reciprocal teaching: improving students reading comprehension
TRANSCRIPT
Hamline UniversityDigitalCommons@HamlineSchool of Education Student Capstone Theses andDissertations School of Education
Spring 2017
Reciprocal Teaching: Improving Students ReadingComprehensionNora O'MalleyHamline University
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RECIPROCALTEACHING:
IMPROVINGSTUDENTSREADINGCOMPREHENSION
by
NoraG.O’Malley
ACapstonesubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofArtsinLiteracyEducation
HamlineUniversitySt.Paul,Minnesota
May2017
Committee:MarciaRockwood,PrimaryAdvisorKimKnutilla,SecondaryAdvisorKathleenLopiano,PeerReviewer
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Mom,Dad,andCaitlin~Thankyouformakingthisallpossible.IwouldnotbewhereI’mattodaywithoutyour
support.Thehomemademealsandlaundryservicewasn’tbadeither☺
Kevin~Foryourwordsofencouragementandstickin’
withmethepasttwoyears-Thankyou.
Marcia,Kim,andKathleen~Thankyoufortheoutstandingfeedbackandguidancethroughoutthisprocess.
Icouldn’taskforamoresupportiveteam.
3
TableofContents
CHAPTERONE........................................................................................................................................................... 4Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 4ProfessionalPractice ..........................................................................................................................................................5Will’sReadingJourney .......................................................................................................................................................6Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................................................................8
CHAPTERTWO........................................................................................................................................................10LiteratureReview ..................................................................................................................................................10Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 10UnderstandingComprehension .................................................................................................................................. 11UnderstandingFluency................................................................................................................................................... 15RelationshipBetweenFluencyandComprehension ......................................................................................... 18DefiningReciprocalTeaching ...................................................................................................................................... 20Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 29
CHAPTERTHREE ...................................................................................................................................................30Methods......................................................................................................................................................................31TheRationaleforCurriculumDevelopment ......................................................................................................... 31TheLearningEnvironment ........................................................................................................................................... 32Participants .......................................................................................................................................................................... 33CurricularFramework .................................................................................................................................................... 34Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 35
CHAPTERFOUR ......................................................................................................................................................36Results.........................................................................................................................................................................36CurriculumDevelopment............................................................................................................................................... 36Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................................ 69
CHAPTERFIVE ........................................................................................................................................................70Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................................70PossibleImplications....................................................................................................................................................... 71PossibleLimitations ......................................................................................................................................................... 72FutureResearch................................................................................................................................................................. 73FinalThoughts .................................................................................................................................................................... 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................................................................................75
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CHAPTERONE
Introduction
“Ifthepurposeforreadingisanythingotherthanunderstanding,whyreadatall?-StephanieHarvey&AnneGoudvis
Readinghasalwayscomenaturallytome.Growingup,classicslikeTheRainbow
Fish,WheretheWildThingsAreandTheGivingTreefilledmyshelvesandIhadnoproblem
choosingtoreadoverplayingoutside.Ivividlyremembergettinglostinthestoryline,
imaginingmyselfasthecharacterandanxiouslypredictingwhatwastocome.Itwasatthis
youngagethatIrealizeditwasnottheactofreadingthatIwasattractedto,itwasthe
storythatcamealongwithit.
AsIbeganmyteachingcareerthreeyearsagoasanaïvethirdgradeteacher,I
assumedthatmystudentswouldautomaticallysharealoveforreadingandtheabilityto
understandthestorylikeIhad.Boy,wasIwrong!AlthoughIwasblessedwithadiverse
groupoflearners,manyperformedbelowgradelevel.Iwasnotonlyconfusedbytheirlack
ofmotivationtoread,butalsobytheirlackofunderstandingwhattheyread.Alarge
portionofmyclasscoulddecodeandreadthewordsbeautifully,butwhenaskedsimple
questionsaboutthereading,theywouldstareatmeblankly.Iimmediatelyfeltillequipped
andconfusedonhowtohelpthesestudentscomprehend.Wasn’treadingcomprehension
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supposedtobeanautomaticskill?Iftheycanreadthewordstheyshouldbeabletorecall
whattheyread,right?Thisconfusionandfrustrationledmetoaskmyresearchquestion:
Howcanreciprocalteachingbeusedtoincreasecomprehensionskillswithfluentreadersin
theprimarygrades?
ProfessionalPractice WhenIthinkbackonmypathofbecomingateacher,thereisnodoubtinmymind
thatitallstartedwithmystudentteachingexperience.Iwasfortunatetoworkwithsecond
gradersinaCatholicelementaryschool.Iwassoexcitedtojumprightinandlearn
everythingtherewastolearnaboutbeingateacher.
Ihadtheprivilegeofworkingwithawonderfulandcaringcooperativeteacherwho
hadmanyyearsofexperienceandknowledgeabouttheprofession.Withthatbeingsaid,I
woulddescribeherteachingstyleasverytraditional.The45-minutereadingblock
consistedofreadingthestoryfromthebasalasawholegroupandthenansweringthe
comprehensionquestionsattheend,alsoasawholegroup.Iperseveredthroughthefour
monthsofstudentteachingtrulybelievingthatiswhatreadingtimelookedlike.Notonly
wasthisinstructiontobewholegroup,butitassumedthatallstudentsunderstoodand
comprehendedatthesamelevel.
Thisstyleofteachingseemedtoworkformycooperatingteacherandherstudents
atthetime.Theyallhadtheabilitytopassthetestsattheendoftheunitandmoveonto
thirdgrade.However,Icannothelpbutlookbacknowandwonderhowexplicit
comprehensionstrategyinstructionwouldhavepositivelyaffectedtheirreading.Did
simplyansweringliteralquestionsallowthemtoacquiretheproperskillstocomprehend
morecomplextextinthefuture?Ifstudentscouldreadthewords,doesthatautomatically
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meantheyunderstoodthecontent?Atthetime,myanswerstothosequestionswereyes,
butitwassoontochange.
Oddly,Ileftthisexperiencefeelingpreparedandreadytoteach.Inreality,Iwasnot
preparedandreadytoteachagroupofdiversestudentswhoseneedswerevaried.Clearly,
Ilackedasolidfoundationinteachingstudentstoread,andmorespecifically,howto
comprehend.TheonlycomprehensionstrategyIhadinmytoolboxwastohelpstudents
answerthequestionsattheendofastory.Iassumediftheycouldreadthetextandanswer
thosequestions,theywouldbesuccessfulreaders.Moredangerously,Ialsoassumedifthey
couldreadthewords,theunderstandingportionwouldfollow.
Will’sReadingJourney Reflectingonmypastexperiences,onestudentinparticularcontributedtomy
interestinthistopic.Willwasastudentinmythirdgradeclassduringmyfirstyearof
teaching.Hewasaverylikeablechildwhowasthefirstonetothrowhishandupto
participate.Willlovedtoreadandevenconsideredhimselfagoodreader.Hehadno
troublereadingoutloudtohisclassmatesormyself.BecauseIknewhecouldreadfluently
Iwouldvolunteerhimtoreadoutloudregularly,whichinreturnincreasedhisconfidence.
IhadnodoubtthatWillwouldbeoneofmybrighteststudentsthroughouttheupcoming
schoolyear.
UponhearingWill’sfluentreadingIplacedhiminmyadvancedreadinggroup.It
wasnotuntilsmallgroupthatInoticedtherealproblem.Afterwefinishedreadingthe
leveledreader,Iautomaticallystartedtoaskcomprehensionquestions.Willwasupfirst.I
askedhimthesimplerecallquestionfromthetext.Hestammeredoutafewrandomwords,
paused,andeventuallysaid,“Idon’tknow.”Notonlywashestumped,butIwasstumpedas
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well.Itdidnotmakesensetome.HowcouldWillbesucha“good”readerbuthavenoidea
whathehadread?Stanovich(1986)cameupwiththeterm“wordcalling.”Thisiswhenthe
wordsinthetextareefficientlydecodedintotheirspokenformswithoutcomprehensionof
thepassagetakingplace.ThisconceptdescribedWillperfectly.Hedidnotunderstandthat
readingalsorequiredthinking.
Forthemostpart,Willhadmefooled.Itturnedout,helackedanextremely
importantpieceofthereadingpuzzle,likemanyotherstudents.Thatmissingpiecewas
comprehension.Ibelievedhewasagoodreaderbecausehecouldreadthewordsfluently
withalmostnoerrors.Ihaveneverbeenmorewrong.ItwasatthismomentthatIrealized
therearetwoequallyimportantcomponentsofreading:decodingandcomprehension.In
ordertobeasuccessfulreader,learnersmusthaveboth.Asamoreexperiencedteacher,I
nowrecognizethatIwasjudgingWill’sreadinglevelbasedonhisabilitytodecode,nothis
abilitytodecodeandconstructmeaningfromthetext.Frankly,Iwasbaffledbyastudent
whoseunderstandingofthetextdidnotcomeautomatically.
OnceIrealizedWilldidnotcomprehendwhatheread,Ibegantotakeaction.
ImmediatelyIthoughtthathewaschoosingbooksthatweretoohardforhim.Therefore,
wehadcountlessconversationsaboutchoosingjustrightbooks,andIwouldcheckinwith
himoccasionallytomakesurethebookshechosewereonhislevel.However,thisstrategy
didnotsolvetheproblem,soItaughthimhowtolookbackinthetexttofindanswersto
thequestions.Wepracticedoverandoveragaingoingbackintothetexttopullout
answers.Althoughhiscomprehensionincreasedslightly,Iknewhedidnotgrowtohisfull
potential.
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IwillneverforgetthedayIreceivedhisresultsfromtheNESAstatetest.Will’s
readingscorewasoneofthelowestintheclass.AlthoughIknewhestruggledwith
comprehension,Iwasstillshockedtoseetheproof.Evenmoredifficultwastryingto
explainhisscoretohisparents,whoalsoviewedtheirsonasaproficientreader.Theworst
partwasthatIwassupposedtohavetheanswers.AfterallIwastheprofessionaleducator,
andyetwestaredateachother,notknowingwhattodo.Iwasprovidingtheonlysolutions
Iknewtothisproblemanditclearlywasnotworking.
ReflectinguponWillandsimilarstudentswhohavethesamechallenge,Iamstillleft
withthequestion:Howcanreciprocalteachingbeusedtoincreasecomprehensionskillswith
fluentreadersintheprimarygrades?IbelieveIneedtofindawaytosupportstudentswho
keepgettingpushedalongbecausetheyareconsideredgoodreaders,butinrealitylackthe
abilitytocomprehend.Readingismuchmorethandecodingthewords.Itisultimately
aboutthinkingandconstructingmeaning.Whenencountering“wordcallers”likeWill,I
strivetogainabetterunderstandingofstrategiesthatwillimprovetheircomprehension
andunderstandingofthetext.UltimatelyIhopethatmystudentswillfallinlovewiththe
storyofreading,likeIdidasachild.
Conclusion Asateachingprofessional,itismyresponsibilitytopreparemystudentstobe
proficientlifelongreaders.Thismeansnotonlyteachingthemhowtoreadthewords,but
alsohowtounderstandthetext.InChapterTwoofthiscapstoneproject,Iwillprovide
currentresearchonfluencyandcomprehensioninstructionaswellascomprehension
strategies.Additionally,myresearchwillfocusontheexplicitconnectionbetweenfluency
andcomprehensionanddescribereciprocalteaching,aspecificcomprehensionstrategy.
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Next,ChapterThreewilldiscussthemethodologysurroundingthecurriculum
developmentunitonreciprocalteachingthatIcreate.Firstofall,Iwilldescribethe
learningenvironmentandframeworkfortheunit.Then,ChapterFourwillincludethe
curriculumIdeveloped,includinglessonstosupportreciprocalteaching.Finally,in
ChapterFive,IwillreflectonwhatIhavelearnedfromdesigningandimplementinga
curriculumthatfocusesonreciprocalteaching.Iwillalsodiscussthelimitationsand
implications,aswellasanyfuturerecommendationsforthisareaofstudy.
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CHAPTERTWO
LiteratureReview
“Readinggivesussomeplacetogowhenwehavetostaywhereweare.”-MasonCooley
Introduction Readingcomprehensionisattheheartofallreading.Intheworldofeducation
today,unfortunately,someteachersdisregardtheimportanceofcomprehension.Beingin
suchafastpacedenvironment,itiseasyforteacherstoneglecttheimportanceof
comprehensionstrategyinstruction.Itcanbeeasytoassumethatfluentreadingequatesto
understandingthemeaning.Judgingoffpastexperience,thatisnotalwaysthecase.Tovani
(2000)elaboratesonthemeaningofwordcallersandstates,“Wordcallershavemastered
decodingand,asabonus,alsochoosetoread.However,theydon’tunderstandthatreading
involvesthinking”(p.15).Inaddition,GambrellandMorrow(2015)insist,“Asignificant
numberofreaderswhostrugglewithcomprehensiondosodespitehavingadequateword
recognitionskills”(pg.224).Therefore,itismygoaltoexplicitlyteachcomprehension
strategiestofluentreaders,inorderforthemtoconstructmeaningfromthetext.This
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leadsmetoaskthequestion:Howcanreciprocalteachingbeusedtoincrease
comprehensionskillswithfluentreadersintheprimarygrades?
Thischapterwillbeginbydefiningandexplainingtheconceptsofcomprehension
andfluency.Inaddition,itwillexplorewhatthecurrentresearchershaverevealedabout
comprehensionandfluencyinstruction.Secondly,itwilldescribetherelationshipbetween
fluencyandcomprehension.Thisincludesprovidinganexplanationoffluencyasa
predecessorofcomprehension,versustheideathatfluencyandcomprehensionare
intertwined.Finally,thischapterwillexaminetheresearchononespecificcomprehension
strategy,reciprocalteaching.Itwillexplicitlydiscusshowtoincorporatethisstrategyinto
classroominstructiontoincreasestudents’comprehension.
UnderstandingComprehension TheWebster’sdictionarydefinescomprehensionas,“Theactionorcapabilityof
understandingsomething.”Ultimatelycomprehensionistheprimaryreasonforreading.If
studentsarenotabletounderstandwhattheyhaveread,thenwhatisthepointofreading?
AccordingtoHarveyandGoudvis(2007),constructingmeaningisthegoalof
comprehension.Theyrecommendthatstudents:
• Monitorunderstanding
• Enhanceunderstanding
• Acquireandactivelyuseknowledge
• Developinsight
Initially,readingcomprehensionwasaboutliteralunderstandingofthetext,butHarvey
andGoudvis(2007)explainmoredeeply,“Truecomprehensiongoesbeyondliteral
understandingandinvolvesthereader’sinteractionwiththetext”(pg.14).Inotherwords,
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readersshouldbeabletocomprehendwhattheyarelearninginadditiontothinkingabout
whattheyarereading.
Harvey(2011)continuestodescribethemeaningofcomprehensionas
understanding.Shecontendsthat,“Comprehensionisnotaboutspittingoutfactsandfilling
inblanks”(pg.117).Rather,itisencouragingstudentstoactivelythink,andthinkdeeply
aboutissues,orconceptsinordertoapplythisthinkingtotheirownexperiences.Inthe
end,thereasonweteachcomprehensionissothatstudentscanturnthisinformationinto
knowledgeandactivelyuseit.
McLaughlin(2012)revealsthatmeaningisconstructedfromtextwhenreaders
connecttheirbackgroundknowledge(whattheyalreadyknow)towhattheyarereading
(thetext).Thisrelatestotheconstructivistviewpointofschematheory.Schematheory
states,themorepriorknowledgeastudenthasonthetopic,theeasieritwillbeforthemto
makesenseofthetext(Tracey&Morrow,2012).Similarly,DukeandPearson(2002)add,
“Goodreadersdrawfrom,compareandintegratetheirpriorknowledgewithmaterialin
thetext”(pg.107).Basedonthisresearch,comprehensiontakesplacewhenreadersmake
connectionsbetweentheirexperiencesandthematerialtheyarereading.
Inthefollowingsubsections,Iwilldescribethecomprehensioncontinuumandhow
itisusedtoguidestudents’comprehension.Additionally,Iwillexplaintheimportanceof
comprehensionstrategyinstruction.Thisincludesanexplanationofself-regulatedlearners
andtherolemetacognitionplaysinincreasingreaders’comprehension.
Comprehensioncontinuum.HarveyandGoudvis(2013)designedacontinuumof
comprehension,whichactsasaspectrumofunderstanding.Thisincludesfive
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comprehensionpracticesstartingfromthelowestlevelandgraduallymovingtowards
moreadvancedthinking.Thefivepracticesare:
• Answeringliteralquestions
• Retelling
• Mergingthinkingwithcontent
• Acquiringknowledge
• Activelyusingknowledge
Answeringliteralquestionsistheleastsophisticatedpracticeofcomprehension.The
processdoesnotdisplayunderstanding,butratherallowsstudentstoscanforanswersand
pickoutonethatmatchesthequestion(Harvey&Goudvis,2013).Thesecondcomponent
ofthecomprehensioncontinuumisretelling.Retellingdemonstratesshort-termrecalland
organizingeventsinastory.Thisalsodoesnotdemonstrateunderstanding.Understanding
beginsoncereadersmergethinkingwithcontent.Byengaginginquestioning,synthesizing,
andreactingtoinformation,readersarebeginningtoconstructmeaningfromthetext.
Oncereadersmergetheirthinkingwiththecontent,theycanstarttoacquireknowledge.
Thismeanstheyareabletounderstanddeeperbecausetheyaretakinganactivestancein
theirlearningbytrulythinkingaboutthecontent.Finally,whenreadersactivelyusetheir
knowledgetheycanapplyittonewexperiencesintheirdailylivesandultimatelytake
action.Thesefivecomprehensionpracticesserveasatooltoguidestudentstowardshigher
levelsofthinkingandunderstanding.
Comprehensionstrategyinstruction.Studentswhocomprehendpoorlyneedmore
thansimplyhavingcontentknowledge.Theyneedtolearnhowtoaccessthisknowledge
andintegrateittomakemeaningofthetext.Inotherwords,theyneedstrategyinstruction
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(Gambrell&Morrow,2015).AccordingtoPilonietaandMedina(2009),“Comprehension
strategiesareconscious,deliberate,andflexibleplansreadersuseandadjustwhilereading
orwhencomprehensionbreaksdown”(pg.120).Inaddition,thegoalofstrategy
instructionisforstudentstobecomeself-regulatedlearners.Self-regulatedlearnersnot
onlychoosefromavarietyofdifferentstrategies,butalsoareawareifonedoesnotwork.If
thechosenstrategyisunsuccessful,theywillchooseanotheronethatissuccessful
(Pilonieta&Medina,2009).Inthesamemanner,GambrellandMorrow(2015)mentionthe
harminteachingstrategiesinisolation.Thiscausesteacherstopromptstudentstousethe
specificstrategyinsteadofencouragingstudentstomaketheirowndecisionsaboutwhich
strategytouse.Insummary,studentsneedavarietyofdifferentstrategiestochoosefrom
andmusthavetheabilitytodetermineparticularstrategiesthatworkbetterthanothers.
Tovani(2011)elaboratedoncomprehensionstrategybyexplaining,“Strategiesare
notaboutusingstickynotesandhighlighters.Strategiesareintentionalplansthatreaders
usetoconstructindependentthought”(pg.180).Inotherwords,strategiesgivereadersa
waytointeractwiththetext.AccordingtoTovani(2011),poorreaderslosemotivation
whenthemeaningdoesnotautomaticallyappear.Theyblameitontheboringtextorthat
theycannotread.
Allreadersneedtoknowhowtoproceedwhenmeaningbreaksdown.Theyneed
strategyinstruction.Comprehensionstrategiesdonotchangeasstudentsprogressthrough
thegrades.Rather,thestrategiesbecomemorecomplexandsophisticatedasthetext
becomesmoredifficult(Tovani,2011).Basedonresearch,strategyinstructionwillhelp
readersbemoreawareofhowcomprehensionstrategiescanhelpthemmakemeaningof
thetext.
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Furthermore,GambrellandMorrow(2015)mentiontheimportanceofstudents
activelymakingdecisionsontheirownabouthowtomakesenseofthetext.Thisconceptis
calledmetacognition.AccordingtoVanKeer&Vanderlinde(2010),“Thegoalof
metacognitiveinstructionistohelpreadersbecomemoreawareoftheirownthinking
duringthereadingprocesswhich,ultimately,shouldleadtoincreasetextcomprehension”
(pg.73).Inordertocreatemetacognitivereaders,onemustteachthemtheconditions
underwhichthestrategyisused,inadditiontoteachingthestrategyitself.Inotherwords,
studentsmustconsiderwhere,when,andwhytheymightuseaparticularstrategyinorder
tomeettheirreadinggoal(GambrellandMorrow,2015).
Inaddition,GambrellandMorrow(2015)emphasizetheimportanceofteaching
strategiesinsetsratherthanindividually.Thishelpsstudentsdeterminewhenandwhere
theyshouldusethestrategy,howtochoosefromavarietyofstrategies,andhowto
recognizeiftheirchoicesarehelpingthemcomprehend.Inlikemanner,“Goodreadersdo
notusecomprehensionstrategiesoneatatimeastheyread.Rathertheyorchestrateand
coordinatea‘set’or‘family’ofstrategiestocomprehendtext”(Reutzeletal.,2005,p.279).
Insummary,itisrecommendedthatcomprehensionstrategiesbetaughtinagroupsothat
studentscanusemultiplestrategiesastheyread.
UnderstandingFluency Inthepast,fluencywasviewedasanoralreadingphenomenon(Pikulski&Chard,
2005).TheNationalReadingPaneldefinedreadingfluencyas“theabilitytoreadtext
quickly,accurately,andwithproperexpression”(NICHD,2000,p.3-5).Thisdefinition
strictlyfocusesonfluencyasanoralreadingpractice.However,newdefinitionshave
emergedthatincludemorethanjustoralreading.TheLiteracyDictionary:TheVocabulary
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ofReadingandWritingdefinedfluencyas“freedomfromwordidentificationproblemsthat
mighthindercomprehension”(Harris&Hodges,1995,p.85).Thisdefinitionexpandson
themeaningofreadingfluencytoincludecomprehension.
Formanyyears,Rasinski(2004)hasbeenaleadingresearcherinthefieldof
fluency.Hehasattributedfluencyasanimportantfactorinstudentreadingsuccess.He
definesfluencyas,“Thereader’sabilitytodevelopcontroloversurfaceleveltext
processingsothatheorshecanfocusonunderstandingthedeeperlevelsofmeaning
embeddedinthetext”(pg.46).Inotherwords,readingrequiresstudentstoprocessthe
text(surfacelevelofreading)andcomprehendthetext(thedeepermeaning).Once
studentscansuccessfullyreadthetext,theycanfocusonreadingformeaning.
Morerecently,Samuels,EdigerandFautsch-Patridge(2005),haveexploredthe
meaningoffluency.Theyassert,“Theessentialingredientinfluencyistheabilitytodecode
andcomprehendatthesametime”(2004,pg.2).Thatistosay,areaderwhocanread
accuratelyandwithspeed,butstrugglestocomprehend,isnotconsideredafluentreader.
Theymustbeabletodecodeandcomprehendsimultaneously.Samuels,Edigerand
Fautsch-Patridgecontinuetodescribetheimportanceofimplementingfluencyinstruction
tothepointofautomaticity,sothatreaderscanhavethecognitivespacetounderstandthe
passage(2005).Basedonthisdefinition,itisclearthatfluencyisnotjusttheabilitytoread
accuratelyandorallywithexpression,butisrelatedtotheabilitytocomprehendaswell.In
thesubsectiontofollow,Iwillpresentresearchthatdescribesthecomponentsoffluency
includingautomaticity,prosody,andspeed.
Componentsoffluency.AccordingtoRasinski(2012),fluencyhastwomajor
components:automaticityandprosody.Automaticityreferstotheabilityforreadersto
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recognizethewordsautomaticallyoreffortlessly.Prosodyreferstoreadingwith
expression,whichleadstocomprehension.Whenreaderscanidentifythewordsinthetext
automatically,theycanfocustheirattentiononcomprehension.Inaddition,fluentreaders
useprosody,orexpressionintheirvoicetohelpconveymeaning.Forexample,when
readersemphasizeacertainwordinthetext,itaddsimpliedmeaning.Inotherwords,
meaningthatisnotclearlystated.Therefore,Rasinskiexplains,“Prosodyallowsthereader
toinferinformationthatisnotexplicitlystatedinthepassage”(2012,pg.519).Hesums
thisupbyfurtherexplainingthat,automaticityisthelinktowordrecognitionwhereas,
prosodycompletesthebridgebylinkingfluencytocomprehension(Raskinski,2012).
Aspreviouslystated,Samuels,EdigerandFautsch-Patridge(2005)believefluencyis
theabilitytodecodeandcomprehendatthesametime.Theycontendtheother
componentsoffluency(accuracy,speedandoralreadingexpression)aresimplyindicators.
Expandingonthisidea,theyexplainthatthecomponentsoffluencyareinterrelated.For
example,ifastudentishavingdifficultywithonecomponent,thereadingprocessislikely
tobedisrupted.
IncomparisontoRasinski(2012),Samuels,EdigerandFautsch-Patridge(2005)
describetheconnectionbetweenaccuracyandcomprehension.Theysuggestthatifa
studenthasdifficultywithaccuratelyreadingthewords,theircognitiveloadwillincrease,
thereforemakingitdifficulttoretaintheinformationread.UnlikeRasinski(2015),
Samuels,EdigerandFautsch-Patridge(2005)explainanothercomponenttofluency,which
isspeed.Avarietyoffactorsinfluencethespeedofareaderincluding,theirpurposefor
reading,thevocabularyandwordrecognitionabilities,andthespeedatwhichareader’s
mindcanprocesswhattheyarereading(Samuels,Ediger&Fautsch-Patridge,2005).
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Thefinalcomponentoffluencyaddressedisoralreadingexpression.Thisincludes
pitches,voicechanges,andpausesthatoccurinregardstopunctuation.Oralreading
expressionisrelatedtocomprehensionbecauseitcommunicateswhatthereaderis
interpretingtobeimportantandhowthereaderunderstandsthetext(Samuels,Ediger&
Fautsch-Patridge,2005).Inconclusion,ifreaderspossessthesecomponentsoffluency,itis
anindicationtheywillbeabletodecodeandcomprehendatthesametime.
RelationshipBetweenFluencyandComprehension Pikulski&Chard(2005)stressthattherelationshipbetweenfluencyand
comprehensioniscomplex.Accordingtotheresearch,thereisevidencetosupportboth
positions:fluencyaspredecessorofcomprehension,aswellasfluencyandcomprehension
intertwined.Intheirreviewoffluencyresearch,Stecker,RoserandMartinez(1998)
articulate,“Fluencyhasbeenshowntohaveareciprocalrelationshipwithcomprehension,
witheachfosteringtheother”(p.300).Therefore,fluencyandcomprehensiongohandin
hand.Readersmustreadfluentlyinordertocomprehendandreadersmustbeableto
comprehendinordertoreadfluently.Similarly,PikulskiandChard(2005),viewfluencyas
alargedevelopmentalprocessinwhichdecodingskillswillformabridgetoreading
comprehension.Basedonthisview,fluencyisdirectlyrelatedtocomprehension.The
followingsubsectionswillexplaindeeperthiscomplexrelationshipbetweenfluencyand
comprehension.
Fluencyaspredecessorofcomprehension.AccordingtoLaBergeandSamuels
(1974),humanbeingscanattendtoonlyonethingatatime.Inordertodotwothingsat
once,wemustalternateourattentionbetweenthetwoactivities.However,insomecases,
ifoneoftheactivitiescanbeperformedautomatically,thenhumanswouldbeabletodo
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morethanonethingatatime.Readingrequirestwo“activities”orprocesses:decodingand
comprehension.WhenLaBergeandSamuel’sideaisappliedtoreading,thereaderwould
notbeabletofocusattentiononbothworddecodingandcomprehensionatthesametime.
PilulskiandChardagreewiththisandcontend,“Ifattentionisdrainedbydecodingwords,
littleornocapacityisavailablefortheattention-demandingprocessofcomprehending”
(2005,pg.511).Therefore,inorderforcomprehensiontotakeplace,thereadermustbe
abletodecodeautomatically.Basedonthisassumption,fluencywouldbeconsidereda
predecessorofcomprehension.
Additionally,Rasinski(2012)mentionstheimportanceoflearnersreadingthe
wordsautomatically.HeexpandsonLaBergeandSamuel’sideaoflimitedamountof
attentionorwhathecalls,cognitiveenergy.Sincereaderscannotusetheircognitiveenergy
towardstwotasksatonce,itisessentialthattheycanreadautomaticallysothatcognitive
spaceisavailabletocomprehend.Ifstudentsareconstantlyusingtheircognitiveenergyto
decodewords,therewillbenomorelefttomakemeaningofthetext.Thesearethesame
readerswhowouldunderstandastorybeingreadtothembecausetheycansolelyfocuson
comprehendinginsteadofdecoding(Rasinski,2012).Similarly,Applegate,Applegate,and
Modla(2009)include,ifreadersarenotabletoautomaticallydecodethewords,theefforts
theyusetodecodewilllimittheirabilitytosuccessfullycomprehend.Therefore,increases
instudentfluencyshouldresultwithincreasesinreadingcomprehension.
Fluencyandcomprehensionintertwined.Otherresearchersbelievethatfluencyand
comprehensionshouldbedevelopedsimultaneously.Forexample,Schwanenflugel(2006)
insiststhatsuchskillsbetaughtatthesametimesothatthereadercanseetherelationship
betweenthem,andinreturn,becomeincorporatedintotheirinternalmonitoringsystems.
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Ifthiswerethecase,studentswouldrealizetheconnectionbetweenfluencyand
comprehensionandbeabletoself-monitorwhilereading.
Ontheotherhand,Walczyk&Griffith-Ross(2007)believethatfluencyand
comprehensionskillsarerelatedtotheextentbywhichthestudentfindsthematerial
interesting.Theyassert,“Morefluentreadersareengagedbychallengingandinteresting
tasks,otherwisetheymayreadlackadaisically”(pg.566).Thisresearchsupportstheidea
thatiffluentreadersarenotinterestedinthematerialanddonotfinditengaging,they
maystrugglewithcomprehension.
Furthermore,WalczykandGriffith-Ross(2007)elaboratebyreportingthatstudents
whocanreadthewordswithouteffortmaynotbeengagedinthetext.Insteadofreading
formeaningortounderstand,theysimplyflythroughreadingthewords,allowingtheir
mindtowander.Basedonthisassumption,havingtostrugglealittlewithwordmeaning
helpsstudentstostayengaged.Therefore,havingtheabilitytoreadfluentlymaynotbe
necessaryinordertocomprehendwell.
InthissectionIhavepresentedfoundationalresearchonthetermscomprehension
andfluency.Additionally,Ihavedescribedtherelationshipbetweenfluencyand
comprehension.Thisresearchpavesthewayforthequestiondrivingthiscapstoneproject:
Howcanreciprocalteachingbeusedtoincreasecomprehensionwithfluentreadersinthe
primarygrades?Lookingforward,Iwilldiscussreciprocalteachingandhowincorporating
itintoinstructionwillimprovestudents’comprehension.
DefiningReciprocalTeaching
ReciprocalteachingoriginatedfromPalincsar&Brown’s(1986)ideaoftheadult
andstudentstakingturnsassumingtheroleoftheteacher.Whoeverisassignedthe
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teacherisresponsibleforleadingadiscussionaboutapassagethatstudentsarereading.
ReciprocalteachingisaversionofSocialConstructivism,atheorycreatedbyLevVygotsky.
AtthepremiseofVygotsky’sworkisthebeliefthatchildrenlearnasaresultoftheirsocial
interactionswithothers(Tracey&Morrow,2012).BasedonVygotsky’stheory,reciprocal
teachingisaprocessinwhichstudentsareinteractingwithothers,thereforemaximum
learningwillresult.
Reciprocalteachingusesfourcomprehensionstrategies:predicting,clarifying,
generatingquestions,andsummarizingtohelpstudentsunderstandwhattheyarereading.
Theprocessworkslikethefollowing:First,theteacherintroducesandmodelsthefour
comprehensionstrategies.Itisimportantthatstudentslearnrulestohelpthemusethe
strategyandensuretheyarecapablewitheachstrategybeforetheymoveontothe
discussionpiece(Palincsar&Brown.1986).Atthebeginning,theteacherwillleadthe
discussion,modelinghowsheusesthestrategieswhilereading.Next,oneofthestudents
leadsthegroupusingthesamefourstrategies.Thentheteachermonitorsandadds
assistancewhenneededtokeepthediscussionontrack.Finally,asstudentsgetmore
comfortablewiththeprocess,theroleoftheleadershiftstootherstudentsinthesmall
groupsothattheyareresponsibleforfacilitatingthediscussion(Brown&Dewitz,2014).
Whileusingthesestrategies,studentsworkinsmallgroupsthroughdiscussionto
constructmeaningofthetext(Pilonieta&Medina,2009).Kelly,Moore,andTuck(2001)
suggestthereciprocalteachinggroupsmeetabout20timesfor30-minutesessions.
Additionally,PalincsarandBrown(1984)recommendgroupingheterogeneouslybyageor
readingabilitylevel.Doingsowillallowthelower-performingstudentstobenefitby
learningfromthemoreeffectivepeermodels.
22
Eachcomprehensionstrategyplaysanimportantroleinthereadingprocess.
However,Oczkus(2003)notesitisimportanttounderstandthatthefourreciprocal
teachingstrategiesarepartofacomprehensivereadingcomprehensionprogram.This
programisbasedonallthestrategiesgoodreadersuseincluding,makingconnections,
monitoring,previewing,andknowinghowwordswork.
Thereisnotafixedorderinwhichtousethereciprocalteachingstrategies;it
dependsonthetextandthereader.Forexample,beforereadingatext,itwouldmakemore
sensetopredictinsteadofsummarize.Asstated,byengaginginreciprocalteaching,
studentswilldeepentheirreadingcomprehension.
RosenshineandMeister(1994)developedthreecoreprinciplesofreciprocal
teaching.Thethreeprinciplesare:
• Zoneofproximaldevelopment
• Prolepticteaching
• Expertscaffolding
Thezoneofproximaldevelopmentreferstothezoneofwhatstudentscanaccomplish
independentlyversuswithassistance.Thezoneofproximaldevelopmentallowsreadersto
accomplishmorethantheycouldwhenontheirown,becauseofsupportfromanadult.At
thebeginning,astudentwillneedmoresupportbut,astheskilldevelops,lesssupportis
required(Brown&Dewitz,2014).Prolepticteachingconsistsoftheteachergradually
releasingtheresponsibilityofimplementingthestrategytothestudents.Thisrequiresthe
teacherstograduallyremovethemselvesasthesoleprovidersofinformationduringthe
process.Asaresult,studentssupportoneanother(Pilonieta&Medina,2009).Finally,
duringreciprocalteaching,theinstructionissupported,orscaffolded.Studentsareableto
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tryouttheprocessinasupportedenvironment,whichultimatelyleadstothembeingable
toworkindependentlytocomprehendthetext.Inotherwords,thesupportstudents
receiveeventuallyallowsthemtoreachthenextreadinglevelandguidethemthrough
moredifficulttexts(Oczkus,2003).Thesethreeprinciplesarepartofwhatmakes
reciprocalteachingasuccess.
Morerecently,Oczkus(2013)mentionsfourinstructionalfoundationsnecessaryin
ordertogetthemostoutofreciprocalteaching.Thefourfoundationsare:
• Scaffolding
• Think-Alouds
• Metacognition
• CooperativeLearning
Aspreviouslymentioned,scaffoldingisnecessaryinordertoadvancereaderstothenext
level.Thesupportstudentsreceiveatthebeginning,guidesthemthroughmorechallenging
textsandreadingtasks.Successfulreciprocalteachinginvolvesthink-alouds.Becausethis
strategyisbasedoffdiscussion,studentsmusttalkaloudaboutthefourstrategies.Oczkus
(2013)notesitisimportantforteacherstomodelthethink-aloudprocessandencourageit
tobeusedeverytimestudentsengageinreciprocalteachinglessons.Metacognitionisan
essentialcomponentinreciprocalteachingbecauseitallowsstudentstoconsciouslythink
andreflectontheirstrategyuse(Oczkus,2013).Finally,becausereciprocalteachingisa
discussiontechnique,cooperativelearningplaysalargerole.Throughinteractingwith
theirpeers,studentsareabletocomprehendmoredeeply.AccordingtoOczkus(2013),
cooperativelearningalsooccurswhenstudentsthinkaloudduringdiscussionsandreflect
24
ontheirmetacognitivethinking.Byincorporatingthesefourcomponentsintoreciprocal
teachinglessons,readerswillbenefitgreatly.
Inthefollowingsubsections,Iwilldiscussindetailthefourstrategiesusedduring
reciprocalteaching:predicting,questioning,clarifying,andsummarizing.Inaddition,Iwill
addresshowtousethefourstrategieswhenengaginginreciprocalteachinglessons.
Finally,Iwilldescribehowreciprocalteachingusesmetacognitiontoimprovestudents
readingcomprehension.
Roleofthepredictor.Predictingisthefirststrategyusedwhenengagingin
reciprocalteaching.AccordingtoGambrellandMorrow(2015)predictingconsistsofthe
readersthinkingaboutwhatwillcomenextinthetext.Whilereading,studentsrevisetheir
previouspredictionsandmakenewones.Oczkus(2003)elaboratesbyexplainingthat
readersuseinformationfromthetextandtheirpriorknowledgetomakepredictions
duringthereadingprocess.Whilepredicting,readerswillinteractwiththetext.Thishelps
themtobemoremotivatedtoreadthematerialinadditiontoimprovingtheir
understandingofthetext.Ultimately,whenstudentsmakepredictionswhilereading,their
comprehensionwilllikelyimprove.
Whilemodelingtheroleofthepredictorforstudents,Oczkus(2003)suggests
havingadiscussionofthetextstructureofstorieswithstudents.Infictionstories,this
wouldinclude,reviewingthecharacters,setting,problemandresolution.Next,sheadvises
tohavestudentspreviewthecover,illustrationsandtitletolookforcluesofeventsthat
mayhappeninthetext.Whenreadingnonfictionstories,discussspecifictextfeaturessuch
asheadings,mapsortables.Thisallowsstudentstopredictwhattheywillbereading.
Oczkus(2003)alsorecommendsusingastorymaporgraphicorganizertoprovide
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studentswithvisualclueswhilemakingpredictions.Additionally,thestudents’language
whilepredictingconsistsofphrasesthatstartwith:Ithink…I’llbet…Iwonderif…I
imagine…Isuppose…Ipredict…(Mowery,1995).Byusingthesephrases,studentsareable
toanticipatewhatwillcomenextinthetext.Whenthepredictionstrategyismodeled
constantly,andteachersprovidesupport,studentsareultimatelyabletousethisstrategy
independentlywhileengaginginthereciprocalteachingprocess.
Roleofthequestioner.Questioningisthesecondstrategyusedinreciprocal
teachinglessons.GambrellandMorrow(2015)assertthatquestioningoccurswhen,
“Readersaskquestionsaboutthetext,author’sideas,andtheirownthinking”(p.253).
Furthermore,HarveyandGoudvis(2007)suggestthatwhenreadersaskquestions,and
seekanswers,theyaremonitoringtheircomprehensionandconstructingmeaningfrom
thetext.Inaddition,goodreadersalsoformulatequestions,whichisamoredifficultand
complextask(Oczkus,2003).Shealsocontendsthatwhenreadersknowaheadoftimethat
theyarerequiredtogenerateaquestion,theywillreadwithagreaterawarenessofthe
text’simportantideas.Basedoffthisresearch,notonlyaskingquestions,butalso
formulatingquestionsisanimportantstrategygoodreadersusetohelpcomprehendthe
text.
Whilehavingreciprocalteachingdiscussions,Oczkus(2003)suggestsassigningthe
studentsto“betheteacher”whiletheycreatequestionsthatarebasedoffessentialpartsof
thestory.Studentswillbegintotakeownershipanddeveloppridewhilecreatingquestions
andaskingoneanothertoanswerthem.Modelinghowtogeneratequestionsiskey.Oczkus
(2003)recommendsstartingsimplebymodelinghowtowritequestionsinwhichthe
answerisfoundwithinthetext.Oncestudentscontinuetoseehowquestionsare
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formulated,thequalityanddepthoftheirquestionswillincrease.Examplesofquestion
wordsstudentsmayuseinclude:who,what,when,where,why,how,andwhatif.In
summary,goodreadersusequestioningtohelpconstructmeaningofthetext.Inreciprocal
teachinglessons,studentsareabletocreatequestionsbasedonthemainideaand
importantdetails,whichintheend,increasestheircomprehension.
Roleoftheclarifier.Clarifyingisthethirdstrategythatreciprocalteachinguses.For
somestudentsitisachallengetorecognizeunclearsentencesorwords.Accordingto
Oczkus(2003)thedifficultiesmayoccurbecausesometimesstudentsareabletoread
everywordinthepassage,butstruggletounderstandthemainidea.Inordertoassistwith
thistask,clarifyingisused.Furthermore,Oczkus(2003)explains,“Clarifyinghelps
studentsmonitortheirowncomprehensionastheyidentifyproblemsthattheyarehaving
incomprehendingportionsoftextorfiguringoutdifficultwords”(p.17).Inotherwords,
whenstudentsaretaughttomonitortheirreadingandusestrategiestosolveproblemsas
theyarise,ultimatelytheircomprehensionwillimprove.
Oczkus(2003)firstsuggestsmodelinghowtofigureoutadifficultword.Duringthis
process,teacherandstudentsdiscusswordpartsor“chunks”andthecontextaroundthe
word.Theyusestrategiestoworktogethertofigureouttheunknownwords.However,
somestudentsmightbehesitanttosuggestwordsthatcausedthemdifficulty.Ifthisisthe
case,Oczkus(2003)recommendsaskingthemtofindawordayoungerchildmightfind
difficult.Then,thediscussioncantakeplaceonhowtoteachthiswordtoayoungerchild.
Thelanguageofclarifyinghastwoparts:identifyingtheproblemandclarifyingstrategies.
Identifyingtheproblemmayincludethefollowingprompts:Ididn’tunderstandthepart
where…Thissentenceisnotclear.Thisdoesn’tmakesense.Ican’tfigureout…Clarifying
27
strategiesmayincludethefollowingprompts:IlookforpartsthatIknow.Ireread.Itryto
blendthesoundstogether.Itryanotherwordthatmakessense.Ireadontolookforclues.I
thinkaboutwhatIknow.Insummary,clarifyingisanimportantstepofreciprocalteaching
becauseitdirectlygivesstudentsstrategiestousewhentheyencounteraproblemwhile
reading.Whenstudentslearnhowtoclarifyconfusingpartsordifficultwordsinthetext,
theybecomemorecapableandindependentreaders.
Roleofthesummarizer.Thefinalstrategythatstudentsuseduringreciprocal
teachingissummarizing.HarveyandGoudvis(2007)definesummarizingas,“Pullingout
themostimportantinformationandputtingitinourownwordstorememberit”(p.179).
WhereasGambrellandMorrow(2015)state,“Summarizingiswhenreadersthinkabout
whattheyhavereadorlearned.Theymayfocusonrecallingthetext,paragraphs,or
sentences”(p.253).Finally,Oczkus(2003)believes,“Tosummarizeeffectively,students
mustrecallandarrangeinorderonlytheimportanteventsinatext”(p.18).Whenreading,
eachnewpieceofinformationaddstotheoverallmeaningofthetext.Intheend,when
studentsarecapableofnotonlyproducingtheirownsummary,butalsoobservingand
takingpartinclassmates’summaries,theywillbecomemoreproficientreaders.
Reciprocalteachingallowsstudentstoengageinthesummaryprocess.The
organizationofthesummarydependsonthetypeoftext,narrativeorexpository.When
summarizinganarrativestory,Oczkus(2003)suggestsstudentsusethesetting,characters,
problems,eventsandresolutiontohelpstructuretheirsummaries.Whereas,summarizing
anexpositorytextrequiresstudentstorecallimportanteventsandarrangethemina
logicalorder.Thefollowingpromptsmaybeusedtohelpstudentsguidetheirsummaries:
Themostimportantideasinthistextare…Thispartwasabout…Thisbookwasabout…
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First,…Next,…Then,…Finally,…Themaincharactersare…Thestorytakesplace…To
conclude,whenstudentssummarize,theyareabletoconstructanoverallunderstandingof
thetext.
Reciprocalteachingandmetacognition.Aspreviouslymentioned,inorderfor
readerstodeterminewhichstrategytouseandwhenitwouldbemostappropriate,they
mustbemetacognicallyaware.Inotherwords,beawareoftheirownthinking.Inaddition,
researchsupportsmultiplestrategyinstructionsothatstudentsaretaughthowtouse
multiplestrategiesastheyread.Reciprocalteachingisaprocessthatincorporatesmultiple
strategyinstruction.Reciprocalteachingallowsstudentstodiscusstheirthinkingandhow
theyusethestrategiesofpredicting,questioning,clarifying,andsummarizing(Oczkus,
2003).Studentswillnotonlybeabletousethestrategies,butalsodeterminewhich
strategytousebasedonthereadinggoal.Byincorporatingreciprocalteachinginto
strategyinstruction,studentswillbeusingmetacognition,andultimatelyimprovetheir
ownreadingcomprehension.
Oczkus(2003)listscommentsinwhichstudentsareusingmetacognitivethinking
duringreciprocalteaching.Forexample,“Predictionhelpedmetodaybecauseitgotme
interestedinthereading”(pg.23)or,“IhadtorereadthebooktogetthemainideasoI
couldaskaquestion”(pg.23).Thesecommentsdemonstratethatthereaderisawareof
one’sownthinkingprocess.Notonlyaretheyawareoftheirthinking,butalsoareableto
makedecisionstohelpbetterunderstandthetext.Inaddition,Oczkus(2003)articulates,
“Metacognitionisanintegralcomponentinreciprocalteachingbecausestudentslearnto
consciouslythinkaboutandreflectontheirstrategyuse”(pg.23).Intheend,studentshave
29
theabilitytousethesamestrategiesthatgoodreadersusewhenmonitoringtheirreading
comprehension.
Conclusion HarveyandGoudvis(2007)remindusthat,“Comprehensioninstructionisn’tjust
onemorething.Infact,whenitcomestoreading,it’sthemostimportantthing”(p.13).Too
manystudentsareneglectedbecauseoftheirabilitytoreadfluentlybutinabilityto
comprehend.Astudentshouldnotbeconsideredaproficientreaderjustbecauseheorshe
canreadthewords.Ibeganthiscapstoneprocesssearchingforasolutiontoaddressthis
issueandIbelievereciprocalteachingcanprovidefluentreaderswiththecomprehension
supporttheyneed.Reciprocalteachingallowsstudentstocollaborateusingthestrategies
necessarytostrengthentheircomprehension.Whenstudentsbecomeengagedinsuch
meaningfullearning,theywillbuildskillsinordertopreparethemfortheworkforceand
beyond.
Inthischapter,Ipresentedareviewofcurrentresearchontheterms
comprehensionandfluency,includingthecomplexrelationshipbetweenthetwo.Next,I
describedtheprocessofreciprocalteachingandhowitworkstowardsincreasing
comprehensioninreaders.Finally,Iexplainedindetailthefourstrategiesusedduring
reciprocalteaching,predicting,questioning,clarifying,andsummarizingincludinghowto
incorporatethesestrategiesintoreciprocalteachingdiscussions/lessons.Theresearch
providedinthischapterstrivestoanswer:Howcanreciprocalteachingbeusedtoincrease
comprehensionwithfluentreadersintheprimarygrades?
MovingforwardinChapterThree,Iwillpresenttherationaleformycurriculum
projectusingreciprocalteaching.Inaddition,thesettingandparticipantsforwhomthe
30
curriculumisbeingdesignedforwillbeaddressed.Finally,Iwilldescribemyframework
andmethodologyforthereciprocalteachingcurriculumthatIhavedeveloped.
31
CHAPTERTHREE
Methods
“Readingisthinkingguidedbyprint.”-LucyCalkins
AsIhavedevelopedthiscapstoneprojectthusfar,thequestionguidingmeis:How
canreciprocalteachingbeusedtoincreasecomprehensionskillswithfluentreadersinthe
primarygrades?ThischapterwillbeginbydiscussingwhyIdevelopedthiscurriculumand
theprocessIusedtodevelopit.Next,Iwilldescribetheparticipantsandthetypeof
learningenvironmentthiscurriculumhasbeendesignedfor.Finally,Iwillexplaina
frameworkforunderstandingthecontentofthiscurriculum.
TheRationaleforCurriculumDevelopment Mygoalindesigningacurriculuminreciprocalteachingwastoincrease
comprehensionskillswithprimarystudentswhocanreadfluently.Asstatedinthe
previouschapter,reciprocalteachingcanhelpstudentsdevelopmetacognitivethinking
skills,whichinreturnincreasestheircomprehension.Inaddition,Oczkus(2003)mentions
theimportanceofmixingwhole-classinstructionwithothergroupings.Therefore,
32
developingacurriculumthatutilizesreciprocalteachinginawholegroupaswellassmall
groupcanbebeneficialtostudents.
Idesignedthiscurriculumunittosupportbothwholegroupandsmallgroup
settings.Initiallessonswillbetaughtwholegrouptobuildbackgroundknowledgeand
introducethefourstrategiesofreciprocalteaching.Ideallypriorknowledgeofthe
strategiesaswellascooperativelearningstrategieswouldbeintroducedpriortoengaging
withthecurriculum.Thefollowinglessonswillconsistofawholegrouplessonwiththat
skillbeingreinforcedinsmallgroupsofstudents.Intheend,thegoalistohavestudents
usingallfourstrategiessimultaneouslyinasmallgroupsetting.
Inaddition,theimplementationofreciprocalteachingallowsteacherstoteach
studentscomprehensionstrategieswhilehavingafocusinacontentarea.Forthepurpose
ofthiscapstoneproject,Ichosetousethethirdgradesocialstudiesstandardstodrivethe
contentofthecurriculum.Morespecifically,Ifocusedonthehistorystrand.Thiswillallow
teacherstomeetthestandardsofbothlanguageartsandsocialstudiesinoneclassperiod.
ThereciprocalteachingcurriculumthatIhavedesignedisintendedtobeusedin
classroomsintheprimarygrades.Theprimarygradeswouldconsistofstudentsin
kindergartenthroughthirdgrade.However,somestrategiesorlessonscouldbeadapted
andusedwithstudentsintheoldergrades,iftheappropriatemodificationsaremade.
TheLearningEnvironment TheschoolatwhichIworkatisoneof45elementaryschools(K-8)inanurban
schooldistrictwhere63percentofstudentsreceivefreeorreducedlunch.Inadditionto
45elementaryschools,thedistrictalsohassevenmiddleschools(6-8)andeighthigh
33
schools(9-12).Intotal,thedistrictserves35,428studentsduringthe2016-2017school
year.
TheschoolatwhichIcurrentlyworkhousesstudentsingrades3-8.Thetotal
numberofstudentsis394withthefollowingdemographicbreakdown:46%Caucasian,
27%Black,19%Hispanic,4%AmericanIndian,2%Asian,andlessthan1%Pacific
Islander.Fifty-sixpercentofstudentsreceivefreeorreducedlunch,whichisslightlybelow
thedistrictaverage.Theschoolisacommunityschoolwiththemajorityofstudentsliving
intheneighborhood.
OneuniquecharacteristicofmycurrentpositionisthatIworkparttimeasan
associateeducator.Isplitmytimebetweenthreethirdgradeclassroomsandprovide
supportforteacherswhereveritisneeded.ThismeansthatIfollowinstructionsfromthe
leadteacherbasedonwhatshefeelsisbest.Thissituationprovidesawonderful
opportunitytocollaboratewiththeclassroomteacher,butitalsoprovideslimitationsof
whatIcanorcannotdo.Therefore,Iplantoimplementthiscurriculuminthe2017-2018
schoolyearinasettingwhereIwillbetheleadteacher.
Participants AfterthisschoolyearIintendtomovetoOmaha,Nebraska.Ihavebegunthe
processofjobsearching,butitistooearlytoknowwhatmyexactpositionwillbe.
Therefore,Iwillplanfortheparticipantstobeatypicalthirdgradeclass.Ideally,theclass
sizewouldbearound25students,withanevendistributionofboystogirls.Allofmy
studentswillparticipateinthewholegroupandsmallgrouplessons.Itwouldbemost
beneficialtocomprisethesmallgroupsofnomorethanfourstudentspergroup.Ipredict
thatIwillhavestudentswhowillreceivespecialeducationservicesorreadingintervention
34
duringtheliteracyblock,soIwillhavetoplanaccordinglyinorderforallstudentsto
receiveinstruction.
CurricularFramework ThecurriculumthatIhavedevelopedincludeslessonsforbothwholegroupand
smallgroupsettings.Thedecisiontodesignthecurriculuminsuchaformatwasinspired
byLoriOczkus(2013)includingthecurrentresearchonreciprocalteaching,whichI
presentedinmyChapterTwoLiteratureReview.HarveyandGoudvis(2011)werealso
inspirationalintheareaofreadingcomprehensionandtheimportanceofreadingto
understand.Additionally,Palincsar&Brown(1984)providedfoundationalresearchinthe
areaofreciprocalteaching,whileOczkus(2013)elaboratedbyofferingpracticalstrategies
touseduringreciprocalteachinglessonsintheclassroom.
ThecomprehensionlessonsprovidedsupporttheCommonCorelanguagearts
standards,whilethecontentofthelessonssupportthethirdgradesocialstudiesstandards.
Aspreviouslymentioned,throughintegrationoflanguageartsstandardsandcontentarea
standards,Iwillbemoreefficientinmyuseofclassroomtime.Additionally,studentsare
learningtobestrategicreaderswhilealsolearningthecontentrequiredofthesocial
studiesstandards.ThecurriculumIdevelopedcontainsthefollowingcomponents:
• Indicateswhetherthelessonistobetaughtwholegrouporsmallgroup.
• Liststhesocialstudiesstandardinwhichthecontentofthetextwillconsist
ofthecollectionofstandardsallrelatetohistorywithdifferentsubstrands.
• Identifiesthepurposeconsistingofwhatstudentswillbeabletodoin
regardstoreciprocalteaching.
35
• Incorporateslessonsthatsupportthegradualreleaseofresponsibility:
modeled,shared,guided,andindependent.
• Providesopportunitiesforassessmentofstudentlearning.
TheunitIhavecreatedisacollectionoffifteenlessons,whichareeithertaughtwhole
grouporsmallgroupdependingonthecontent.Somelessonscanbetaughtmultipletimes
duringtheunit,othersaretobetaughtonlyonce.Theunitisdesignedtoteachtwo-three
lessonsperweek.Reciprocalteachingisnotcomprehensiveenoughtostandaloneasa
methodofcomprehension.Therefore,itshouldbetaughtinadditiontoallstrategies
necessaryforstudentstocomprehendtheirreading(Oczkus,2003).Iplantoimplement
thiscurriculumduringthenextschoolyearandanticipatespendingsixweeksontheunit.
Conclusion ChapterThreeexplainedthereasonbehinddesigningacurriculumbasedon
reciprocalteaching.Next,itdiscussedthelearningenvironmentandparticipantswho
wouldbeparticipatinginthecurriculumimplementation.Finally,theframeworkforthe
curriculumwasdescribed.LookingforwardtoChapterFour,thereciprocalteaching
curriculumwillbeprovidedthatstrivestoanswerthequestion:Howcanreciprocal
teachingbeusedtoincreasecomprehensionskillswithfluentreadersintheprimarygrades?
36
CHAPTERFOUR
Results
“Youcan’tteachkidstothink,becausehumanbeingsarebornthinking.”-HarveyandGoudvis
InthefirstthreechaptersofthiscapstoneIhavedescribedmyexperiences,the
researchandthemethodsthatwillhelpmetoanswer:Howcanreciprocalteachingbeused
toincreasecomprehensionskillswithfluentreadersintheprimarygrades?Inthefirst
chapterIdiscussedhowmypersonalexperiencesasateachersparkedmyinterestin
supportingfluentreaderswhostrugglewithcomprehension.Theliteraturereviewin
ChapterTwoprovidedcurrentresearchintheareasofcomprehension,fluencyand
reciprocalteaching.InChapterThreeIexplainedthemethodology,whichincludedthe
learningenvironment,andparticipantsforwhomthereciprocalteachingcurriculumhas
beendesigned.Inthischapter,IwillprovidethecurriculumIhavedevelopedtoimplement
reciprocalteachinginatypicalthirdgradeclassroom.
CurriculumDevelopment ThecurriculumIhavedevelopediscomposedof15lessons,ideallytaughttwo-
threetimesperweekforatotalofsixweeks.Itisamixtureofwholegroupandsmallgroup
lessonsdependingonthecontent.Additionally,eachlessonisalignedwithathirdgrade
37
historysocialstudiesstandard.Sincethecontentofeachlessonishistory,thiscurriculum
isgearedtowardstheuseofnonfictiontext.Next,eachlessonlistsapurpose,whichis
reinforcedthroughoutthemodeled,shared,guidedandindependentcomponentsofthe
lesson.Finally,thereisanopportunitytoassessstudentlearninginordertodetermine
whounderstandstheprocessofreciprocalteachingandwhoneedsreteaching.Since
reciprocalteachingembedscollaborationandcooperativelearning,itisessentialthatthe
teacherpre-teachesthenecessaryskillsforsuccessfulcollaborationtotakeplace.
38
WholeGroup SmallGroupWeek1-Lesson1:IntroduceReciprocalTeachingStandard:3.4.1.1.1Referencedifferenttimeperiodsusingcorrectterminology,includingthetermsdecade,centuryandmillennium.Purpose:Tointroducestudentstoallfourreciprocalteachingstrategiesduringateacherthink-aloud.Studentswillunderstandreciprocalteachingstrategiesworktogetherwhilereadingatext.Model:1.Brainstormstrategiesthatgoodreadersuse.Askstudentswhatgoodreadersdotounderstandwhattheyhaveread.Havethemdiscusswithapartnerandlisttheirresponsesonchartpaper.2.Tellyourstudentsthattodayyouwillshowthemfourstrategiesthatreadersusetohelpthemcomprehendthetext.3.Introduceeachheadbandandtellstudentswhateachletterstandsfor(P=predicting,Q=questioning,C=clarifying,S=summarizing).4.Asyouread,modelthereciprocalteachingstrategiesafterreadingaparagraphorpage.Eachtimeyouuseadifferentstrategychangeyourheadbandwiththeappropriateletterthatmatchesthestrategyyouarethinkingaloud.Shared/Guided:1.Reflectonthestrategies.Askstudentswhattheynoticedabouteachstrategyandhowthestrategieshelpedusunderstandthestory.Howcouldweusethesestrategiestohelpusunderstandwhatweread?Listresponsesonchartpaper.2.Guideyourstudentstousethestrategiesthemselves.Handoutcardswitheachletterandwhatitstandsfor.Asyoureadanothersectionofthetext,studentswillholdupacardwhentheyhaveastrategytouse.Havestudents’share/thinkaloudtheirpredictions,questions,pointsorwordstoclarify,orsummarize.3.Withpartners,studentswillcontinuetheprocessofreadingtogetherandholdingupthecardwiththestrategytheythink-aloud.4.Referringtothelistalreadycreated,studentswriteordiscussareflectionofhoweachstrategyhelpsthemunderstandwhattheyhaveread.Assessment:Circulatetheclassroomandlistentothepairsduringstep3oftheguidedactivity.Weretheyusingeachstrategycorrectly?Weretheycomingupwithindividualresponses?Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreading comprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
39
P
Prediction
Q
Question
C
Clarification
S
Summarize
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Week1-Lesson2:UsingtheFourReciprocalTeachingStrategiesStandard:3.4.1.2.1Examinehistoricalrecord,mapsandartifactstoanswerbasicquestionsabouttimesandeventsinhistory,bothancientandmorerecent.Purpose:Studentswillunderstandthatgoodreadersusemorethanonestrategywhilereading.Model:1.Reviewthelistofstrategiesgoodreadersusethatwasgeneratedinthepreviouslesson.2.Passoutthereciprocalteachingbookmarksandexplainthatyouwillmodelfourstrategiestohelpthemunderstandthetext.Remindstudentsthatafterdemonstratinghowtheyareused,theywillhavetheopportunitytothinkaloud.3.Makesureallstudentscanseethetextanddisplaythebookmarkontheprojector.4.Modelforstudentsusingallfourprompts.Besuretouseallfourinmultiplepointsthroughoutthetext.Studentsshouldunderstandthatallfourstrategiesworktogetherinordertocomprehendthetext.Refertothebookmarkasyouthinkaloud.Shared/Guided:1.Readthenextsectionofthetextandmodeloneofthestrategies.Next,havestudentsworkinpairstocomeupwithanotherexample(Ifyousharedaprediction,studentswillworktogethertogenerateanotherprediction).Continuethisprocesswithallfourstrategies.2.Usingafour-columntablewiththeheadings“predict,”“question,”“clarify”and“summarize,”studentswillbeginbywritingtheirpredictionsintheappropriatecolumnasyoucontinuetoreadthetext(encouragethemtousethebookmarks).Repeatthisprocessusingthenext3strategies.3.Aftereachparagraph,studentswillsharewhattheyhavewritten.Assessment:Circulatearoundtheroomandlistentostudents’discussions.Aretheyusingthereciprocalteachingbookmarkcorrectly?Collectstudents’tablesandcheckforunderstanding.Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreading comprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
WholeGroup SmallGroup
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Reciprocal Teaching Bookmark
Predict Use clues from the book to explain what you think will happen next. I think………because…… Maybe this means…………. I think I will learn…….because…. Question Ask questions as you read. Ask questions that begin with who, what, when, where, why, or how. Ask questions with answers…..
• In the book • From clues + my experiences
Clarify Look for words or ideas that are not clear. Try one of these strategies to figure it out……
• Read around the word. • Think about word chunks you know. • Does it make sense? • Reread. • Make a substitution.
Summarize Include the main idea, not details. Explain what happened in your own words. This part is about……….. This text is about…….....
Reciprocal Teaching Bookmark
Predict Use clues from the book to explain what you think will happen next. I think………because…… Maybe this means…………. I think I will learn…….because…. Question Ask questions as you read. Ask questions that begin with who, what, when, where, why, or how. Ask questions with answers…..
• In the book • From clues + my experiences
Clarify Look for words or ideas that are not clear. Try one of these strategies to figure it out……
• Read around the word. • Think about word chunks you know. • Does it make sense? • Reread. • Make a substitution.
Summarize Include the main idea, not details. Explain what happened in your own words. This part is about……….. This text is about………..
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Prediction Question Clarification Summarize
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WholeGroup SmallGroupWeek1-Lesson3:UsingReciprocalTeachinginCooperativeGroupsStandard:3.4.1.2.2Compareandcontrasttwodifferentaccountsofanevent.Purpose:Studentswillworktogetherinsmallgroupsusingonespecificreciprocalteachingstrategyandthensharetheirinformationwiththeclassinordertounderstandhowthestrategiesworktogether.Model:1.Readaloudaportionofthetext.Usingathinkaloud,refertothereciprocalteachingbookmarkasyoumodelthestrategies.2.Continuetomodelandworkonthestrategiestogetherwithstudents.Shared/Guided:1.Withtheirtablegroups,studentswillfocusononeassignedstrategyafteryoureadasectionoftext.Studentswillshareresponseswiththeclass.2.Handoutapiepiecetoeachgroup.Studentswillreadthenextsectionoftextandthe4membersofthegroupwillusethedirectionsontheirpiecetoworkthroughthestrategy.3.Afterallgroupshavefinishedfillingintheinformation,theywillsharewiththeclass.Discusshowallfourstrategiesworktogethertohelpreadersunderstandthetext.4.Thegroupmemberswillgluetheirpiecesontoapostertomakeacompletedpie.Assessment:Positionyourselfaroundtheclassroomandlistentotheresponsesofthegroupsastheywork.Usethewrittenresponsesfromthegroupforaformativeassessment.Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreading comprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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Predict__ Look through the illustrations and discuss what the book might be about.
__Use clues from the book to make a prediction of what might come next.
Our predictions are…… The clues we used are……
Question __Look back in the text to ask questions that begin with who, what, when, where, why.
__Ask main idea questions first.
__ Be able to show where your answers are in the text.
Our questions are…… 1. 2. 3.
Clarify __Look for words or ideas that are confusing. “I wonder what that means?” __Reread, read on, or ask a friend to help figure it out.
__Be aware of strategies you used to figure out difficult words or ideas.
A difficult word or idea we found….
Ways we figured the word or idea out….
Summarize
__Include the main ideas, not the details.
__Use your own words.
__Use words such as first, next, then, or finally.
Our summary……
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WholeGroup SmallGroup
Week2-Lesson4:PredictingPARTIStandard:3.4.1.2.3Compareandcontrastvariouswaysthatdifferentcultureshaveexpressedconceptsoftimeandspace.Purpose:Studentswillusetextualcluestomakelogicalpredictionsingroupsandsharewiththeclassusinganinside-outsidecircle.Model:1.Askstudentshowgoodreadersmakepredictions.Recordonchartpaper.2.Usingathink-aloud,modelforstudentshowtousecluesfromthetexttomakepredictions.Shared/Guided:1.Assignpagesofthetexttogroupsoffourstudents.Havethegroupsmeetandwritepredictionsusingthesentencestarters.Eachgroupmemberwillneedacopyofthepredictions.2.UsingtheKaganEngagementstrategy,inside-outsidecircle,students’willformtwoconcentriccirclesandexchangetheirpredictionswithapartner.Whentheteachersignalstheoutercircletomoveinonedirection,eachstudentwillhaveanewpeertotalkto.3.Continuerotatinguntileachstudenthassharedwithatleastthreeothers.4.Cometogetherasawholegroupandlistsomepredictionsonchartpaper.Havestudentsbeginreadingandconfirmpredictions.Assessment:Collectpredictionsheetsandcheckforunderstand.Rotatearoundclassroomandmakesurestudentsareusingtextandillustrationcluestomakelogicalpredictions.Adaptedfrom:
Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreading comprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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Making Predictions
Title of Book: o Based on the title I predict this will be about
__________________________________________
__________________________________________.
o In this book I think____________________________
will happen because____________________________
__________________________________________.
o After looking at the pictures I think________________
__________________________________________.
o I wonder if _________________________________
because____________________________________
__________________________________________.
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WholeGroup SmallGroup
Week2-Lesson5:PredictingPARTIIStandard:SeeabovePurpose:Studentswillpreviewanonfictiontextandpredictwhattheywillreadbasedonthetableofcontents,headings,andillustrationclues.Model:1.Usingathink-aloud,modelhowtopredictbyviewingthecoverandillustrations.2.Next,turntothetableofcontents,read,andmodelhowtousecluestoformpredictions.Pagethroughandreadtheheadings,andviewtheillustrationsusingathink-aloudtomakepredictions.3.Usingastickynote,writeatleastonepredictionthatusesthestatement,“IpredictIwilllearn…because…”Shareoutloudthecluesthatledtoyourprediction.Shared/Guided:1.Inpairs,studentswillusethetableofcontents,headings,andillustrationstogeneratelogicalpredictions.2.Usingastickynote,studentswillwriteatleastonepredictionthatusesthestatement,“IpredictIwilllearn…because…”3.Havepairssharetheirideasandpostthemonagroupchart.4.Studentswillbegintoreadsilentlyasteacherrotatesreadingone-on-one.Afterreading,encouragestudentstocheckwhichpredictionswererightandwhichoneschanged.Assessment:Noticeifstudentsareusingthetextcluestoformlogicalpredictions.Continuetomodelwithstudentswhostruggleduringtheone-on-onereadingtime.Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreading comprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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Week3-Lesson6:QuestioningPARTIStandard:3.4.2.3.1Explainhowaninventionofthepastchangedlifeatthattime,includingpositive,negativeandunintendedoutcomes.Purpose:Studentswillusequestionwordsincluding,who,what,when,where,whyandhowtoformulatequestionsbasedoffanonfictiontext.Model:1.Modelthestepsforaskingavarietyofquestionsthatbeginwithwho,what,when,where,whyandhowusingaparagraphoftext.2.Usingthequestionspinner,formulateaquestionusingthatquestionword.Haveastudentanswerit.3.Gothroughafewmoreexamplesasagroup,readingaparagraph,spinningthespinner,formulatingaquestionandansweringit.Shared/Guided:1.Inpairs,studentswillusethequestionspinnertogeneratequestionsbasedonthetext.2.Studentswilltaketurnsreading,spinning,askingaquestionandtheotherstudentwillanswer.3.Pairswillwritedownquestionsandanswersonasheetofpaper.4.Cometogetherasagroupandsharequestions/answersthepairsformulated.Discusswhatmadeagoodquestion.Assessment:Collectquestionsandcheckforunderstandingofusingquestionwordstowritetheirowntextquestions.Checktoseeiftheycanaskmainideaquestionsaswellasinferentialquestions.**Note-frontloadinglessontomakesurestudentsarefamiliarwithquestioning.Adaptedfrom:http://www.teacher2teacherhelp.com/reading-strategies/questioning-mini-lessons-and-practice-activities/
WholeGroup SmallGroup
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Who?
What?
When?
Where?
Why?
How?
What caused…
Do you think?
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WholeGroup SmallGroup
Week3-Lesson7:QuestioningPARTIIStandard:SeeabovePurpose:UsingtheQAR(Question-Answer-Relationship)strategy,studentswilllearnthefourdifferenttypesofquestions:Rightthere,thinkandsearch,authorandyou,andonyourown.StudentswillgeneratequestionsandanswersbasedonQAR.Model:1.Explaintostudentsthattherearetwowaystogeneratequestions.
• Inthebook:theanswercanbefoundinthetext.• Inmyhead:theanswercannotbefoundinthetextandmustcomefromthe
reader’sownexperienceandknowledge.2.DisplayQARposterandexplaineachquestiontypenotingquestionsfoundinthebook(rightthere,thinkandsearch)andquestionsinmyhead(onmyown,authorandme).3.Readaloudasectionoftext.Stopatvariouspointsandmodelhowtoaskeachtypeofquestion.Filloutthefoursquaresintheappropriatequestiontype.Shared/Guided:1.HandouttheQARfoursquareandgothroughafewmoreexamplesasaclass,explainingtheirreasoning.2.Inpairs,studentsreadasectionoftextandgeneratequestionsforeachQAR.3.Studentstradetheirpaperswithanotherpairandanswertheirquestions.4.CometogetherasawholeclassanddiscusshowtheQARtechniquehelpedthemtobetterunderstandthetext.Talkaboutwhichquestionsweretheeasiestandwhichwerethehardest.Assessment:Onascaleof1-5havestudentsratehowcomfortabletheyfeelwiththeQARstrategy.CollectQARfoursquaresforaformativeassessment.Adaptedfrom:http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/guided-comprehension-self- questioning-227.html?tab=4#tabs
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Adaptedfrom:http://theopendoorclassroom.blogspot.com/2013/02/question-answer-relationship-qar-freebie.html
IN THE TEXT: Right There
Often the words used in the question are the same words found in the text. What did…? Who did….? What was….? How many…? When did…? What kind? What does….mean? Give one example…. List one….
IN THE TEXT: Think & Search
Answers are gathered from several parts of the text and put together. How do you…? What happened to…? What happened before…? How many times…? What clues…? Where did…? Prove… Explain…
IN YOUR HEAD: Author & You
You need to think about what the author has told you and what you already know about the topic. Why did the author…? Do you agree with…in the text? What will happen…? Why do you think…? What do you picture when…? Have you ever experienced….similar to……
IN YOUR HEAD: On my Own
You will need to think about your own personal experiences to answer. Have you ever….? What do you think…? If you were…..? How do you feel about….? What do you know about…? Do you believe…? What would you do if….? What do you think it would be like….?
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IN THE TEXT: Right There
IN THE TEXT: Think & Search
IN YOUR HEAD: Author & You
IN YOUR HEAD: On my Own
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WholeGroup SmallGroup
Week3-Lesson8:QuestioningPARTIIIStandard:SeeabovePurpose:SeeaboveModel:1.UsetheQARpostertoreviewthequestiontypesandtalkabouthowtheQARstrategywasusedinthepreviouslesson.2.Usingathink-aloud,modelhowtoformulateeachtypeofquestionasyouread.Havestudentsanswerthequestions.Shared/Guided:1.Havestudentscreateafoursquareliketheoneusedaboveintheirnotebooks.2.Usinginstructionalleveltext,studentswillreadontheirown,formulatingquestionsandwritingthemintheirnotebooks.3.Providesupportforstudentswhoarestruggling.Refertothegraphicorganizeronpage51tocreatethefourdifferenttypesofquestions.4.Encouragestudentstoalsomakepredictionsastheyread.Assessment:Observestudentswhilereading/workingandtakeanecdotalnotes.Noticewhoneedsmorepracticeandwhoisconfidentwiththestrategy.Exitticket:WriteafewsentencesexplainingtheQARstrategyandhowithelpsyouunderstandwhatyouarereading.
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WholeGroup SmallGroupWeek4-Lesson9:ClarifyingPARTIStandard:3.4.2.5.1Identifyexamplesofindividualsorgroupswhohavehadanimpactonworldhistory;explainhowtheiractionshelpedshapetheworldaroundthem.Purpose:Studentswillbeabletoidentifywordsorideastoclarifyandusestrategiesforclarifyingwordmeanings.Studentswillbeabletoreflectonusingclarifyingstrategies.Model:1.Askstudentsiftheyhaveevergottenstuckonahardwordorconfusingpartofthetext.Provideafewexamples.2.OnchartpaperfilloutaKWL(know,wanttoknow,learn)chartaboutclarifying.Askstudentswhattheyalreadyknowaboutclarifying,whattheywanttoknowandattheendofthelessonfilloutwhattheylearned.3.Chooseseveralwordsfromatextpreviouslyreadasexamples.Usingtheclarifyingwordshandout,modelhowtodecipherwhatthosewordsmeanbyusingafewofthestrategiesonthebookmark.4.Chooseseveralideasfromthetextthatrequireclarifyingstrategies.Modelhowareadermightneedtoclarifytheconfusingpartsofthetexteventhoughtheymayknowwhatthewordsmean.Makesurestudentsarefollowingalongatthecorrectportionofthetext.Shared/Guided:1.Usingtheclarifyingwordshandout,chooseafewmorewordsandencouragestudentstodecidewhichstrategiestheywillusetofigureoutthemeaning.Shareanddiscuss.2.Usingtheclarifyingideashandout,chooseafewmoredifficult/confusingparagraphsandhavestudentsdecidewhichstrategiestouse.Shareanddiscuss.3.Inpairs,havestudentsrereadportionsofthetextandusethebookmarktoclarifyeitherwordsorideas.4.RevisittheKWLchart.Filloutwhatstudentslearnedaboutclarifyingandhowitishelpful.Whichstrategiesdidtheyusewhenandwhichdidtheyfindthemosthelpful?Encouragestudentstousethehandoutduringindependentreadingtime.Assessment:Coachstudentsduringindependentreadingtime.Promptandguidethemasneeded.Canstudentsverbalizethestrategiestheyareusing?Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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Clarifying Words
1. Identify the difficult word. The word___________________ is confusing because….
a. It was hard to pronounce it. b. I didn’t know what it meant. c. I didn’t know what it meant
and I couldn’t pronounce it.
2. Try to clarify the difficult word. I tried the following strategies to understand the word….. ___Did I look at the prefix, suffix, or base word? ___Did I try blending the sounds together? ___Did I think of another word that looks like this word? ___Did I read on to find clues? ___Did I try another word that makes sense in the sentence? ___Did I reread the sentence to see if the word made sense?
Clarifying Ideas
1. Identify the confusing paragraph, sentence, page or chapter. A confusing part is ________________________________ ________________________________ because….
a. I didn’t understand_______________.
b. It doesn’t make sense. c. I don’t
get_______________________.
2. Try to clarify the confusing part. I tried the following strategies to understand the confusing part… ___Did I reread the parts that I didn’t understand? ___Did I read on to look for clues? ___Did I think about what I already know about the topic? ___Did I talk to a friend about the reading?
Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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WholeGroup SmallGroupWeek4-Lesson10:ClarifyingPARTIIStandard:SeeabovePurpose:Studentswillbeabletodeterminestrategiestousetoclarifywordsandideas.Model:1.Makeatwo-columnchartwiththeheadings:ClarifyingWordsandClarifyingIdeas.2.Askstudentswhatgoodreadersdowhentheyneedtoclarifyaword.Charttheirresponsesandmodelseveral.3.Askstudentswhatgoodreadersdowhentheyneedtoclarifyanidea.Charttheirresponsesandmodelclarifyingconfusingideasinparagraphs,chaptersandsentences.Shared/Guided:1.Givestudentsstickynotesintwodifferentcolors:onecolorforclarifyingawordandtheothercolorforclarifyinganidea.2.Assignaparagraphoftextforstudentstoread.Astheyreadstudentswilldeterminewords/ideasthatneedtobeclarifiedandwritethemontheappropriatecolorstickynotealongwithatleast2strategiestheyusedtofigureitout.3.Studentswillplacestickynotesonthecorrectcolumnsinthechart.Discussstudentresponses.Assessment:Arestudentsusingtheclarifyingstrategiesintheirownreading?Asstudentsreadindependently,observewhichstudentsrefertotheposteronclarifying.Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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WholeGroup SmallGroup
Week4-Lesson11:ClarifyingPARTIIIStandard:SeeabovePurpose:Studentswillbeabletomonitortheirreadinganduseafix-upstrategytoclarifyconfusingwordsorideas.Model:1.Modelreadingaselectionoftext,stoppingatconfusingwordsorparts.2.Usingathink-aloudfilloutthemonitorandclarifyhandoutincludingthepagenumbers.Besuretodiscusswhyyouchoosethefix-upstrategyyoudidandwhatyouknownowbecauseyouusedthatstrategy.Shared/Guided:1.Usingthemonitorandclarifyhandout,studentswillreadthenextparagraphofthetextandfilloutwhattheydon’tunderstand,whatfix-upstrategytheyused,andwhattheyknownow.2.Cometogetherasagroupanddiscusswords/partsthatwereconfusingandhowstudentsclarifiedtodeterminethemeaning.3.Duringindependentreadingtime,studentswillcontinuetofilloutthemonitorandclarifyhandout.Assessment:Collectthehandoutandcheckforunderstanding.Duringindependentreadingtime,conferencewithindividualstudentsandreinforceskillwhennecessary.
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Monitor I don ’t
understand
Clarify Use a fix-up
strategy
Keep Reading Now I know……
Page:
Page:
Page:
Page:
Page:
Page:
Page:
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WholeGroup SmallGroupWeek5-Lesson12:SummarizingPARTIStandard:3.4.3.7.1Explainhowtheenvironmentinfluencedthesettlementofancientpeoplesinthreedifferentregionsoftheworld.Purpose:Studentswillbeabletounderstandhowsummarizinghelpsthemunderstandthetext.Studentswillbeabletousevocabularyandmainideasfromthetexttogenerateasummary.Model:1.Describetostudentsthatwhenyousummarizeyoupulloutthemainideasofthetextandlisttheminthecorrectorder.2.Brainstormwithstudentsalistofreasonswhyonemightsummarizeandhowitwouldhelpareaderunderstandthetext.Providesentencestemstohelpincluding:
• First….• Next….• Then….• Afterthat….• Finally….• Aproblemoccurswhen….• Themostimportantideasinthetextare….• Ilearnedthat….
3.Modelhowtosummarizeapageoftextbyrereadingformainideas.Underlineorcirclekeyideasorphrasestouseinyoursummary.4.Verbalizeyoursummarytostudentsexplainingwhyyouincludedcertainpartsandeliminatedothers.Shared/Guided:1.Inpairs,studentswilltaketurnsrereadingaportionoftext,underliningorcirclingseveralkeywords.Thentheywillgiveaverbalsummaryofthetext.2.Assist,guideandpromptpairswhoarehavingdifficulties.Assessment:Listentothepairsastheysummarize.Cantheydeterminemainideasandvocabularyfromthetext?Modelsummarizinginsmallgroupforstudentswhoarehavingdifficulties.Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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WholeGroup SmallGroup
Week5-Lesson13:SummarizingPARTIIStandard:SeeabovePurpose:Studentswillbeabletoconstructasummaryusingthemainideasfromthetext.Studentswillbeabletoeliminateunnecessaryinformationfromasummary.Model:1.Readaloudasimple,familiartext.Asyoureadaskstudentstothinkaboutmainideasorpointsinthetext.Recordonchartpaper.2.Helpstudentstoidentifyamainideasentenceandthenasequencedlistofevents.Recordandrereadthesummary.3.“Shrinkwrap”yoursummarybycrossingoutunnecessaryorrepetitiveideasorsentences.Continuethisprocessuntilthesummaryisaconciseaspossible.Besuretodiscussreasonsforincludingortakingoutparts.Shared/Guided:1.Assignthenextportionoftextforstudentstoreadsilently.Whenfinished,haveeachstudentwriteasummary.2.Pairstudentsandhavethem“shrinkwrap”eachother’ssummariestakingoutunnecessarysentencesorparts.3.Havestudentssharetheirsummariesoutloud.Assessment:Listentopairsastheyreworktheirsummaries.Cantheydeterminemainideasandincorporatetheseintoconcisesummaries?Modelsummarizingagainduringsmallgroupforthosewhoarehavingdifficulties.Adaptedfrom:http://www.teacher2teacherhelp.com/reading-strategies/summarizing-mini-lessons-and-practice-activities/
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WholeGroup SmallGroup
Week6-Lesson14:ComprehensionChartsDuringGuidedReadingStandard:3.4.3.8.1Identifymethodsofcommunicationusedbypeopleslivinginancienttimesinthreedifferentregionsoftheworld.(ClassicalTraditions,BeliefSystemsandGiantEmpires)Purpose:Studentswillbeabletofilloutavisualrepresentationofthereciprocalteachingstrategiesastheyread.Studentswillbeabletomonitortheircomprehensionastheyread.Model:1.Selectatexttoreadwithstudents.Sketchacomprehensionchart.Besuretoallowthefollowingheadings:Whatwealreadyknow,predictions,questions,clarifications,andsummaries.**Seebelowforrecommendedcharts.2.ModelusingstickynotesmakingpredictionsofthetextandconnectionsofwhatIalreadyknow.3.Studentswillfilloutstickynotesandaddtowhatweknowandthepredictionsportionsofthechartbeforereadingthetext.Shared/Guided:1.Studentswillreadthetextsilently,fillingoutstickynotesforeachquestion,orclarificationtheycomeupwith.2.Modelthestrategiesoneatatime.Discussstudents’predictionsfirstandaskifanyone’spredictionhaschanged.Next,modelandquestionandaskstudentstocontributetheirquestionstothechart.Then,modelaclarificationandaskstudentstoshare.Finally,modelasummaryandhavestudentshelpyousummarize.3.Discusswithstudentshowthereciprocalteachingstrategieshelpedthemtocomprehendthetext.Assessment:Whenstudentscontributetothechart,havethemwritetheirinitialsonthestickynotes.Thisway,youcanmakenotesandkeeptrackofindividuals’progress.Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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ComprehensionChartforGuidedReadingGroups
WhatWeKnow(usebackgroundknowledgeandmakeconnectionswiththetext)
OurPredictions(whatmightthetextbeabout?)
OurQuestions(who,what,when,where,whyand
how)
OurWordsorIdeastoClarify
OurSummary
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NonfictionComprehensionChartforGuidedReadingGroups
WordsorIdeastoClarify OurSummary1. __________________________________2. __________________________________3. __________________________________4. __________________________________
WhatWeKnowAbout_______________________(previewthetext’scover,illustrationsandheadings)
WhatWeMightLearn
OurQuestionsBeforeReading
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________OurQuestionsAfterReading
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WholeGroup SmallGroup
Week6-Lesson15:IntroduceReciprocalTeachingRoleCardsStandard:3.4.3.9.1Compareandcontrastdailylifeforpeoplelivinginancienttimesinatleastthreedifferentregionsoftheworld.(Post-ClassicalandMedievalCivilizationsandExpandingZonesofExchange) Purpose:Studentswilluserolecardstoparticipateinreciprocalteachingduringguidedreading.Model:1.Tellstudentsthattheywillberesponsibleforoneofthereciprocalteachingstrategies(predictor,questioner,clarifier,orsummarizer)duringtoday’slesson.2.UsetheReciprocalTeachingBookmark(Week1-Lesson2)toreviewallstrategieswithstudents.3.Introduceandhandouttherolecards(Seebelow:cutout,laminateandputonaring.Provideonesetforeachstudent).Shared/Guided:1.Teacherwillfacilitatethediscussion.Thepredictorwillgofirstandaskstudentspredictionsofthetext.(Recordondiscussionsheet)2.Next,theteacherwillassignsectionoftexttoread(Decideifstudentswillreadsilently,outloudorwithpartners.)Remindstudentsastheyreadtothinkofquestionsandideas/wordstoclarifyandtorecordondiscussionsheet.3.Afterreading,instructthequestionertogonext.Eachstudentwitharolewillshareandthenaskclassmatestoshare.Repeatwithclarifierandsummarizer.4.Thediscussionwillendwiththepredictorpredictingwhatwillhappeninthenextsectionoftextandprocesswillbeginagain.5.Teacherwillcoach/givefeedbackregardingstrategyuseandtheflowofdiscussion.Assessment:-Observestudents’useofstrategiesandtakenotesofwhoishavingtrouble.Groupaccordinglyandreinforceusingminilessonsifneeded.-Studentswillfillouttheself-evaluation(seebelow) Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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ReciprocalTeachingRoleCards
#1PREDICTOR1. Ask members to look at the cover and illustrations and
discuss what you see. 2. Ask members to write their predictions. **Remember to use
clues from the text to support your predictions. 3. Share your prediction first. 4. Then ask others what they predict.
**Ask: “Does anyone else have a prediction?”
#2QUESTIONER1. Ask your group members to write 1-2 questions that could
be answered by reading the text. **Use questions words: who, what, when, where, why and how)
2. Ask your question first. Call on members to answer. 3. Ask others what their questions are.
**Ask: “Does anyone else have a question?”
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#3CLARIFIER1. Ask your group members to identify words or ideas that
were tricky or confusing. 2. Have members write 1-2 difficult words/ideas. 3. Share your word or idea first and strategies used to figure
it out. 4. Ask members to share their words or ideas.
**Ask: “Does anyone have confusing words or parts to clarify?”
5. Discuss strategies to figure out confusing words/ideas.
#4SUMMARIZER1. Ask your group members to write a summary using the
main ideas from the text. 2. Share your summary first. 3. Ask others to share their summaries or add to yours.
**Ask: “Would anyone like to add to my summary or share their own?”
Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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ReciprocalTeachingDiscussionSheet
PredictIpredictthat_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________because___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
QuestionHerearequestionsIcanaskmygroup……1.2.3.
Clarify
______________________isadifficultwordbecause______________________.StrategiesItried….____________________isaconfusingideabecause_______________________.StrategiesItried….
SummarizeHereisa1-2sentencesummary.
Adaptedfrom:Oczkus,L.D.(2003).Reciprocalteachingatwork:Strategiesforimprovingreadingcomprehension.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
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Reciprocal Teaching Self-Evaluation M- Most of the time P- Part of the time N- Not at all PREDICTING ____ I preview the cover, title, illustrations and headings before reading. ____ I stop to predict during reading. ____ I make predictions based on clues from the text. QUESTIONING ____ I ask “right there” questions. ____ I ask “think and search” questions. ____ I ask “author and you” questions. ____ I ask “on my own” questions. CLARIFYING ____ When I don’t know a word I stop to figure it out. ____ I use different strategies to figure out words. Some of them are_______________________. ____ When I’m confused by an idea I stop to figure it out. ____ I use different strategies to help understand. Some of them are_______________________. SUMMARIZING ____ I stop to summarize the main ideas as I read. ____ My summaries are clear, short, and include only the important points. Adaptedfrom:http://www.teacher2teacherhelp.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Reciprocal-Teaching-Self-Evaluation.pdf
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Conclusion ChapterFourincludedthereciprocalteachingcurriculumtobeusedinathirdgrade
classroom.Additionally,theteacherisabletomeetinstructionalstandardsinbothsocial
studiesandlanguagearts,maximizingtheuseofteachingtime.Allofthelessonspresented
supportedtheresearchinChapterTwoofthiscapstoneemphasizingcomprehensionand
theprocessofreciprocalteaching.Theframeworkofthecurriculum,inadditiontothe
individuallessonscontributetomyresearchquestion:Howcanreciprocalteachingbeused
toincreasecomprehensionwithfluentreadersintheprimarygrades?
IwillconcludethiscapstoneprojectbyreflectinguponwhatIhavelearnedfrom
developingacurricularframeworkforimplementingreciprocalteachinginathirdgrade
classroom.Additionally,Iwilldiscusstheimplicationsandlimitationsofmystudy.Finally,I
willprovidesomerecommendationsforfutureresearchonimplementingreciprocal
teaching.
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CHAPTERFIVE
Conclusion
“Iimagineaschoolsystemthatrecognizeslearningisnatural,thataloveoflearningisnormal,andthatreallearningispassionatelearning.”
-TomPeters
Asaneducator,itismygoaltoprovidestudentswithstrategiesthatwillprepare
themtobesuccessfulintheirfuture.Morespecifically,Iwantthosestudentswhostruggle
withcomprehensiontoattainthepropertoolstoguidethemtowardssuccess.Iwantmy
studentstofallinlovewiththestorythatreadingprovideslikeIdidasachild.Inorderto
doso,Ineedtoensurethatmetacognitivethinkingistakingplaceandappropriate
strategiesarebeingusedthatwillsupportthemincomprehendingavarietyoftexts.
Throughoutmycareer,Ihavedevelopedasolidfoundationofstrategiesforteaching
readingcomprehension.However,Irecognizedtheneedtosupportfluentreadersin
improvingtheircomprehension.Thisdesireledmetofurtherexplorethequestion:How
canreciprocalteachingbeusedtoincreasecomprehensionwithfluentreadersintheprimary
grades?InthisfinalchapterIwillfirstconsiderpossibleimplicationsofmyfindings.Next,I
willdiscussthelimitationsofthiscapstoneprojectandfinallyIwillrecommendfuture
researchprojectsconcerningreciprocalteaching.
KeyFindings
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Byresearchingtheareasofcomprehensionandfluency,Iwasabletobroadenmy
understandingofthosetermsandrecognizetheeffectsthatreadingfluentlyhason
comprehension.IespeciallyappreciatedRaskinski’s(2004)researchregardingfluencyand
theconnectionbetweenfluencyandcomprehension.Additionally,Ilearnedthebenefits
reciprocalteachingcanhaveinordertoimprovecomprehensionoftext.LoriOczkus
(2003)wasveryinformationalinherexplanationofreciprocalteachingandhandson
reciprocalteachinglessons.Theuseofreciprocalteachinginaclassroomnotonlyteaches
studentshowtocomprehendtext,butalsoencouragesstudentstocollaboratewitheach
otheraspartofalearningcommunity.
PossibleImplications Ifimplementingreciprocalteachinginmyclassroomprovestobeeffective,Iwillbe
abletoteachmoreefficiently.Byembeddingthecontentofthethirdgradesocialstudies
standardsintomylanguageartsinstruction,timewillbebettermanaged,asstudentswill
beabletoapplyreadingstrategiestolearnsocialstudiescontent.Ifmyfindingsarecorrect,
studentswilladditionallybenefitfromcollaboratingwiththeirpeers.Notonlyarethey
learningthefourstrategiesofreciprocalteaching,butalsotheyareengagedinmeaningful
discussionwitheachothertodeepencomprehension.Asstudentsaredevelopingsocial
skillstosuccessfullyworkwithothers,theoverallclimateoftheclassroomshouldimprove
inapositivemanner.
SinceIwillbeimplementingreciprocalteachingwiththeentireclass,allthird
graders’readingcomprehensionshouldincrease,notjuststudentswhocanreadfluently
butstrugglecomprehending.Ascompetentstudentsgothroughtheprocessofusingthe
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fourstrategiesassociatedwithreciprocalteaching,theircomprehensionshouldcontinueto
improve.Althoughthecurriculumwasdesignedspecificallyforstudentswhocanread
fluently,butstruggletocomprehend,intheendallstudentswillbenefitfromreceiving
reciprocalteachinginstruction.
Byimplementingthisthirdgradereciprocalteachingcurriculum,Iamtrustingthat
myworkbecomescontagious.IplantosharewhatIhavecreatedwithteachersinmy
graduateschoolcohortinadditiontomyfutureteammatesinhopesthattheywillbe
interestedinalsoimplementingtheunitIhavecreated.Additionally,ifanopportunityto
presentmyresearchandcurriculumarises,Iwouldconsideritsothatmycolleaguesand
administrationcanunderstandthebenefitsreciprocalteachingcanhaveonimproving
students’comprehension.Ultimately,Iwanttobecomeanadvocateandaresourcefor
educatorsintheareaofreciprocalteaching.
PossibleLimitations IfeelveryconfidentinimplementingtheunitIcreatedasIbaseditsdevelopment
onmyexperienceswithteachingthirdgrade.However,thereareafewlimitationsto
consider.First,Iamwritingthisunitduringthespringforagroupofpotentialstudents
whomIhavenotyetmet.Asateacherwhoisresponsivetostudents’needs,Iamaware
thatImayneedtomodifythecurriculumbasedontheneedsofthestudentsinmyfuture
classroom.
Anotherlimitationisthelackoftime.Withthehighdemandsonteacherstofit
everythinginwithinashortamountoftime,Iamconcernedthattherewillnotbeenough
timetofitinanadditionalreciprocalteachingcurriculumontopofthecurriculumteachers
arealreadyrequiredtoteach.Luckily,theunitdesignedhassocialstudiesstandards
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embeddedwhichwillsavesometime.Sincetimeisalimitation,teacherswillhavetomake
reciprocalteachingapriorityinorderforstudentstoreceivethebenefitsitprovides.
FutureResearch AlthoughtheunitIcreatedfocusesonsocialstudiescontentstandards,Ichose
foundationallessonsinreciprocalteachingsothatthestructurecouldbeusedforother
content.Iamhopinginthefuturethatthelessonscouldbeusedwithsciencecontentor
simplywithlanguageartscontent.Bycreatingacurriculumwithuniversallessons,Iam
confidentIcouldusethisfoundationforotherunitsofstudyinmyclassroom.
Whileresearchingtheareaofcomprehension,Ifoundmyselfinterestedinlearning
moreaboutinteractiveread-alouds.Interactivereadaloudsconsistofteachersreading
aloudandusingathinkaloudtoexplaintheirthinkingtostudents.Iamcurioustoexplore
ifinteractivereadaloudswouldcontributetoimprovingstudents’comprehension.Inthe
future,Iaminterestedinusinginteractivereadaloudsinadditiontoreciprocalteachingto
maximizecomprehension.Thisway,studentswouldbeshownmultiplestrategiesthey
couldusetostrengthentheircomprehension.
WiththecompletionofmyMaster’sdegreeinLiteracyEducationandtheK-12
ReadingLicense,Iwillcontinuetofurthermystudiesinliteracyeducation.Forexample,I
plantoseekadditionalprofessionaldevelopmentincollaborativelearningsoIcan
encouragestudentstolearnfromeachother.Ialsoplantofurthermyknowledgeof
technologysothatstudentscanbuildtwenty-firstcenturyliteracyskills.Eventually,my
plansincludeintegratingtechnologyintothereciprocalteachingunitIcreated.
FinalThoughts
74
AsIculminatethisprojectlookingforwardtothenextschoolyear.Iamexcitedto
seethisunitcometolifeasstudentstakeontherolesofpredictor,questioner,clarifierand
summarizertodeepentheircomprehension.Additionally,IamfilledwithcuriosityasI
wonderhowthisunitwillworkwhenputintopracticeandhowstudentswillrespond.As
aneducator,nothingexcitesmemorethanexperiencingstudents’growththroughoutthe
year.ByimplementingthisreciprocalteachingcurriculumIlookforwardnotonlyto
celebratingmystudents’successesalongtheway,butalsoinstillingafondnessofreading
inmystudentssotheycanconnectandfallinlovewiththestorylikeIdidasachild.
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