recycled water as a potential lower gradewater resource. In April 1989 a pilot project was started in the town of ShoalhavenHeads, south of Sydney, where recycled water was connected to households usingnon-standard fittings to prevent plumbing interconnections. Each house wasmetered for both fresh and recycled water supply systems.85

The recycled water supply can be used for any external application such as gardenwatering, hosing down walls and paths, and washing cars. Because of its highnutrient level it is beneficial to gardens, but it is preferable to restrict runoff, andthe project is monitoring soil and groundwater for any accumulation of salts ornutrients. The results to date have proved satisfactory.86

In Queensland the Hervey Bay Council is using wastewater from its seweragesystem as an integral part of integrated sugar cane production. It is estimatedthat the fertiliser value of this wastewater is over $450 a hectare. By exploiting thissource of nitrogen and phosphorus for cane production the Council has avoidedenvironmental problems often associated with the disposal of wastewater.

83 Queensland. Department of Environment and Heritage. Questions and Answers about

Wastewater January 1991, p.1.

84 Worthington, Jane, `Recycled waste flows from the household tap.' Australian18 March 1991 p.2.

85 Southwell, M. and Russell, J.D., `Recycling waste water, the Shoalhaven Headsproject.' Waste Management and Environment V.1 No.7, July 1990 pp.73-74.

86 Ibid.

55

Indeed, the Hervey Bay Council estimates that its original project of providingwastewater for 60 hectares of cane has saved it $250,000 in capital costs.

The Council is now proceeding to use the recycled water to irrigate a 2 hectaresagroforestry project, and is developing 50 hectares of irrigated pasture land for beefcattle production. They hope that their wastewater recycling projects will at leastdouble the production capacity of the land.87

3.5.5.3 Sewage sludge

The treatment of sewage involves the removal of organic and inorganic solids,nutrients and pathogens. The solid material removed in sedimentation is calledprimary sludge, from which the pathogen levels are reduced by microbiologicalaction prior to disposal.88 The dewatered sludge can then be mixed with sawdustand other wastes to produce a pathogen-free fertiliser.

In Asia, and elsewhere overseas, land application of sewage sludge has been widelypractised for centuries but its application in Australia is a fairly recentphenomenon.89 Australia's soils are generally infertile and the use of sewage sludgecould significantly boost production by a low cost and environmentally sustainablemeans.

In New South Wales and Victoria some of the local councils are investigating thedisposal of sewage into commercial woodlots. Indications so far show that 30 cubicmetres a year of hardwood timber could be produced from 1 hectare, which, at thelowest price of $10 per cubic metre for woodchip, translates into $300 per hectareper year.90

However, sewage sludge may contain toxic materials which cannot be as readilydestroyed as micro-organisms. Various heavy metals and chlorinated organics suchas pesticides and PCB's are sometimes present and may make the sludge unsuitablefor fertiliser application.91

OFS technology (oil from sewage sludge) now makes it possible to convert sewagesludge into a liquid fuel with properties very similar to diesel. In fact, a plant inPerth and another in Canada have been in operation for several years now on thisproject. The results to date indicate an environmentally superior, yet cost effective,sludge disposal option.92

87 Pickering, Simon, `Wastewater for Hervey Bay cane.' Queensland Country Life

7 February 1991 p.16.

88 `Updated guidelines for the use of sewage sludge on agricultural land.' WasteManagement and Environment V.1 No.4, March 1990 p.24.


90 Gravestein, Vris, `Councils turn sewage into timber' Eco-Age, V.2 No.5,October/November 1990.

91 `The oil from sludge technology' Waste Management and Environment V.1 No.1,November 1989 p.39.

92 Industry Commission. Recycling in Australia V.2 pp.190-191.

56

One of the other promising methods of sewage sludge disposal involves tapping it asan energy source. New Australian technology combines two waste products -sewage sludge and steelworks dust - which react together to form a new product. This end product is then used as an efficient and relatively `clean' fuel in thesmelting furnaces at the BHP Newcastle and Port Kembla Steelworks.93 The processis illustrated as follows:

TABLE 3.28

Source: Waste Management and Environment V.1 No.4, March 1990 p.6.

3.5.5.4 Tyres

Used tyres represent a particularly difficult problem for recyclers, and recycling assuch is negligible in Australia. Whether retreading should be classed as recycling isa moot point, as it only delays the eventual disposal of a tyre. Dumping of tyres atsea to form artificial reefs could hardly be classed as recycling even though theremay be some benefit from the point of view of providing a site for coral growth andproducing habitats for fish and other marine creatures.94

In Japan, however, old tyres are recycled as a source of energy and burnt in cementkilns or power stations,95 and in California a generating plant which burns tyresexclusively produces 14 megawatts of power each year, safe emissions, andconsumes around 5 million tyres.96

93 Worner, Howard, `New use for sewage sludges in smelting' Search, V.21 No.8,

December 1990 p.245.


95 Ibid. p.162.

96 Ibid. p.169.

57

Victoria uses a small amount of used tyres for road making where they arecombined with bitumen at the rate of 5 tyres per tonne. The inclusion of the rubberimproves the durability of the bitumen, increases the braking characteristics ofvehicles, and of course uses less bitumen.97 In Brisbane about 4,000 tyres per monthare recycled into rubber matting.98

Nevertheless, fewer than 3% of tyres are recycled in Australia, and most of them aredumped at landfill sites where they become not only a breeding ground for verminsuch as rats and mosquitoes but a very dangerous toxic fire risk.99

The following table reveals that the potential for tyre recycling exists:

TABLE 3.29 METHODS OF DISPOSAL AND RECYCLING OF TYRES OVERSEAS

METHOD UNITEDSTATES

JAPAN WESTGERMANY

UNITEDKINGDOM

per centLandfill/stockpileBurn as fuela

RetreadExportCrumbOther

Total

747

12421

100

1135121722 3

100

3037191121

100

5320196-2

100

a. Mostly used by the cement industry but may also include power generation in somecountries.


3.5.5.5 Road and building waste

Cement recycling of road pavements has been steadily increasing throughoutAustralia over the past 20 years. It offers cost savings of up to 70% over totalreconstruction, and only involves reusing the existing pavement material mixedwith water and a small quantity of cement. When the mixture is compacted a thinlayer of asphalt is applied as a running surface. Local government councils such asBankstown and Blacktown in New South Wales have been using this technology foryears, while others such as Lilydale and Hastings in Victoria, and

97 Ibid. p.168.

98 Ibid. p.171.

99 `Opportunity for tyre recycling' Waste Management and Environment V.1 No.6,May/June 1990 p.30.

58

Brisbane City Council have since followed suit.100 In addition, although recyclingasphalt back into asphalt has only ever been undertaken on a very small scale inAustralia, new technology now exists which makes it a more viable proposition. Queensland and New South Wales are trialing this new technology at the presenttime.101

Building waste represents about 15% by weight of total waste going to landfill inSydney, and at landfill sites around the city costs in the region of $18-$38 a tonne todump. A market exists for the more valuable materials from demolition sites suchas marble, period fittings, non-ferrous metals and structural steel. Much of thebrick and concrete rubble is now being recycled especially for road base.102

3.5.5.6 Chemicals

The benefits of recycling chemicals and chemical containers are summed up verysuccinctly by the Industry Commission:103

The major benefit of reprocessing chemical wastes is the avoidedenvironmental cost of improper disposal by removing toxic substancesfrom the waste stream. The benefits to the waste generator are theavoided disposal charges and the price received for the waste materialif sold to a reprocessor. If the waste is reprocessed in-house, then thebenefits to the waste generator include reduced input costs.

However, recycling of chemicals in Australia is mainly confined to organic solventswhich have a high monetary value and relative ease of recovery. In the dry cleaningand electronics industries, for example, the recovery rate is between 65 to 85%, therest being lost in evaporation.104

The cleaning and reuse of chemical drums can also be of benefit in terms of avoidedenvironmental damage. In addition, a recycled drum can cost $25 compared with$50 for a new one.105

100 `Recycling of road pavements on the increase,' Waste Management and

Environment V.1 No.9, September 1990 p.25.


102 Ibid. p.174.

103 Ibid. p.158.

104 Ibid. p.147.

105 Ibid. p.159.

59

3.5.5.7 Food scraps and garden waste

An estimated 145 kg of organic waste is produced per person per year in New SouthWales, of which 83 kg is food waste and 62 kg garden waste. This waste can berecycled by the individual householder by composting or by local governmentcouncils or waste management authorities. Garden waste kept free from otherwaste is easy to compost and yields a product with a low level of contaminants.106

In South Australia the state government has just announced a $20,000 grant to helpestablish a commercial vegetation recycling plant in the Adelaide Hills which willproduce, among other things, timber for craftwork, wood chips and humus.107

The Brisbane City Council is about to introduce chippers at its dump sites withmulch offered for sale, and will establish collection areas for garden waste andmulching facilities. The Albert Shire Council has a contract chipper operating atone of its main dumps at which people drop off tree prunings, logs and other timber. It produces wood chips for mulch which is sold both to the council and to thepublic.108

In Vermont in the United States they even have a recycling program called theMerry Mulch Project where residents bring their used Christmas trees to a centralcollection depot, have them shredded, and then take them home again, as a bag ofmulch.109

3.5.5.8 Agricultural Waste

Bagasse is the residue left after sucrose juice has been extracted from the sugarcane and can be considered as a waste product. In its raw state it contains 46-52%water, 6% ash and a calorific value of about 9,500 kilojoules per kilogram. Morethan enough bagasse is produced during the season to provide all the energyrequired to operate the 29 sugar mills in Queensland and Northern New SouthWales. In fact, bagasse produces about the same total energy each year inQueensland as oil and three times as much as natural gas. As a fuel, it isgreenhouse neutral, as it has already extracted carbon dioxide from the atmosphereand converted it into a renewable energy source.

Apart from recycling bagasse as an energy source, however, there is nowconsiderable interest in converting the surplus for paper pulp and coal-bagassebriquettes, both of which would be exported. Should ethanol eventually become areality as a vehicle fuel bagasse would be a major by-product in its manufacture.110

106 Ibid. p.179.

107 `Vegetation recycling plant established in SA' Waste Management andEnvironment V.2 No.6, May 1991 p.26.


109 `Recycling Christmas trees.' Waste Management and Environment, V.2 No.2,December/January 1991 p.23.

110 Dixon, Terry, `Bagasse an abundant answer to energy' Waste Management and

60

Citrus Peel has always been a major waste disposal problem with Australianjuicing plants generating over 20,000 tonnes of residue every year. Scientists haverecently hit upon a novel method of converting this waste into stock feed by partlydrying the peel, adding diluted raw molasses, and allowing the mixture to fermentfor 72 hours. It is then air dried, ground into powder and used as stock feed. Theprotein level is 13% which is considerably higher than conventional forage likestraw.111

Rice Hulls present another difficulty with over 150,000 tonnes produced annuallyin Australia. Of this amount around 45% is used as stockfeed, animal bedding,chicken litter or fuel, but the remaining 55% is either dumped or burnt. At adumping cost of $6 a tonne this costs ricegrowers $500,000 annually, and if burnt isan environmental nuisance.

Attempts have been made to convert the hulls into particle board, solid fuel, andmasonry blocks. These have all proved to be technologically feasible butunfortunately uneconomical.112

One possibility being considered is power generation which has provedtechnologically feasible but has encountered opposition from the New South WalesElectricity Commission. Turning 85,000 tonnes of rice hulls into electricity, forexample, means that 40,000 tonnes less coal would be burnt which equates to120,000 tonnes less CO2 added to the atmosphere (rice hulls are CO2 neutral).113

Other recycling possibilities include rice bran which research has shown is equal tooat bran and better than wheat bran for people concerned about cholesterol andhigh fibre diets. Composting, mushroom growing, and landscaping as a material inplace of pine bark, have now become viable options for recycling much of the excessrice hulls. There is also a possible use for them in the computer chip industrybecause of the high purity silica they contain. Unlike mined silica, rice hulls containexceptionally low levels of uranium and thorium, apparently a prerequisite forelectronics.114

Stringy Bark at the rate of 500,000 tonnes a year is burnt in Australia. However,a pilot project in Victoria has indicated considerable potential to recycle it into avaluable fine fibre. This raw material is then mixed with chips for boardmanufacture.115

Environment V.2 No.6, May 1991 p.24.

111 Templeton, Jill, `Citrus peel waste management' Waste Management andEnvironment V.1 No.7, July 1990 p.17.

112 Klatt, Peter, `Rice hulls...wonderwaste?' Waste Management and EnvironmentV.1 No.3, February 1990 p.41.

113 Ibid. p.43.

114 Ibid. p.44.

115 Templeton, Jill, `Shredded stringy bark converts to fuel' Waste Management

61

Winery effluent is a malodorous material produced by the wine industry andpresents an expensive disposal problem. One South Australian winery has solvedthis disposal difficulty in quite a novel way. In 1985 they acquired 30 ha of low levelriver land with a high salt table which was unsuitable for any agricultural use. Onit they planted 40,000 seedlings of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Red River Gum), andfor the first couple of years irrigated them with river water to ensure they becamewell established. Since 1988 only winery effluent has been used on the trees whichare flourishing.116

Prawn Shells break down in nature at a very slow rate and are a disposal problem. Recycling such material may seem odd, but in fact the chemical, chitin, which is themain structural component in the shells of prawns, shrimps, crabs and lobsters is avaluable natural polymer. It is estimated that 36,700 tonnes of chitin are wastedaround the world each year. Chitin has been found to be an excellent water purifierand will remove 97% of suspended solids from waste water. From toxic orradioactive water it will remove nearly all of the highly dangerous materialsespecially heavy metals like mercury, lead and uranium.

Adding 1% by weight of chitin to paper pulp increases the strength of the paper,speeds up the rate that water drains from the pulp and increases the quantity offibres retained when making sheets of paper. Chitin also makes paper easier toprint on, and manufacturers can use cheaper, weaker fibres without reducingquality, while using 90% of the energy they use to beat the pulp.

Chitin also contains properties which are beneficial to the hair and skin and is nowbeing used in shampoos, skin lotions, nail varnishes and the like.117

Animal manure besides being recycled as fertiliser, can be used to generateelectricity. A power plant in California which is located next to cattle feedlots burnsenough cow dung to power 20,000 homes, and in so doing saves 300,000 barrels ofoil annually.118

100g of natural sheep fat is produced for each sheepskin made by one Britishcompany. The company has now perfected a method of burning it cleanly, and in sodoing has replaced 20% of its fuel oil.119

and Environment V.1 No.9, September 1990 p.16.

116 Templeton, Jill, `Winery effluent feeds red gum plantation' Waste Managementand Environment V.1 No.6 May/June 1990 pp.17-18.

117 Nicol, Stephen. `Life after death for empty shells.' New Scientist, V.129No.1755, 9 February 1991, pp.46-48.

118 `Entremanure' Waste Management and Environment, V.1 No.10, October 1990p.10.

119 `Sheep fat - a new energy source' Waste Management and Environment V.1No.10, October 1990 p.10.

62

The CSIRO has estimated that up to 15 million old sheep die in the fields aroundAustralia every year and are left to rot. Farmers are now being encouraged todispose of their old sheep immediately after shearing as an on-farm process. Amobile drier which can be taken to individual farms has been invented in NewZealand. It takes about 60 minutes from the time a sheep carcass goes in one end tobagged meat meal at the other end. The meal is highly nutritious and very suitablefor stock feed. Further research is continuing to improve the system's economicviability.120

3.6 Neutralysis

A Brisbane company, Neutralysis Industries, has developed one of the mostpromising technologies in the world for recycling, reprocessing and disposing ofwaste. Research began in 1984 into combining household rubbish and liquid wastewith clay to produce a valuable end product. Now a process has been developedwhich converts clay pellets containing RDF (refuse derived fuel) into a vitrifiedlightweight aggregate called Neutralite. This is then graded for use in the buildingindustry. Approximately one tonne of household garbage is used to produce onetonne of aggregate, and market analysis reveals considerable potential for theproduction of lightweight concrete blocks.121

The Neutralysis process generates excess energy which can be used to generateelectricity. At the start of the process, recyclable materials are recovered and soldoff as by-products. A twenty month testing project indicated that the plant producedno hazardous emissions or by-products, showing that a potential exists to locatesuch plants close to urban transfer stations and thereby avoid the need for longjourneys to landfill sites.

120 Templeton, Jill, `Mining old sheep' Waste Management and Environment V.1

No.6, May/June 1990 pp.21-22.

121 Templeton, Jill. `Neutralysis provides a real solution.' Waste Management andEnvironment, V.1 No.6, May/June 1990, pp.32-33.

63

The following table details the Neutralysis process:

TABLE 3.30

Source: Waste Management and Environment V.1, No.6 p.33.

64

4. WASTE TREATMENT

4.1 Introduction

The next level in the hierarchy of waste management is the treatment of wastes forwhich recycling is not currently feasible. Primarily, these treatment processessimplify disposal, by reducing the volume and/or the toxicity of waste, althoughsome recyclable materials may be produced as by-products. The main categories oftreatments are those involving thermal, chemical, physical or biological processes.

4.2 Thermal Processes

Earlier this century, the burning of municipal waste to reduce the volume of landfill,either in incinerators or in open fires at rubbish tips, was a common practice inmany countries. Gradually this was banned because of the air pollution thatresulted. Open fires and simple incinerators (with inadequate control oftemperature and gas flow conditions) produce many toxic chemicals through theburning of chlorine-containing materials such as plastics and paper. There werealso problems in disposal of the ash from incinerators, which often containedsignificant concentrations of metals.

A new generation of incinerators has overcome many of these problems. Emissionsare controlled through a combination of advances in combustion technology andimproved scrubbing (cleaning) of gases being released. Some metals can be recycledfrom incinerator ash although disposal of the remainder requires secure landfill. Further, incineration of municipal waste is now used as a source of powergeneration in many countries. The proportion of waste incinerated in severalcountries is illustrated in Figure 4.1. In Australia, incineration is largely confined tomedical waste.

According to Hubick,122 incineration technologies can be classified into the fourgroups described below.

4.2.1 Mass Combustion This group contains the most common types of incinerator. Put simply, thesedevices contain a furnace chamber into which raw waste is continuously fed andcombusted. Various devices including secondary combustion chambers are used toensure complete burning of waste material. There are two basic types, with orwithout air flow restrictions, termed starved air and natural draft respectively. Natural draught systems provide as much oxygen as possible to achieve maximumcombustion in a primary chamber. This method is suitable for heterogeneous wastesuch as unsorted municipal waste, but energy production fluctuates. In starved airsystems, the rate of air flow, and therefore of combustion and energy production, iscontrolled. The disadvantages of starved air systems are that waste must berelatively homogeneous and that the emission of partially-combusted materials canbe higher. The medical waste incinerator installed at Silverwater in NSW in 1989 is 122 Hubick, Kerry, Management and Technologies of Waste, A Perspective - Australia 1990

p.75

65

a starved-air type. It disposes waste from half of Sydney's public hospitals, andadvances in design technology are believed to have overcome the possible problemsof starved-air incinerators.123

FIGURE 4.1 PROPORTION OF SOLID WASTE INCINERATED INVARIOUS COUNTRIES

Source: Hubick, Kerry, ibid. p.74

4.2.2 Refuse-Derived Fuel

In this system, waste is partially processed so that it can substitute (either partiallyor totally) for conventional fossil fuels in standard or modified power generationfacilities. Processing involves the removal of bulky items and ferrous metals,followed by pulverisation and in some cases compression to form briquettes. According to Hubick, 70 Refuse-Derived Fuel facilities were operating in the USA in1988, and a further 120 were being constructed or planned.124

4.2.3 Fluidised Bed Combustion

Fluidised Bed incinerators are used for sludges as these are difficult to manage inthe other systems. The waste is mixed with hot air and injected onto a bed of hot 123 Smith, Barry, 'Hi-tech Incineration' Waste Management and Environment 1 (8) pp13-15.

124 Hubick, Kerry. Management and Technologies of Waste, A Perspective - Australia 1990p.78

66

sand or alumina. Because of the thorough mixing with air, the incinerator canoperate at a lower temperature than standard mass combustion incinerators.

4.2.4 Pyrolysis

Whereas combustion (burning) requires oxygen, pyrolysis is the decomposition thatoccurs when materials are heated without oxygen. The advantage of pyrolysis isthat the temperature of decomposition is lower than that of incineration, so that lessenergy is required. The disadvantage is that the solid and gaseous products ofpyrolysis must still be disposed of, by combustion, and there is a lack of efficientequipment to do this.

A new technology termed Plascon is being developed by CSIRO in which pyrolyticdestruction of waste occurs at extremely high temperatures in a plasma arc. Aplasma arc is an electrical discharge between two electrodes, similar to lightning. Because of the high temperature, toxic chemicals are completely broken down intosimple compounds.125 The main byproduct from chlorinated compounds ishydrochloric acid, which can be recovered and recycled.126 Plascon units require liquid or finely ground solid waste. They have a relatively lowthroughput rate, and are ideally suited to destruction of toxic wastes in individualestablishments.

4.3 Physical Treatment

Physical treatment of waste includes such processes as shredding, grinding andsorting. The two principal benefits are to render some materials suitable forrecycling, and to reduce the volume of material requiring disposal.

Shredding enables the recycling of such diverse materials as garden waste andmetallic items such as car bodies. Refer to Section 3.5.2 for more details.

The volume reductions possible from shredding and/or compaction of municipalwaste are indicated in Table 4.1.

A wide range of physical processes is available for the treatment of liquid wastes,and these are listed in Table 4.2. Many of these have highly specialisedapplications, but the more commonly used processes include filtration, coagulation,sedimentation, distillation and membrane processes.

125 Hubick, Kerry, ibid. p.76.

126 Creagh, Carson. 'Complete Waste Destruction' Ecos 68. pp. 10-12.

67

TABLE 4.1 VOLUME REDUCTIONS IN MUNICIPALWASTE AS A RESULT OF SHREDDING AND/OR COMPACTION

VOLUME REDUCTION FACTOR

SHREDDED ONLY COMPACTED ONLY COMPACTEDTHEN SHREDDED

Household wasteTyresBulkWasteCombination

3.422.248.854.23

1.91does not compact--

7.95--6.13

Source: Shredder Applications in Waste Management. Waste Management andEnvironment 1 (3) p.26.

TABLE 4.2 PHYSICAL WASTE TREATMENT PROCESSES

Air StrippingCalcinationCarbon AdsorptionCentrifugation

DialysisDissolutionDistillationElectrodialysisElectrophoresisEvaporationFiltrationFlocculationFlotationFreeze CrystallisationFreeze-Drying

High Gradient Magnetic SeparationIon ExchangeLiquid Ion ExchangeLiquid-Liquid Extracting of OrganicsMicrowave DischargeNeutralisation & pH controlPrecipitationResin AdsorptionReverse OsmosisSedimentationSteam DistillationSuspension FreezingSteam StrippingUltrafiltrationZone Refining

Source: O'Gallagher, Brian. Waste Management Technologies. Opportunities forResearch and Manufacturing in Australia, p.20.

4.4 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

Biological treatment primarily involves microorganisms that consume organic toxinsor pollutants and convert them to usable or benign compounds.

Composting of organic waste is a biological process that reduces waste volume andproduces material recyclable as garden mulch or fertilizer. However compost is alsobeing used as a medium for "biofiltration" by bacteria which can break down toxicchemicals in gases as they are passed through layers of the compost. One Europeanbiofiltration process, "Bioton", is being used to treat gases produced in sewage, and

68

in the plastics, paint, chemical, perfume, pharmaceutical and food industries.127 Biofiltration is more economical than incineration or chemical extraction whenwaste chemicals are in large volumes but low concentrations.

Biological treatment is also highly suited to waste waters containing organicmaterials, such as effluent ponds of meatworks and fruit processing plants. Bacteria can be developed to consume specific compounds or specific types of waste.

Worms may also have a role to play in the treatment of organic wastes fromhouseholds, restaurants and food manufacturers. At present they are being used ona relatively minor scale but it is feasible that larger-scale development can beachieved with experimentation.128

127 'Air Pollution Conrol - Nature's Way' Waste Management and Environment 1 (6) pp 19-

20.

128 Nixon, Claire, `A Worm-Eaten Society' Bulletin July 9, 1991 p.17.

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5. WASTE DISPOSAL

Currently, and into the forseeable future, despite all our efforts to reduce, recycleand treat waste, there will still be a need for disposal facilities. This need is and willbe primarily met through landfill, apart from the highly specialized needs of toxicand radioactive materials.

Australia has one of the highest rates among industrial nations of disposal ofrubbish in landfill, presumably because of our large land to population ratio. However suitable land in or near our urban centres is becoming scarce, andresidents are becoming active in opposing the development or expansion of landfillsin their area (the NIMBY, Not In My Back Yard, Syndrome).

Apart from the availability of land, the key advantage of landfill is cost. Disposalcharges in Sydney in 1988 were $11.25 per tonne at landfills, $25.40 per tonne attransfer stations, and $27.20 for incineration.129 (See also Table 3.12).

The problems of landfill, apart from the availability of sites, are odour, litter, animalpests (birds, rodents), and potential land and water pollution through thepercolation of leachate. Water pollution can be avoided in new sites through designand the other problems can be largely overcome by management techniques thatensure rapid burial of deposited refuse.

Leachate typically contains a range of inorganic and organic compounds dependingon the composition of the waste, the presence of various micro-organisms, and theclimate. Some are manufactured compounds which are highly resistant todegradation, while others are products of biological and chemical transformations inthe buried waste. The water originates in the waste and from rain falling onto orrunning into the landfill site.

Secure landfills are those which have a designed system for the containment,extraction and treatment of leachate. The lining of such landfills is multi-layered,and layers may include compacted natural clays, textiles and plastics. Thepreferred plastic is high density polyethylene (HDPE) because of its superiorresistance to degradation. A system of observation wells and pumps is required tomonitor and extract leachate. Leachate may be treated by chemical, physical orbiological means, often to a standard suitable for disposal in sewerage systems.

129 `Waste Management in the Greater Melbourne Area' Parliament of Victoria. Natural

Resources and Environment Committee, May 1990.

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Gas is also generated in municipal landfills and may be collected and used. Landfillgas typically contains 50-70% methane, 30-50% carbon dioxide, and traces ofnitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and organic gases. Under natural conditions, the gasesdiffuse to the surface of the landfill and escape. According to Hubick, collection oflandfill gas is underway at two sites in Australia and is being investigated ataround 12 others. In a feasibility study at Northcote in Victoria in 1984, two testwells produced sufficient gas to generate 110-130 kW of electricity per hour.130

Municipal landfills are believed to stabilise after about 30 years. The five stages ofan active landfill have been summarised by Krol and are listed in Figure 5.1.

130 Hubick, Kerry. Management and Technologies of Waste, A Perspective - Australia 1990

p.96.

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Figure 5.1 Five stages of an Actual Landfill

I. Initial Adjustment

Initial waste placement and preliminary moisture accumulates;Initial subsidence and closure of each landfill area;First changes in environmental parameters (odours, gases, leachate).

II. Transition

Local wetting of fill to an extent that leachate is formed;Transition from initial aerobic to anaerobic microbial processes occurs;Microbes shift from oxygen to nitrates and sulfates for their oxygen source, oxygen isdisplaced as carbon dioxide;The fill moves towards anaerobic conditions;Volatile organic fatty acids first appear in leachate.

III. Acid Formation

Volatile organic acids become predominant in leachate;Rapid decrease in pH with accompanying mobilisation and possible complexation ofmetals;Release of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus supports microbial growthand degradation of organics;Hydrogen may be generated in small quantities.

IV. Methane Fermentation

Intermediate products from the acid forming phase are converted to methane andcarbon dioxide;pH rises from slightly acidic to the neutral-slightly alkaline region;Fill becomes extremely anaerobic;Metals complex and precipitate;Leachate organic strength falls dramatically as gas production increases.

V. Final MuturationMove to dormancy as readily available organics are consumed;Gas production becomes very small;Natural environmental conditions gradually return, including a return to moreoxidised compounds;Refractory (microbiologically-resistant) organics are slowly converted, possiblyproducing humic-like substances capable of complexing with and re-mobilisingheavy metals.

Source: Krol, A. Quoted by Hubick, Kerry. Management and Technologies of Wastes, APerspective - Australia 1990 p.93.

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6. LEGISLATION

This section provides a comprehensive listing of State and Federal Legislationdealing with waste management and recycling. Annotations are given for keystatutes dealing with waste management in each jurisdiction. Other statutes,including those dealing with noise control and pollution of air and water, are alsolisted.

6.1 QUEENSLAND

State Environment Act 1988This Act established a State Environment Advisory Council to advise the Ministeron environmental matters, and a State Environment Trust Fund. There is nospecific legislation dealing with waste management in Queensland, althoughaspects of the topic are included in the Acts in the list below. The introduction ofnew comprehensive legislation in 1992 has been foreshadowed.131

Other Acts:Local Government Act 1936Radioactive Substances Act 1958Prevention of Pollution of Waters by Oil Act 1961Clean Air Act 1963Clean Waters Act 1971Queensland Marine (Sea Dumping) Act 1985Chemical Usage (Agricultural and Veterinary) Control Act 1988

6.2 NEW SOUTH WALES

Waste Disposal Act 1970This Act established the Metropolitan Waste Disposal Authority, later renamed theWaste Management Authority. The Authority is responsible for the managementand disposal of waste in metropolitan Sydney, and more recently for theconstruction and operation of a high temperature waste incineration facility. TheAuthority may issue licences, certificates or contracts covering the creation,transport, storage or disposal of waste. Waste is defined as effluent, garbage ortrade waste, or, in relation to the high temperature incineration facility, anysubstance requiring disposal. The high temperature incineration facility has not yetbeen constructed. Environmental assessments are currently being conducted onseven possible sites.

State Pollution Control Commission Act 1970This Act established the State Pollution Control Commission. The primaryresponsibility of the Commission is to ensure "that all practical measures are taken... to prevent, control, abate or mitigate the pollution of the environment, to controlor regulate the disposal of waste and otherwise to protect the environment fromdefacement, defilement or deterioration". 131 Comben, Pat. Environmental Reform: a Govenment Priority. Management update.

No.117, August 1991.

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Environmentally Hazardous Chemicals Act 1985This Act established a Hazardous Chemicals Advisory Committee to oversee theproduction, use and disposal of hazardous chemicals in NSW.

Environmental Offences and Penalties Act 1989This Act prohibits the disposal or spillage of waste in a manner that could result inenvironmental damage, except with lawful authority, and establishes severepenalties for so doing. This Act defines the environment as "all aspects of thesurroundings of human beings", including not only physical and biological factors,but also aesthetic factors. The Act also provides for the recovery of the costs ofcleaning up pollution from the polluter. Acts committed or omitted outside of NSWbut which result in environmental harm in NSW are also offences under this Act.

Environmental Restoration and Rehabilitation Trust Act 1990The Trust Fund established by this Act receives money from payments made forpermissions to discharge waste into any service of the Water Board. The Trustmakes grants from the fund for projects to reduce pollution, waste or environmentaldegradation.

Other Acts:Noxious Trades Act 1902Public Health Act 1902Water Act 1912Prevention of Oil Pollution of Navigable Waters Act 1960Clean Air Act 1961Clean Waters Act 1970Noise Control Act 1975Coastal Protection Act 1979Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979Land and Environment Court Act 1979Water Board Act 1987Environmental Education Trust Act 1990Environmental Research Trust Act 1990

6.3 VICTORIA

Melbourne and Metropolitan Board of Works Act 1958The Board has responsibility for the management of waste in the metropolitan areaapart from that managed by local authorities.

Environment Protection Act 1970This Act provides a comprehensive statutory framework for environmentalprotection in Victoria. It established an Environment Protection Authority and anEnvironment Council. The Authority has a broad range of functions andresponsibilities in relation to regulation, monitoring and policy advice concerningpollution and waste management. The Council advises and/or reports to theMinister on matters relevant to the administration of the Act and environmentalprotection in general.

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Other Acts:Water Act 1958Health Act 1958Navigable Waters Oil Pollution Act 1960Groundwater Act 1969 Local Government (Regional Refuse Disposal) Act 1978Environment Effects Act 1978Planning Appeals Act 1980Nuclear Activities (Prohibitions) Act 1983Dangerous Goods Act 1985Pollution of Waters by Oil and Noxious Substances Act 1986Planning and Environment Act 1987

6.4 TASMANIA

Environment Protection Act 1973This Act established a statutory position of Director of Environmental Control,currently the Secretary of the Department of Environment and Planning, and anEnvironment Protection Advisory Council. The Director is responsible for theprotection, restoration and improvement of the environment and the control of air,land and water pollution. Premises of a type listed in the Act, primarily industrialpremises likely to produce pollutants, must be licensed by the Director.

Other Acts:Rivers Pollution Act 1881Sewers and Drains Act 1954Water Act 1957Pollution Act 1961Radioactive Substances Act 1966Planning and Development Act 1966Litter Act 1973Radiation Control Act 1977Metropolitan Water Act 1978Groundwater Act 1985Environment Protection (Sea Dumping) Act 1987Pollution of Waters by Oil and Noxious Substances Act 1987Chloroflurocarbons and Other Ozone Depleting Substances Control Act 1988

75

6.5 SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Beverage Container Act 1975Certain beverage containers may only be sold on condition that a refund is paid ontheir return, and retailers are obliged to pay the appropriate refunds. Certain otherbeverage containers (eg. ring-pull cans) are prohibited.

Public and Environmental Health Act 1987Among other matters related to public health, this Act regulates sanitation,drainage and waste discharge into public places and water supplies.

Waste Management Act 1987This Act replaced the South Australian Waste Management Commission Act 1979but continues the existence of that Commission. Among the functions of theCommission in overseeing waste management are the development of wastemanagement plans for specified areas, and the licensing of the production,collection, transport, storage and disposal of waste.

Other Acts:Control of Waters Act 1919Local Government Act 1934Health Act 1935Planning and Development Act 1966Environment Protection Council Act 1972Radiation Protection and Control Act 1972South Australian Health Commission Act 1975Water Resources Act 1976Noise Control Act 1976South Australian Waste Management Commission Act 1979Environment Protection (Sea Dumping) Act 1984Clean Air Act 1984Pollution of Waters by Oil and Noxious Substances Act 1987

6.6 WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Environmental Protection Act 1986This Act replaced an earlier (1971) Act and continues in existence theEnvironmental Protection Authority established by that Act. The Authority has arange of functions and responsibilities in relation to the protection of theenvironment. In particular, the Authority has a major review, assessment andadvisory function for all projects that could have an impact on the environment.

Other Acts:Health Act 1911Prevention of Pollution of Waters by Oil Act 1960Local Government Act 1960Clean Air Act 1960Noise Abatement Act 1972Waterways Conservation Act 1976Nuclear Activities Regulations Act 1978

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Litter Act 1979Western Australian Marine (Sea Dumping) Act 1981Pollution of Waters by Oil and Noxious Substances Act 1987

6.7 FEDERAL ACTS

Environmental protection and waste management are matters about whichlegislation is mainly enacted by the States, but there are some relevant Federal Actswhich are listed here.The Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974National Parks and Wildlife Copnservation Act 1975The Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975Environment P{rotection (Northern Territory Suprteme Court) Act 1978Protection of the Sea (Prevention of Pollution from Ships) Act 1978Environment Protection (Sea Dumping) Act 1981Ozone Protection Act 1989

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7. CONCLUSION

The goal of this Background Information Brief has been to present a broad overviewof the range of issues and possibilities in Waste Management. Of necessity, muchdetail on individual topics has been omitted but references have been given toenable readers to follow up any particular item of interest. It is truly a vast subject.

It seems obvious that human society will continue to produce waste materials intothe foreseeable future. It is also apparent from many of the examples given in thispaper that, through a combination of vision and necessity, a range of processes andtechniques has been developed (and many more are under investigation) to treat orreduce the wastes that we produce.

It is commonly argued that present and future problems of health and pollution aresufficiently grave to ensure that all wastes should be managed in the mostappropriate manner. However all waste management initiatives have their owncost of implementation, and some though admirable are simply too expensive underpresent economic parameters. Clearly there will be many political (in the goodsense) decisions to be made about allocation of resources, incentives for producersand consumers of waste, research priorities, and the like.

Inevitably there will be a range of pressures - some advocating decisions that areinexpensive and expedient in the short-term, others that will stress the wisdom ofcomprehensive and long-term solutions to our waste management problems. Ultimately, it will be the combination of foresight by our decision makers,inventiveness by our technologists, and tenacity by those with a longer-termperspective that will determine the level of investment in waste management thatwe will make for the future.

78

78

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(This Background Information Brief is substantially based on the IndustryCommission report, Recycling in Australia 1991, and issues of WasteManagement journal in recent years, as listed below.)

Articles

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Alley, Tom 1990, 'Clean-up costs lie with pollutee', Waste Management vol.1no.10, October 1990, p.43.

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79

Brunner, Calvin 1991, 'Hospital waste incineration in the United States', WasteManagement vol.2 no.5, April 1991, pp.25-28.

Cail, Barbara 1991, 'Federal environment minister working on a plan for anational strategy for waste minimisation and recycling', Waste Management vol.2 no.4, March 1991, pp.4-5.

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'Changes and trends in municipal waste handling' 1990, Waste Managementvol.1 no.9, September 1990, pp.31-33.

Cockburn, Guy 1991, 'Leachate extraction on landfill sites' Waste Management vol.2 no.3, February 1991, pp.17-18.

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Dixon, Terry 1991, 'Bagasse an abundant answer to energy', Waste Managementvol.2 no.6, May 1991, pp.24-25.

Ellyard, David 1990, 'New horizons for our chemicals', Waste Management vol.1no.4, March 1990, pp.44-45.

'Entremanure (cow dung)' 1989, Waste Management vol.1 no.1, November 1989,p.27.

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Futo, Eddie 1990, 'Biomedical waste incineration; why does Victoria need tolead the world?' Waste Management vol.1 no.8, August 1990, pp.41-43.

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Gabb, John 1990, 'Design for recycling', Waste Management vol.1 no.3, February1990, pp.18-20

'Garbage Industry' 1989, The Economist vol.311 no.7597, 8 April 1989, pp.25 &28.

Gardiner, Graham 1990, 'Resignation could stall waste control contract',Business Queensland vol.1 no.18, 30 July 1990.

Glausiusz, Josie 1991, 'Waste management in Israel', Waste Management vol.2no.4, March 1991, pp.24-28.

'Glass recycling facility in Queensland'1991, Waste Management vol.2 no.6, May1991, p.26.

Glennon, Denis 1990, 'Total sludge recycling: the OFS process-meeting nationalagendas', Waste Management vol.1 no.10, November 1990, pp.30-32.

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Hartley, Peter 1991, 'Plastics that do not pollute', Waste Management vol.2 no.5,April 1991, pp.29-31.

'High temperature incinerator location announced' 1990, Waste Managementvol.1 no.10, October 1990, p.36.

Holmes, Ken 1990, 'Remediation and rehabilitation of contaminated lands'Waste Management vol.1 no.10, November 1990, pp.13-14.

'How hot metal makes toxic waste safe to burn' 1991, New Scientist vol.130no.1774, 22 June 1991, p.28.

'HTI the right decision, says Swedish waste expert' 1991, Waste Managementvol.2 No.3, February 1991, pp.30-31.

Hubick, Kerry 1991, 'Technologies for solid waste management', WasteManagement vol.2 no.7, June 1991, pp.29-31.

Hughes, Rod 1990, 'Western Australia, leader in the field of recycling CFCS'Waste Management vol.1 no.10, October 1990, pp.28-29.

'Interest grows in biological waste control', Waste Management vol.2 no.4, March1991, p.8.

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'Joint Task Force on Intractable Waste' 1989, Waste Management vol.1 no.1,November 1989, p.20.

Jong, Adolf 1991, 'Domestic waste management... European experience', WasteManagement vol.2 no.6, May 1991, pp.28-29.

Kelley, Bruce 1991, 'Bioremediation - an evolving technology', WasteManagement vol.2 no.7, June 1991, pp.32-34.

'Kelly launches national waste minimisation and recycling strategy'1991,Ministerial Document Service no.7889, 6 June 1991.

Klatt, Peter 1990, 'Rice hulls... wonderwaste?', Waste Management vol.1 No.3,February 1990, pp.41-44.

Kyle, James 1991, 'Chemical fixation solidification', Watse Management vol.2no.3 February 1991, pp.19-21.

'Launch of 100 percent recyclable labels' 1990, Waste Management vol.1 no.10,November 1990, p.36.

'Local government should fight `Throw-it-away' mentality, says SallyanneAtkinson' 1990, Waste Management vol.1 no.2, December/January 1990, p.20.

Mackay, Garry 1990, 'Recovery of recyclable metals by shredding', WasteManagement vol.1 no.10, November 1990, pp.26-29.

McNamara, Mark 1990, 'Taking the mystique out of contaminated land', WasteManagement vol.1 no.10, November 1990, pp.45-46.

Marstellar, B.G. 1991, 'Thermal destruction... An answer to Australia'shazardous waste problem?', Waste Management vol.2 no.6, May 1991, pp.18-21.

'Membrane technology to clean-up mountains: Memtec' 1990, WasteManagement vol.1 no.4, March 1990, p.9.

Morrison, Bob 1991, 'Landfills in Western Australia', Waste Management vol.2no.3, February 1991, pp.22-23.

Morrow, Darrell 1991, 'Commingled post consumer plastics processing andproducts - a major market opportunity', Waste Management vol.2 no.2,December/January 1991, pp.26-32.

Murphy, Kevin 1989, 'Up to our necks in garbage', The Bulletin vol.111 No.5660,14 March 1989, pp.46-54.

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'Natural Plastic' 1991, New Scientist 24 August 1991, p.16.

'New boots for old in UK.' 1991, Waste Management vol.2 no.6, May 1991, p.27.

'New use for sewage... steel from sludge?', Waste Management vol.1 No.4, March1990, p.6.

'The oil from sludge technology' 1989, Waste Management vol.1 no.1, November1989, pp.39-41.

'On-the spot recycling' 1991, Australian Municipal Journal vol.70 no.1049, June1991, p.3.

'Opportunity for tyre recycling' 1990, Waste Management vol.1 no.6, May/June1990, p.30.

Phillips, Frank 1990, 'Industry must take the lead in waste management andnot wait to be prodded, Waste Management vol.1 no.3, February 1990, pp.7-8.

'Plasma technology for toxic waste disposal' 1990, Waste Management vol.1no.10, November 1990, pp.11-12.

'Qld Government launches recycling program' 1990, Waste Management vol.1no.7, July 1990, p.23.

'Record profit for Memtec' 1989, Scitech vol.9 no.10, October 1989, p.9.

'Recycling Christmas trees' 1991, Waste Management vol.2 no.2,December/January 1991, p.23.

'Recycling success story... waste oil utilisation at BHP Kembla' 1990, WasteManagement vol.1 no.2, December/Janaury 1990, pp.22-23.

Rochfort, Shane 1991, 'Recycle Sydney Conference', Waste Management vol.224.no.6, May 1991, pp.22-23.

Salmon, Jan 1991, 'Recycling newsprint: a question of supply, demand... andcontrol', Australian Municipal Journal vol.70 no.1049, June 1991, p.13.

'Sewage sludge dry waste an asset, not a liability' 1989, Australian EconomicReview vol.4 no.10, October 1989, p.20.

'Sheep fat - a new energy source' 1990, Waste Management vol.1 no.10, October1990, p.10.

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'Shredder Applications in Waste Management' 1990, Waste Management andEnvironment 1 (3), pp.26-28, February 1990.

Smith, Barry 1989, 'Bill Scholer... all fired up over incinerators', WasteManagement vol.1 no.1, November 1989, pp.30-31.

Smith, Barry 1990, 'Hi-tech incineration', Waste Management vol.1 no.8, August1990, pp.13-15.

Smith, Barry 1990, 'The ultimate cash from trash... precious metal recovery atPacific Precious Metals', Waste Management vol.1 no.3, February 1990, pp.22-

Smith, Barry 1991, 'Plastics recycling a big business in the United States', WasteManagement vol.2 no.4, March 1991, pp.29-31.

Smith, Barry 1991, 'Getting serious about recycling', Waste Management vol.2no.7, June 1991, pp.38-39.

Smith Barry 1991, 'Recyclers of Australia plant 'a bottler'', Waste Managementvol.2 no.3, February 1991, pp.24-25.

Southwell, M. & Russel, J.D. 1990, 'Recycling waste water, the ShoalhavenHeads project', Waste Management vol.1 no.7, July 1990, pp.25-26.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Bins come out ahead in container recycling trial' WasteManagement vol.1 no.10, October 1990, pp.26-27.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Citrus peel waste management', Waste Management vol.1no.7, July 1990, p.11.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Cleaning up sewage sludge with Bio-Recycle', WasteManagement vol.1 no.10, November 1990, p.20.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Energy from waste with Waterwide Heat Plants', WasteManagement vol.1 no.8, August 1990, pp.28-30.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Ice cream company heads for clear waters', WasteManagement vol.1 no.6, May/June 1990, pp.23-25.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Membrane technology for pollution control', WasteManagement vol.1 no.7, July 1990, pp.48-49.

Templeton, Jill 1990. 'Neutralysis provides a real solution to urban wastedisposal', Waste Management vol.1 no.6, May/June 1990, pp.32-33.

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Templeton, Jill 1990, 'New technology for burning waste to heat energy', WasteManagement vol.1 no.9, September 1990, pp.26-27.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Rubbish dump used to provide Manila with electricity',Waste Management vol.1 no. 7, July 1990, pp.4-5.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Shredded stringy bark converts to fuel', WasteManagement vol.1 no.9 September 1990, pp.16-17.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Superburn incinerates sewage sludge to ash and clean air',Waste Management vol.1 no.8, August 1990, pp.25-27.

Templeton, Jill 1990, 'Winery effluent feeds red gum plantation', WasteManagement vol.1 no.6, May/June 1990, pp.17-18.

Templeton, Jill & Rooyen, Jessica 1990, 'The toxicity characteristic leachingprocedure explained', Waste Management vol.1 no.9, September 1990, pp.18-20.

Thomas, Anthony 1990, 'Intractable waste-prevention, clean-up and destruction',Waste Management vol.1 no.9, September 1990, pp.39-40.

Thornton, Trevor 1990, 'Medical waste disposal - waste minimisation', WasteManagement vol.1 no.10, November 1990, pp.17-19.

'Timely push for Synroc Project: Australia and China in nuclear-waste venture'1990, Waste Management vol.1 no.4, March 1990, pp.41-42.

'Tyre incinerator scrubs toxic fumes'1991, Waste Management vol. 2 no.6, May1991, p.12.

Varjavandi, Jim 1990, 'Dewatering and disposal of sewage sludge' vol.1 no.10,October 1990, pp.13-15.

'Vegetation recycling plant established in SA' 1991, Waste Management vol.2no.6, May 1991, p.26.

'Victorian minister announces new proposals to control ozone-depletingsubstances' 1990, Waste Management vol.1 no.4, March 1990, p.16.

'A worm-eaten society' 1991, The Bulletin vol.113 no.5777, 9 July 1991, p.17.

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Technical Bulletins

South Australia Waste Management Commission 1985. 'Handling and disposalof wastes containing PCB', Technical Bulletin no.3, October 1985, pp.1-3.

South Australia Waste Management Commission 1985, 'Conditions of licence forthe storage and transport of wastes containing polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)',Technical Bulletin no.2, September 1985, pp.1-2.

South Australian Waste Management Commission 1985, 'Conditions of licencefor the safe handling, transport, storage and disposal of asbestos waste',Technical Bulletin no.1, January 1985, pp.1-3.

South Australian Waste Management Commission 1986, 'Disposal of hazardouswastes arising from laboratories', Technical Bulletin no.7, May 1986, p.1.

South Australian Waste Management Commission 1986, 'The Waste disposalnotice', Technical Bulletin no.4, November 1986, pp.1-5.

South Australian Waste Management Commission 1986, 'Disposal ofhalogenated hydrocarbon solvent wastes', Technical Bulletin no.10, July 1986,pp.1-3.

Newspaper Articles

Doughty, Jane 1991, 'University job to study neutralysis' Courier Mail, 27February 1991, p.5.

'Use of germs may be key to clean-up crisis' 1991 Australian, 18 March 1991,pp.24-25.

Cribb, Julian 1991, 'Bureaucrats stifle most important debate' Australian, 16March 1991, p.9.

'High-tech solution planned for city's sewage problem' 1991 Courier Mail, 28March 1991, p.5.

Serials

New South Wales. Waste Management Authority. Annual Report. Sydney,WMA 1989-90.

South Australian Waste Management Commission. Annual Report. Adelaide,

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Government Printer, 1988-89.

Queensland. Department of Environment and Heritage. EnvironmentInformation. Brisbane, DEH, 1990-91.

Books

South Australian Waste Management Commission 1985, The MetropolitanAdelaide Solid Waste Management Plan 1985-1994. Adelaide, GovernmentPrinter.

Queensland. Bureau of Emergency Services. Chem Unit. 1991, A Green Paper oncontaminated land legislation. Brisbane, Chem Unit.

Institution of Engineers, Australia. Queensland Division. 24 July 1990. WasteManagement - Disposal of Wastes : Threats and Opportunities. Brisbane, IEAQ.United States. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991, EnvironmentalStewardship : EPA's first two years in the Bush Administration. [Washington],EPA.

Neutralysis Industries Limited. Neutralysis process. Brisbane, NIL, 1990. TheAge, Recycling and waste: a special report on conservation. Melbourne, The Age,29 May 1991.

Richardson, G. (Senator) 1988, Response to the recommendations of the House ofRepresentatives Standing Committee on Environment and Conservation'sInquiry into Hazardous Chemicals: First Report. [Canberra, Parliament House].

Exner, Jurgen (ed.) 1987, Solving hazardous waste problems : learning fromdioxins. Washington, American Chemical Society, 1987. United States. Congress. House of Representatives. Committee on Merchant Marine andFisheries. Waste dumping : hearings. Washington, GPO, 1981.

O'Gallagher, Brian 1988, Waste Management Technologies. Opportunities forResearch and Manufacturing in Australia. Department of Industry, Technologyand Commerce, Canberra, August 1990.

Withers, Sonia (Comp.) 1987, Safety in Hazardous Wastes. EuropeanFoundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin.

Hubick, Kerry, T. 1991, Management and Technologies of Wastes. A Perspective- Australia 1990. Department of Industry, Technology and Commerce,Canberra.

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Dawson, Gaynor, W. and Mercer, Basil, W. 1986, Hazardous WasteManagement. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Key Community Issues in Hazardous Waste Management. Proceedings of theThird National Conference on the Management of Hazardous Waste, Melbourne,November 1989. Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Chatswood,NSW.

Waste Management in the Greater Melbourne Area. 1990, Parliament of VictoriaNatural Resources and Environment Committee, May 1990. VictorianParliamentary Paper No. 135.

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GLOSSARY

brass copper and zinc

bronze copper and tin

CFC chlorofluorocarbon (refrigerant gas)

CO2 carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas)

hazardous waste usually chemicals, the disposal of which couldpresent a risk to people or the environment

HDPE high density polyethylene (a type of plastic)

heavy metals e.g. lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, mercury, chromium

intractable waste usually highly toxic chemicals and radioactivematerials with no available means of safedisposal

kW kilowatt (unit of energy)

LDPE low density polyethylene (a type of plastic)

MJ megajoule (unit of energy)

nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, carbon.

pathogen agent causing disease

PCB pentachloronitrobenzene (pesticide)

PET polyethylene terephthalate (a type of plastic)

pH a measure of acidity/alkalinity

PP polypropylene (a type of plastic)

PS polystyrene (a type of plastic)

PVC polyvinyl chloride (a type of plastic)

89

INDEX

ACI 3.5.3, 3.5.4Albert Shire Council 3.5.5.7Alcoa 3.5.2Australian Archives 3.4.2Bagasse 3.5.5.8Batteries 3.5.2Berwick Council, Victoria 3.4.1BHP 3.5.5.3Big bins 3.3.2, Table 3.3, Table 3.5Bioton 4.4Brisbane City Council 3.5.5.1, 3.5.5.4, 3.5.5.5, 3.5.5.7Britain 3.5.3California 3.5.5.4Canada 3.5.5.3CFC's 3.4.2Citrus peel 3.5.5.8Comalco 3.5.2Compost 3.4.1, 3.5.5.7, 3.4.2, 3.5.5.7De-inking 3.4.2Disposal charges, 3.5.5.5, Table 3.14Dow Chemical Company 2Energy saving 3.4.2, 3.5.2Energy consumption Table 3.16, Table 3.17Environmental Protection Agency (Victoria) 2Ethanol 3.5.5.8Germany 3.5.3Greenhouse gases 3.4.2, 3.5.5.8, Table 3.16, Hastings Council, Victoria 3.5.5.5Hazardous Waste (definition) 1Hervey Bay Council 3.5.5.2Intractable Waste (definition) 1Japan 3.5.3Kingston, Qld. 3.4.2Landfill 5Leachate Table 5.1Lilydale Council, Victoria 3.5.5.5Local Government 3.3.2, 3.3.3, Table 3.4, Table 3.4.1, Table 3.7, Table 3.8,

Table 3.11, Table 3.12 Maine, USA 3.4.2Manure 3.5.5.8Marion, City of 3.4.1

90

Mulch see compostNetherlands 3.5.3Neutralysis 3.6Ozone layer 3.4.2Pacific Precious Metal 3.5.2Paper Save Security Services 3.4.2PCB's 3.5.5.3Perkasie, Pennsylvania 3.4.1PET, 3.2, 3.3.2, 3.5.4Petrie Mill 3.4.2Plascon 4.2.4Pollution 3.4.2, 3.5.5.2, 3.5.5.1Prawn shells 3.5.5.8Promotion of recycling Table 3.8Queensland Dept. of Environment and Heritage 3.4.2Recycled Water Coordination Committee 3.5.5.2Recyclers of Australia 3.5.3Refillable glassware 3.4.2, 3.5.3, Table 3.17Rice hulls 3.5.5.8Savings from recycling Table 3.13Seattle, City of 3.4.1Sheep, old 3.5.5.8Sheep fat 3.5.5.8Simsmetal 3.5.2Springvale Council, Victoria 3.4.1Stringy bark 3.5.5.8Sweden 3.5.3Switzerland 3.5.3United States 3.5.3, 3.4.2, 3.4.1, 3.5.5.1, 3.5.5.4, 3.5.5.7Vermont, USA 3.5.5.7Wheelie-bins see big binsWillawong 3.5.5.1Willoughby City Council 3.3.2Winery effluent 3.5.5.8

reducing rubbish and recycling refuse ...... contents page synopsis 5 1. introduction 6 2. waste...

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