real cases with african american clients: reports of racially diverse practitioners

JournalofHumaNisTiccOuNsELiNG,EducaTiONaNddEVELOpmENTFall2007Volume46 211

© 2007 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.

Real Cases With African American Clients: Reports of Racially

Diverse Practitioners

Aretha F. marbley Yih-Jiun Shen

Fred A. Bonner II Cynthia Wimberly Rice

Rachelle mcGonagill Vicki A.Williams Harold Stevens

By calling attention to human factors such as cultural biases, mistakes made, and lessons

learned from real clinical scenarios, these racially diverse practitioners use their counseling

experiences to offer a people-responsive, diversity-sensitive framework and recommenda-

tions for clinicians working with African Americans in university, school, and community

counseling settings.

martinLutherKingJr.’s(1968)pleain1963toletfreedomring“Fromthe prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire, the mighty mountains ofNewYork,theheighteningallegheniesofpennsylvania,thesnowcappedRockiesofcolorado,thecurvaceousslopesofcalifornia,andthehillsandmolehillsofmississippi”(p.156)wasapleaforrespect,equalrights,andfreedomforpeopleofallcreeds,colors,andreligionsallacrossthiscountry.sadly,equityandequalityforwomenandpeopleofcolorarestillnotrealized.sadlystill,withalltheprogressmadeineducationandcounselingandpsychotherapy,theinequitiescontinueintheamericanhighereducationsystemandmentalhealthsystem.despitetheincreaseinmulticulturalresearch,africanamericanclientsandotherclientsofcolorarestillnot faringwellwithcounselingservices. inshort, therecontinuestobeaneedtoaddresstheexperiencesofclientsofcolorwithcounselingservices.

Aretha F. Marbley and Yih-Jiun Shen, Department of Educational Psychology and Leadership, Rachelle McGonagill, Counselor Education, all at Texas Tech University; Fred A. Bonner II, College of Educa-tion and Human Development, Texas A&M University, College Station; Cynthia Wimberly Rice, Lincoln Elementary School, Monroe City Schools, Monroe, Louisiana; Vicki A. Williams, Depart-ment of Adult and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma; Harold Stevens, Clemson University Counseling and Psychological Services. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Aretha F. Marbley, Texas Tech University, College of Education, Box 41071, Lubbock, TX 79409 (e-mail: [email protected]).

212 JournalofHumaNisTiccOuNsELiNG,EducaTiONaNddEVELOpmENTFall2007Volume46

ascliniciansandpractitionersfromdiverseculturalbackgroundsandacademicdisciplineswithincounseling,wehavecollectivelyamassedanextensivesetofworkingexperiencesthatspansdecadesofworkingwithdiversepeoplebothnationallyandglobally.Thus,theexperiencesrecountedinthisarticleaddressourtraining,academic,andprofessionalexperiencesasEuropeanamericancounselorsandcounselorsof color fromvariouscounseling disciplines working withafricanamericans. By depictingscenariosfromourearlierexperiencesasneophytecounselors,weattempttodelineatehumanissuesencompassingourculturaldiversityandthatofourclientsfromeclecticsettingsandperspectivesandsharereflectionsonourmistakesandsuccessesinourworkwithafricanamericanclients.

AS mENTAL HEALTH CLIENTS

inmentalhealth,inequitieshaveoccurredatseverallevelsandatdifferentphasesandaresubstantiatedbyempiricalandconceptualresearchinthedeliveryofmentalhealthservices, ingeneral(e.g.,d’andrea&daniels,1991;marbley,2004;Rogler,malgady,&Rodriguez,1989;scheurich&Young,1997;sue,arredondo,&mcdavis,1992;sue&sue,2003),andincounsel-ingandpsychotherapeuticservicesforpeopleofcolor,inparticular(e.g.,atkinson,morten,&sue,2003;sue&sue,2003).Forexample,comparedwiththeEuropeanamericanpopulation,largenumbersofafricanameri-cansandotherpeopleofcoloraredeniedaccesstotreatmentbecauseitiscostprohibitive,whileothersfeeltheyreceiveinferiorformsoftreatment(constantine,2001;Thompson,akbar,&Bazile,2002;Wade&Bernstein,1991;Watkins&Terrell,1988).

inthepast40years,multiculturalresearchers(e.g.,atkinsonetal.,2003;poston, craine, &atkinson, 1991; sue & sue, 2003) have attempted togeneratecounselingservicestoimprovetherapeuticoutcomesforpeopleof color in counseling and psychotherapy. despite their efforts,africanamericans,asiansandpacificislanders,HispanicsandLatinos,andNativeamericanscontinuetounderutilize,prematurelydiscontinue,andreportunsuccessfuloutcomesincounseling(akutsu,Lin,&Zane,1990;Herring,1996;marbley,1998;ponterotto,anderson,&Grieger,1986;sue,ivey,&pedersen,1996;Thompsonetal.,2002).Forexample,insomesituations,therapeuticapproachesthatdonotreflectsensitivitytogender,race,andethnicitycontinuetobeused.suchapproachesproduceineffectivecounsel-ingservicesandelicitnegativeattitudestowardtheprofession,counselors,orcommunityagenciesfromfemaleclientsandclientsofcolor(Gamstetal.,2002;Roysircar,sandhu,&Bibbins,2003).

We,asscholarsofmulticulturalism,haveyettouncoverallvariablesthathinderorfacilitatesuccesswithafricanamericanclients;yetmonumentalstrideshavebeenmade in implementingeffectivestrategies to improvemental health services forafricanamericans and other clients of color.Foremost,wenowknowthatitisimportanttoaddressthemulticultural


issuesinherentincross-culturalcounselingrelationships,suchasthedi-versityoftheclienteleaswellastheclinicians(alessandria,2002;marbley,2004;Toporek&Reza,2001;Vera,speight,mildner,&carlson,1999;Wade&Bernstein,1991;Watkins&Terrell,1988).

muLTICuLTuRAL THEORETICAL FRAmEWORk

multiculturalcounselingandtherapy(mcT)theoryisusedinthisarticleasatheoreticalframeworkandtoaidindiscussingthecounselingexperiencesofafricanamericans.sueetal., (1996)wereamongthefirst toproposeatheoryofmcT.Briefly,theyidentifiedfromtheresearchandtheoryofmulticulturalismthefollowingsixpropositions.First,mcTisreferredtoasatheoryoftheoriesofcounselingandpsychotherapy.second,counselorandclientidentitiesareformedandembeddedinmultiplelevelsofexpe-riencesandcontextssuchasindividual,family,andcultural.Forpeopleofcolor,thesecomplexsocialnetworksnotonlyhelptoeasetheburden,butalsoarecriticaltotheirsurvival;astheclichégoes,“thegroupexists,andthereforeiam”(Billingsley,1993). Therefore, thefocusof treatmentissystemicandnotinisolationfromtheinterrelationshipsofexperiencesand contexts. Third, the development of cultural identity is importantin forming counselor and client attitudes toward the self, others of thesamegroup,othersofadifferentgroup,andthedominantgroup.Theseattitudesare strongly influencednotonlybyculturalvariablesbutalsobythedynamicsofthepowerdifferentialwithintherelationshipamongculturallydifferentgroups.Fourth,theeffectivenessofmcTismostlikelyenhancedwhenitsmodalities,strategies,andgoalsareconsistentwiththeculturalbackgroundandvaluesoftheclient.Thefifthimportantproposi-tionisthatmcTtheorystressestheimportanceofmultiplehelpingrolesdevelopedbymanyculturallydifferentgroupsandsocieties.Theserolesoften involve larger social units, systems intervention, and prevention.Last,theliberationofconsciousnessandacalltoconsciousnessarebasicgoalsofmcTtheory.mcTtheoryemphasizestheimportanceofexpandingpersonal,family,group,andorganizationalconsciousnessoftheplaceofself-in-relation,family-in-relation,andorganization-in-relation.Thisresultsin therapy that isnotonlyultimatelycontextual inorientation,butalsodrawsontraditionalmethodsofhealingfrommanycultures.

inthisarticle,mcTtheoryisusednotonlyasaframeworktopredict,explain,anddescribethebehaviorofclientsofcolorandproviderecommendations,butalsoasatheoreticalbasisthatlessensthepotentialfordestructivehumanbehaviorsofcounselorswhoseculturalbackgroundandvaluesaremarkedlydifferentfromthoseoftheirclients.Therefore,embracingaframeworkthatencompassesaprocessthatvaluesalternativehelpingrolesandapproaches,increasesmulticulturalcompetency,andallowsforemicandetic theoriesenablesustoexaminetheeffectivenessofourcounselingworkandinitia-tiveswithclientsofcolor.Whatfollowsareournarrativesofandpersonal


reflectionsonrealexperiencesgainedfromworkingwithafricanamericanclients,includingthehumandynamicsrelatedtoracialandculturalissuesthatcanbeinherentincross-culturalsettings.

OuR PERSONAL COuNSELING ExPERIENCES WITH AFRICAN AmERICANS

We present in five case descriptions our experiences from earlier yearsof our careers as neophyte counselors working withafricanamericanclients.ThereflectionsthatfolloweachscenariousemcTasthebasistoshow the connections, change, growth, and improved competency ofourindividualandcollectivejourneystowardbecomingmulticulturallycompetentcounselors.allidentifyinginformation,includingnames,hasbeenremovedtoensureanonymityoftheclients.

Case 1: Shirley’s Reconciliation

as anafricanamerican woman, i have maintained for more than 20yearsavested interest inmulticulturalism,diversity,andsocial justiceinmentalhealthandeducationinmyresearch,teaching,clinicalwork,and service.although i am now a licensed professional counselor, as-sociateprofessor,counseloreducator,anda25-yearseasonedtherapist,regrettably,duringthetimethaticounseledshirleynearly30yearsago,iwasmerelyasocialserviceworkerandanovicecounselinginternwithabsolutelynodiversitytraining.

shirleywasa30-year-old,married,africanamericanwomanwithame-dium-dark-browncomplexionanddarkbrowneyestomatch.sheworehershorthairrelaxed,withloosewavycurlscombedbackandsmallthreadsofbangscoveringawideprotrudingforehead.Herfaceandherhair,likeherclothes,werealwaysperfect.Herfulllipswerealwayspaintedwithsomeexotic color that accentedherbeautifullymade-up face.she stoodabout5’2”andweighedabout190pounds(withmostoftheweightconcentratedinherhipsandthighs).Herheavy-setframewasalwaysdressednicely,butinexpensively.shespokesoftlyandexpressedherselfalotwithherhands.

shirley was having difficulty convincing her husband, Juan, thattheirmarriagewasover, thatshenowhadanewman,and thatshejustwanted Juan tostopharassingher. Juanhadcome frommexico7yearsbeforewithnofamilyandspeakingnoEnglish.accordingtoshirley,becausesheandJuanhadanabusiverelationshipandhewasjealousandcrazy,shehadlefthim.Forthepastcoupleofyears,sheand Jermane, who wasafricanamerican and her current man, hadbeenseeingeachother.

she reported that since their breakup, Juan had been doing what shedescribedas“bothering”her,eventhoughhehadawomanlivingwithhim.Forexample,hewouldstandoutsideofherapartmentwaitingfor


hertocomeout,and,whenshedid,hewouldthreatentohitortakethechildrenorjuststandouttherecussing.TostopJuanfromattackingher,boththepoliceandisuggestedthatshetakeoutarestrainingorder.sherefused,untilJuanandJermanehadafistfightthatresultedintheircuttingeachotherwithbutcherknives.

although shirley was having an extramarital affair, she was stronglyconnectedtotheafricanamericanBaptistchurch;sheoftentalkedabouthow good God has been to her and her family and how she prayed tohimforguidanceandhelp.accordingtoshirley,herhusbandJuanwasalsodeeplyreligious,butasacatholic,hedidthingsdifferentlyfromtheBaptists. shirley repeatedly stated thatGodwould take careofherandherchildrenand,ultimately, if sheandJuanweremeant tobe together,theywouldbe.

afteraddressingsafetyissues,webeganexploringwhatshirleywantedoutofherlife.Behindthecurtainsoflookinggood,invincibility,andthei-need-a-man-in-my-life attitude, we discovered that what shirley wasstrivingforwasself-esteem,love,andmeaninginherlife.althoughweexhausted 10 sessions working on self-esteem, self-identity, and self-empowerment,thereoccurringthemeofreconciliationwithherhusbandwasdiscussedinall10sessions.

Thethoughtofreconciliationwaseverpresentbecauseoffinancialneeds,and, as shirley explained it, “The kids needed their father.” shirley feltstronglythatherhusbandhadarighttocometoherhouseandseethechil-drenbecausetheywerehischildrenandhepaidchildsupport.However,shefeltthatwhenhecametovisithewouldjust“popup”whenhewantedtoand“actlikeitwashishouse,”insteadofrespectingherhouse.Wespentthefinalsessionscenteredonherreconciliationwithherhusband.

Towardtheendofcounselingandafterthedivorcecourthearing,shirleydecidedtoreconcilewithJuan.accordingtoshirley’srationale,therec-onciliationwasneededmainlybecauseofthechildrenandalsobecauseJermane,inherwords,“Onlycamebywhenheneededadollarortwoforcigarettes,beer,orwine.”Beforethecounselingprematurelyterminated,shirleyconcludedthatculturaldifferenceswereattherootofhermaritalproblems.sheinsistedonseeingabilingualmarriagetherapistwhocouldtellherhusbandinspanishhow“americanwomenare.”

Case 1 Reflection

Reflecting on this scenario with more than 2 decades of experiences ofworkingwithdiverseclients,teachinggraduatecounselingcourses,andsupervisingandtraininginternsundermybelt,icanreallyappreciatethehands-on multicultural knowledge, training, and skills that i have nowdeveloped.itisduringthemanyyearssincethiscasethatihaveacquiredthe necessary clinical and multicultural skills to reflect on this scenariowithculturallysensitiveandresponsivelenses.


clearly,inowknow(consistentwithproposition2ofmcT)thatoneofthefocusesofcounselingshouldhavebeenasystemicfocusingonthemultipleexperiencesandcontextofmylifeandshirley’slifeasafricanamericans.Forexample,ishouldhavetakenintoconsiderationthatintheafricanamericanculture,familyincludesin-laws,extendedrelatives,andaugmentedmembers.inshirley’supbringing,marriagewassacredandforever;thus,allfamilialbondswereveryimportantandalmostimpossibletosever,evenifoneremarriedandespeciallyifthecouplehadchildren.Therefore,shirleyfelttornbetweenherownhappinessandherchildrenhavingtheirfatherintheirlives.

Onfurtherconsideration,irealizerapportwasakeycomponentinthiscounselingrelationship.Beinganafricanamericanwomanlikeshirleydidhelpmetobridgethegapandtodiscoverthevariouscommonstrugglesin thechallengingroles thatwesharedasparents,women,andafricanamericans.itwasmyself-disclosureandthediscoveryofthethingswehadincommonasafricanamericanwomenthatallowedustobegintheconversationscentereduniquelyonshirley’sreality,life,andfears.

proposition 3 of mcT acknowledges the importance of developingculturalidentity.accordingly,overthecourseofthecounseling,ishouldhaveprocessedwithshirleyhowtheculturalandgendermessagesfromherfamilydefinedheridentityandherexpectationsofandrelationshipswithmen.Thisincludedherneedtodress,act,andacceptabuseinordertosustaintherelationship.Forafricanamericanwomen,mateselectionandsingle-parenting,mixedwithpoverty,arerealstruggles(marbley,2004),andthesolutionsarenotassimpleas just leavingandfindingsomeonewhoappreciatesyouandcanprovideforyouandyourchildren.

inowrealizethatperhapsshirley’sreality,likethatofsomanyafricanameri-canwomen,wasplayedoutinthescenariowithfamily,children,herboyfriendJermane,andherhusbandJuan,andthisshouldhavebeenaddressedincounsel-ing.Thatis,shirley’srealityincludedtheage-oldthemessuchasmateselectionandtheavailabilityofmen,responsibilityofraisingchildren,childsupport,emotionalandfinancialsupport,loneliness,andspousalabuse.

proposition5allowsforpreventionandsystemicintervention.Forex-ample,asanafricanamericanwomanlivinginabigcity,itwasdifficultforshirleytofindagoodman;thatis,onewhowasfaithful,sober,lovedhischildren,couldkeepajob,andbroughthomethemoneytohisfam-ily.accordingtoshirley,shehadwaitedallofherlifeforsuchaman.Wetalkedaboutherguiltoverleavinghimjustbecausehewasjealous(eventhough he was also, in her words, “abusive and crazy”). When shirleytalkedtohermotherandsistersaboutleavingJuan,theythoughtshewascrazytoleavehimjustbecauseofhisjealousy,especially,whenitwassohardtofindagoodman.

inreflection,irealizeishouldhaveencouragedhertotellmewhatherlifewaslikeasanafricanamericanwoman(includingignoringtheabuseforthesakeofhavingaman),beforereferringhertoaspanish-speakingmar-riagetherapistsothatherhusbandcouldbetoldinspanish“howamerican


womenare.”ifihadlistenedtoherlife,iwouldhaveheardhersurvivalandherculturalstory,andinhertellingofherstoryandmyhearingherculturalstory,perhapsiwouldhaveprovidedmoreculturallyeffective,sensi-tive,andresponsivecounseling.ThisrealizationonmypartcorrespondstomcT(proposition4),whichcallsforstrategiesandgoalsthatareculturallyconsistentwiththelifeexperiencesandworldviewsofclients.

Case 2: James Explores His Feelings

asachinesefemalecounseloreducatorbornandraisedinTaiwan,ihavebeenexposedtotheeducationandmentalhealthsystemsinbothTaiwanand the united states. during my postdoctoral internship 7 years ago,iworkedwithaclientbythenameofJames.althoughinowhavehadalmost20yearsofteachingandcounselingexperience,lookingback,iseethatcounselingwithJamessolidifiedmycommitmenttocontinuetostrivetoimprovemyknowledgeandcounselingskillswithpeople,specificallychildrenfromdiversebackgroundsandculture.

Because of the significant drop in James’s grades and his withdrawalfrom socialization, his teacher referred him to me, a school counselorintern.This11-year-oldboycamefromalow-income,traditionalafricanamericanfamily.Hestudiedwithpeersfromdiversecultures inamet-ropolitanschool.

priortoourfirstindividualcounselingsession,iwasacoteacherofguid-ancelessonswithhisschoolcounselor.ialsoactedasanobserverduringhispairedcounselingsessions,inwhichtheschoolcounselorwasinchargeandhewaspairedwithaboywithbipolardisorder.Jameswasreceptivewhenseeingme,ayoung-lookingasianwomanwithachineseaccent.

iintegratedplaytherapyintoJames’ssessions.Whendrawingpictures,healwayschoseabrowncrayontodrawhumanfigures.itseemedtomethatbyusingbrownastheonlyskincolor,heidentifiedhimselfasBlack,andracialidentitywasnotamanifestedproblem.Oncehedrewateardropbesidehiseyeandexpressedthatthefacewaswhatmostpeopledidnotknowabouthim.Hedisclosedthatpeople’swordssometimeshurthisfeelingspainfully.Revisitingthehurtfulmoments,hisheaddroppeddown.Hisdullvoiceandcloudyeyesmirroredhistraumatizedesteem.Toexpresshisrage,hethrewsoftballsataperson’sfacethathehaddrawn.Thiswasthefirsttimehechosepeachastheskincolor.afterventinghisangerexhaustively,self-nurturingwasprocessed,andsupportwascontinuallyprovidedthroughthecounsel-ing relationship. His school performance and interpersonal relationshipsimproved,andcounselingwasnolongerneededthenextyear.

Case 2 Reflection

prior to the individual counseling with James, i used guidance lessonsand his paired counseling sessions to increase his familiarity with me.


Becauseiwasnottheprimarycounselorinchargeofthesetwoactivities,theuncomfortablefeelingsanafricanamericanboycouldhavetowardme,anunfamiliarcounselorwithanasianface,werecarefullyeliminated.meanwhile, taking advantage of my own presence at these activities, iobserved James’s demeanor and reactions to the approaches his schoolcounselorhadadopted.

Nevertheless,imayhaveerroneouslyconcludedthatbecauseJamesal-wayschoseabrowncrayontodrawhumanfigures,heidentifiedhimselfasBlackandhisracialidentitywasnotasignificantproblem.infact,africanamericanchildren,especiallyafricanamericanboys(inEurocentricschoolsettingsinaEurocentricsociety),frequentlystrugglewithracismandracialidentity(Helms,2003;Kunjufu,2004,2005;parham&Helms,1981).

Realizing that he was not talkative and was reserved in expressinghimself, i chose Gestalt play therapy as a primary intervention methodwithhim.Theapproachwashighlyrecommendedforclientswithaneedforliberatingtheirfeelingsyetwerenotbeingsuccessfullyencouragedtodosothroughverbalexpression(Rosenthal,2002).itwaspostulatedthatyoungstersrespondedfavorablytoGestaltmethodsbecausetheexperien-tialaspectoftheapproachwasconsistentwithhowyouthassimilatetheworld(Oaklander,1999).Thisapproachalsoallowedmetoshiftbackandforthbetweenanasianframeofreference—amoredirectivechildrearingapproach—andalessdirectiveWesternframeofreference.

inotherwords,Jamesanditookmutualleads.Wheniperceivedthatgiv-inghimdirectionswasnecessary,iwouldnotbehesitant,andheseemedtofeelanchoredbecauseofreceivingcleardirectionsfromme.Thispartoftheinteractionwassimilartomyoriginalframeofreference,thatbeingamoredirectiveapproach.However,whenisensedthatallowinghimthefreedomtomakedecisionscouldfacilitatehisgrowth,isetmyframeofreferenceasideandrespectedhimasanintegratedhumanbeingwhohadtheintuitionnec-essaryformakinghisowndecisions.asbothaschoolcounselorinTaiwan,beforestudyingintheunitedstates,andanadvancedschoolcounselorinternworkingwithJames,whostudiedinadiverseamericanmetropolitanschool,iwascomfortableinbalancingthesubtleshiftsduringourinteractions.

asreflectedbyproposition2ofmcTtheory,bothJames’sandmyidenti-tieswereembeddedinmultiplelevelsofexperiencesandcontexts.Withoutmycross-culturalexperiencebothinreallifeandinacademictrainingpriortoworkingwithJames,itwouldhavebeeneasiertocounselexclusivelyfrommyasianframeofreference,ratherthantoswitchtoJames’sculturalworldview.Today,lookingbackthroughtheeyesofamoreexperiencedschoolcounseloreducator,iammoreconsciousofmyselfasaTaiwanesewoman,supervisedbyaWhiteman,andcounselinganafricanamericanboy.inowbelievethereshouldhavebeenmoreevidenceofshiftingamongthesethreeworldviews.accordingtomcT,itisthepersoninpowerwhomustmaketheswitchfromhisorherculturalworldviewtotheculturalworldviewsofothers.


comparedwithotherapproaches,Gestaltplaytherapyprovidedmewitha less intrusive means for observing and processing James’s behaviors.moreover,thepermissiveclimatethatifosteredthroughoutthesessionsdecreasedhisdefensemechanismsandfurtherencouragedhimtobeintouch with his anger. most important, the self-nurturing process reallystrengthenedhisego.

ingeneral,mychoiceoflessintrusivestrategiesthroughoutthecourseof counselingwasprimarilybasedonmysensitivity to James’safricanamericanbackgroundandthelikelihoodthatJamesmighthavedifficultytrustinganasianamericancounselor.mychoiceoflessintrusivestrate-giesseemedtoincreasethechanceofcounselingsuccess,asreflectedbyproposition4ofmcT.

Case 3: Kaylynn’s Emotional Outbursts

asalicensedprofessionalcounselorandcertifiedschoolcounselorwork-inginapublicschoolsystemformorethan20years,ihavecometoreal-izethat,asaWhitewoman,iamoftenperceivedasapartofthesystembyafricanamericanstudents.counselingwithKaylynnoccurredatthebeginningofmydoctoralprogramatatimewhenihadsomeknowledgeofmulticulturalanddiversitycounseling.iwanteddesperatelytoimprovemyunderstandingoftheworldviewsofdiversestudentsandclients,spe-cificallyafricanamericans.inretrospect,itwasthroughthisexperiencewithKaylynn(some6yearsago)thatigainedknowledgeaboutafricanamericancultureandbeganthejourneytomulticulturalcompetence.

Kaylynn,a12-year-oldafricanamericangirlinthe6thgrade,wasre-ferredtomyofficebecauseofdisciplineproblems.Oftendisplayingloudoutburstsdirectedtowardtheotherstudents,shewasdisruptingtheclass.The“message”fromthehallswasthatKaylynn’shomelifewasunstable,withhersinglemotherinvolvedinillegaldruguseandofteninvitingher“friendstothehousetoparty”andresentingthepresenceofKaylynn.

Because i was involved with the entire student body in the schoolthroughteachingguidancelessons,Kaylynnknewmeandwasreceptivetovisitingwithme.althoughiusuallyrecognizedandaddressedtheis-suessurroundingracial/culturaldevelopmentinanycounselingsession,theissueofracewasnotimportantforKaylynn.sheneededaresponsibleandcaringadultwhowouldallowhertobeherself,toventherangerandfrustrations, and to provide a safe place to plan ways to survive in herhomeenvironment.

Kaylynnandimetthroughouttheschoolyear.duringthattime,ialsoreceivedphonecalls frombothofhergrandmothersexpressingconcernover the home situation. Through these calls, i learned that the homeenvironmentwasunhealthyandborderingondangerous.althoughthegrandmotherssharedfreelywithme,iwasverycarefultoprotectthein-formationthatKaylynnsharedwithmeinconfidence.(asaschoolcoun-


selor,ibelievedthesituationwasunsafeforKaylynnandhersiblings.ididreportthistochildprotectiveservicestwiceduringtheschoolyear.Both times, authorities determined there was not sufficient evidence toopenaninvestigation.)

inourmeetings,Kaylynnandiworkedonpracticalwaystostaysafeathome.Wedevelopedalistofresources,whichincludedfamilymembersandpoliceandhotlinenumbers.Wealsotalkedaboutwhereshecouldgowhen itwasunsafeathome.Becauseyoungersiblingswerealso in thehome,wehadtoincludeplansforthem.

inaddition,wespenttimediscussingKaylynn’sfeelings,plans,hopes,anddreams.averybrightyounglady,shewasabletoarticulateherplansfor the future and to realize that displays of anger were detrimental toobtaininghergoals.Wediscussedwhatshecouldchangeinherlifeandwhat,asa12yearold,wasoutsideofhercontrol.ialsospenttimeprais-ingherforthepositivethingsshedid.iconsideredit importanttotakecarenottopromiseanythingicouldnotdeliverandtodeliverthethingsthatisaidiwould.

Bytheendoftheschoolyear,Kaylynn’soutburstswerealmostnonexistent.shehadlearnedthatmyofficewasasafeplaceandwouldasktocometomyofficewhenshefeltoutofcontrolorfrustrated.althoughthesituationathomehadnotchanged,shenolongerfeltshehadtodefendit.shewasexcitedandlookingforwardtohernextyearatthejuniorhighschool.

Case 3 Reflection

as a Europeanamerican counselor working in an elementary schoolwhose student body is characterized as low socioeconomic status and99%africanamerican,ihavehadtheopportunitytoviewmanyoftheinequitiesexistinginpubliceducation.asaresult,onapersonallevel,my worldview has changed.although i counseled the individuals, iaccepted the realityof the importanceof the systemand family in thestudents’lives.Theextendedfamilyandfriendsplayavitalroleand,asinthiscasewithKaylynn’sgrandparents,aredirectlyinvolvedandactiveinthechildren’slivesasisconsistentwithproposition2ofmcTtheory.Thatis,clientidentitiesareformedandembeddedinmultiplelevelsofexperiencesandcontexts,suchasindividual,family,andcultural.Thiswas different from my work in other schools in which primarily theparentswere involvedin theday-to-dayactivitiesof thestudents.Theimportanceofconfidentialitywasbalancedwiththeacceptancethatthe“client’sstory”wouldhavemorethanonenarrator.itwasaconsciousefforttomaintainmycounselee’sconfidentialityandmaintainthetrustandrespectofothersinvolvedinherlife.

The negative and damaging impact of the limited, inefficient supportservicesavailabletomyafricanamericanstudentsdrasticallychangedmyworldview.infact,itwasa“calltoconsciousness”referredtoinproposi-


tion6ofmcT.inthiscase,ibelievedthatchildprotectiveservicessimplydid not have the resources to make my client a priority. There were nophysicalmarksonthechild;however,policehadbeencalledtothehousenumeroustimesfordomesticdisturbances.Becauseofthemakeupofthecommunityandlackofresourcesavailable,Kaylynnsimplywasnotinaprioritysituationthatrequiredtheauthoritiestotakeaction.proposition3affirmsthestronginfluenceexertednotonlybyculturalvariables,butalsobythedynamicsofthepowerdifferentialamongculturallydifferentgroupsonculturalidentitydevelopment.

ilearnedthat,forsomestudents,protectiondependsonwhereyouliveanditwasimportantformenottopromisethingsicouldnotdeliver.Thismeant thatsomeof theresources ihad taken forgranted inotherpartsoftownwerenotavailableforKaylynn.inaddition,itisoftenthosewhoyouknowpersonallywhocanbestprotectyou,andthemostimportantpersontodependonisyourself.However,ialsolearnedtotrustfrommystudents.it is importanttoaccepttheindividualwhoisworthyofyourrespect,regardlessofraceorbackground.

Onapersonallevel,ilearnedthattherelationshipdeterminestheout-come,andallofusaremorealikethanwearedifferent.Onasocietallevel,however, racism and prejudice are alive and well. Equality depends onmanythingsdeniedtomanycommunitiesofcolor.

Case 4: Saving Michael’s Nephew

asaEuropeanamerican,heterosexualmaletherapist,ihavedevelopedaninterestinmulticulturalism,diversity,andsocialjusticethatstemsfrommyexperiencesinthe1960s.ihavebeenapracticingtherapistformorethan25years.However,itwasonlyafterpracticingfor10to15yearsthaticonnectedmyinterests incounselingandmulticulturalism,anditwasseveralyears later that i reachedadevelopmental levelofmulticulturalunderstandingatwhichibeganto“getit.”mycounselingwithmichael2yearsagoremindedmethatamulticulturaljourneyhasnofinaldestination.Rather,ifeelthatihaveaconstantneedformovementandgrowth.

michaelwasa29-year-oldafricanamericanman.Hehadbeenmarriedforabout3yearsandthecouplehadlivedtogetherforseveralyearsbe-forethemarriage.michaelwasfromalowermiddle-classfamilyandwasasuccessfulstudent inhighschool.upongraduating fromhighschool,heimmediatelyjoinedtheu.s.coastGuard.itmayhavebeenpartlyduetoeconomicreasonsthathedidnotattendcollegeuntilthispointinhislife.Theclientcametocounselingfor tworeasons.First,hewasfeelingoverwhelmedwithschoolandtherequirementsthatwentwithsomeofthecoursework.Hewasdissatisfiedwithhislevelofachievementinsomeofhiscourses.second,hewantedtofigureoutwhattodoabouthisnephew.michaelsawhisnephewasreachingtheagewhenhewasgoingtostartgettingintotroublebecauseofthewayhisparentsweretreatinghim.


michael’s interactions with diverse populations were apparently lim-itedearlyinlifebyhissouthernrural,lowermiddle-classsurroundings.However,joiningtheu.s.coastGuardhadgivenhimamorediverseviewof theworld,although, isuspect,withaveryEurocentricflavor. in thisrespect,hewasacculturatedtotheWhiteworld.althoughmichaelseemedtohaveastrongsenseofhisfamilyrootsandfamilyresponsibilities,hedidnotnecessarilyhaveastrongsenseofhisafricanamericanroots.Ontheotherhand,heseemedtobeacculturatedtothemilitaryandtoacademia.Essentially,michaelwasabletodowhatcross(1991)describedasbridg-inghistwoworldssuccessfully.atthesametime,michaelseemedeitherunawareofhowoppressionplayedaroleinhislifeorunwillingtoidentifywiththecounselorthatoppressionwasasourceofstress.

imetwiththisclientforfivesessions.asaresult,hefoundthatheagaingainedasenseofcontroloverhisstudiesandthathehaddevelopedaplanforhelpinghisnephewsucceedwithoutjeopardizinghisownsuccess.attheendofoursessions,weagreedthathecouldcheckbackiniffurtherdevelopmentsoccurred.

Case 4 Reflection

michael’sreactiontomeasaEuropeanamericancounselorseemedunremarkable.duringthefirstsession,michaelwasabletotalkabout,atanhonestemotionallevel,theconcernsthathadpromptedhimtoseekcounseling.Hisapparentsu-periorintellectmusthavehelpedhimsucceeddespiteanypossibleoppression.Withmichael,aswithmostclients,itriedtorecognizehisracial/culturalidentitystatusandalsotoaffordhimopportunitiestotalkaboutracialandculturalfactorsandhowtheymightaffecthistherapeuticneeds.ialsonoted,asalways,whoiwasethnicallyandraciallyandaddressedhowthiscouldalsoaffecttherapy.michaeldeniedthatrace,ethnicity,orculturewerefactorsforhim.

Hisracialidentitystatuswascomplex.michaelpresentedwithastrongsenseofculturalrootsandtheresponsibilitiesthathefeltwithinhisfamily,and,atthesametime,heseemedtobeacculturated.Thiswasdemonstratedbyhissuccessinreceivingnumerouspromotionsinthemilitary,hisearlysuccessincollege,andhiswillingnesstocometocounseling.perhapshisdenialofoppressivebehaviorswasawayforhimtoreducethepotentialnegativeeffectsofpowerdifferentials.mcTtheorysuggeststhatattitudesareinfluencednotonlybyculturalattitudesbutalsobythedynamicsofthepowerdifferentialwithinrelationships.

i enjoyed working with this client immensely and, at the same time,found him perplexing. He was very motivated in therapy and seemedtoshownoapprehensioninsharinghisconcernsataverypersonalandemotionallevel.Heseemedtohaveastrongsenseofhisroleinthefamilyandtheresponsibilitieswithinit.HefunctionedwellprofessionallyinaWhiteworld(engineering)butdidnotacknowledgethatoppressionandracismweremorethanlikelypresent.


Case 5: Eye Contact With Abe

istartedmymentalhealthcareer6yearsagoatacommunitymentalhealthagencyforchildren.ihavesinceobtainedamaster’sdegreeincounselingandmoreextensivediversitytrainingandexperience.BeingaEuropeanamerican,iamculturallydifferentfrommostofthefamiliesthatihaveservedandcontinuetoserve;theyarepredominantlyafricanamericanandHispanicamerican.

When i metabe and his family, i had worked at the mental healthagencyforabout3yearsandwasassignedtobehisservicecoordinator.abewasan8-year-oldafricanamericanboybroughttothelocalmentalhealthagencybyhisparents.Hisparentsstatedthathecouldnotsitstill,andtheycomplainedofvariousbehavioralproblems.abewasthethirdchildofsixchildren,andhisparentsbelievedhimtobethesourceofalltheproblemsinthefamily.althoughtheinitialrequestwasforareferraltothestaffpsychiatristformedicationservices,rehabilitativeservicesweresuggested as an addition to medication services to giveabe extra helpwith symptom management for attention deficit hyperactivity disorderandoppositionaldefiantdisorder.

Tohisrehabilitationprovider(anotheryoungEuropeanamericanwoman)andme,abeseemedlikeaquiet,well-behavedchild.Oneofthethingswesawthatneededwork,andabe’sschoolteacheralsoagreed,wasthatheavoidedmakingeyecontactwithus.Weadded“toincreaseeyecontactwithothers”asagoalonhistreatmentplan.duringweeklysessions,wewouldgentlyurgeabetolookatuswhenweweretalkingtohim.Hewouldbrieflymakeeyecontact,andthenlookbackattheground.Wetriedmanystrategiestoimprovehiseyecontactwithothers,tellinghimthatlookingpeopleintheeyeisasignofattentionandrespect.abe,stilllookingattheground,wouldnodhisheadandsay,“Yes,ma’am.”

atabe’s3-monthcheck-intorenewandrevisehisgoalsandtreatmentobjectives,hisparentsbroughthimintoouroffice.Wehadstartedreview-inghisservicesandprogresswhenabe’sfatherstartedtalkingtohim.abelookedupathisfatherandhisfatherboomed,“don’tyoulookmeintheeye,Boy...showsomerespect!”

icouldfeelmyfaceturningredastherealizationhitme—abehadbeentaughtthatmakingeyecontactwithadultswasdisrespectful,andihadjustspentthelast3monthscontradictinghisparents’belief.ifeltbadforthisboywhonotonlyhadbeentaughtnottolookadultsintheeye,butalsohadbeentaughtnottocontradictorarguewithadults.

Case 5 Reflection

Nowthatihavebeentrainedindiversityinmygraduateclasses,ireal-izehowlittlediversity training ihadreceived inundergraduateclassesand in the work setting. my multicultural educational experience, like


that of many Europeanamerican clinicians educated in predominantlyWhiteinstitutions,lackeddiversity.Forexample,allofmyundergraduateprofessorswereWhitemen,and therewerenodiversityclassesofferedtopsychologymajors.inadditional,theagencywhereiworkedoffereda30-minutediversity“peptalk”onceayear.Thisillustratesthatsensitiv-itytoandknowledgeaboutdiversityarenotapriorityforeveryone,andsometimesacounselormusttakeresponsibilityforhisorherowndiversitytraining.mcTtheorystressesacalltoconsciousnessthatencouragesustorecognizeourknowledgeorignoranceofotherculturesandtotreattheclientwithinthecontextofhisorherculture.

accordingtothefourthpropositionofmcTtheory,“theeffectivenessofmcTismostlikelyenhancedwhenthecounselorusesmodalitiesanddefinesgoalsconsistentwiththelifeexperiencesandculturalvaluesoftheclient”(sueetal.,1996,p.19).inretrospect,knowingthateyecontactnormsaredifferentforvariouscultures,eyecontactshouldnothavebeenallowedtobecomesuchanissueforabe.insteadoftryingtoincreasehiseyecontact,theculturaldif-ferencecouldhavebeenexplainedtohisteacher(whowas,likeme,ayoungEuropeanamericanwoman).Toaccommodateabe’scomfortlevel,anage-appropriateconversationaboutculturaldifferences,includingeyecontactdif-ferences,wouldhavebeenuseful.Forexample,inWhitemiddle-classcultures,directeyecontactconveysattentionandrespect.Hisfather,ontheotherhand,vieweddirecteyecontactwithadultsasdisrespectfulandinsolent.ishouldhaveinitiatedadiscussionofourculturaldifferencesandtheirimplicationsforourcounselingrelationshipandabe’scomfortlevel.Thiswouldhavebeenpreferabletomymisconceptionthattalkingaboutculturaldifferencesmakesthemmoreofanissue(“maybehewon’tnoticethati’mWhite!”).

inmyexperience,knowledgeandsensitivitytoculturaldifferencesmakeasignificantdifferencewhencounselingchildrenofcolor,particularlyafricanamericanchildren.iespeciallybelievethatmulticulturalknowledgeandsensitivitywouldhavebeenbeneficialtomyworkwithabe.Whenwork-ingwithchildren,thefocusistoooftenonthepersoninpower(teachers,mentalhealthtreatmentplanningteams,andparents),andthechildisoftenleftoutofthedecisionsregardinghisowntreatmentplanandgoals.

Onreflection,iwouldspendmoretimereallygettingtoknowtheclient,askingabout theclient’sownbeliefsandgoals; this improvescounselingrelationshipsandtreatmentoutcomes.anoverridingthemeofmcTtheoryistolearnabouttheculturalcontextoftheclientandusethatknowledgeinindividualizingservicestobestservetheclient.Rememberthatopendialogueaboutracialandculturaldifferencesputsfamiliesmoreateaseandfacilitatesmoreopenconversationabouthowtobesthelptheirchildren.

CONCLuSION AND RECOmmENDATIONS

Onthebasisofourexperiencesascliniciansfromdiversebackgroundsandfromvariousdisciplineswithincounseling,wenotedbothsimilaritiesand


differencesinourclinicalapproachestoworkingwithafricanamericanclients.Regardlessofourprofessionaldiscipline,worksetting,theoreticalapproach,orculturalbackground,wehavebecomemorepeopleresponsiveandmoreculturallyresponsiveasaresultofourexperiences.

inallfiveofthescenariospresented,wereflectedonracialissues,successes,mistakes,ourignoranceofmulticulturalcounseling,andthingswecouldhavedonemoreeffectivelytofacilitatesuccesswithourafricanamericanclients.Forinstance,wenowknowthatforafricanamericans,thedevelopmentofculturalidentityiscriticaltounderstandingoneself,otherafricanamericans,peopleofcolor,andEuropeanamericans(alessandria,2002;Vandiver,2001).Therefore,becauseofthesecross-culturalcounselingexperiences,wenowrec-ognizethatearlyinthecounselingprocess,weshouldhaveaddressedcertainissues,includingourracialandculturaldifferences,theclients’perceptionsofafricanamericanculture,andtheafricanamericanexperienceintheunitedstates.Whenworkingwithafricanamericanclients,theseissuesshouldbediscussedevenwhenclientsdonotpresentwithracialissues.

Theseexperiencesforus,ascounselorsofcolorandEuropeanamericancounselorsworkingwithafricanamericans,havebeenrich,beneficial,hum-bling,and,asaresult,havebecomedefiningmomentsinourmulticulturaljourneysastherapists.Onthebasisofwhatwehavelearnedcollectivelyfromourexperiencesworkingwithafricanamericans,butmoreimportant,fromourownopennesstogrowthasculturallydiversehumans,weprovidesixrecommendationsforcounselorsandotherhelpingprofessionalswhoworkwithafricanamericans.ThefollowingrecommendationsflowfrommcTandareparalleltothesixmcTpropositions,respectively.

1. Be equipped with a repertoire of counseling theories, modalities,tools,techniques,strategies,andgoals.

2. Bepreparedtoself-discloseaboutyourculturalself.3. Recognize manifestations of your privilege or oppression in the

counselingrelationshipandbeable toprocess thathonestlywithyourclients;sometimesitisabouttheclient,sometimesitisaboutthecounselor,andsometimesitisaboutthecontext.conversely,donotassumethattheclient’sissueisaboutoppression.

4. RecognizeEurocentricandculturallydifferentparadigms,axiology,andepistemologiesandhowtheseworldviewsdeterminethedirectionofcounseling.

5. use indigenous systems, such as theafricanamerican church,community,orextended family,asnontraditionalandalternativehelpingtools.

6. Expandyourconsciousness.Recognizethatotherswithoutprivilegeseevaluejudgmentsmoreclearlythanyou.Westronglyrecommendthat,onyourowntimeand,perhaps,duringyourowntherapy,yourecognizeandprocessanyshameorguiltthatyoumayhaveaboutyourpositionofprivilegeandgrowfromtheexperience.


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real cases with african american clients: reports of racially diverse practitioners

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