reading a play

Reading a PlayReading a PlayI regard the theatre as the greatest of I regard the theatre as the greatest of all art forms, the most immediate way all art forms, the most immediate way

in which a human being can share in which a human being can share with another the sense of what it is to with another the sense of what it is to

be a human beingbe a human being----Oscar WildeOscar Wilde

PurposePurpose

Most plays are written not to be read Most plays are written not to be read in books but to be performed.in books but to be performed.

However, there are advantages to However, there are advantages to reading plays in books.reading plays in books.– It is better to know some masterpieces by It is better to know some masterpieces by

reading them than to never know them at reading them than to never know them at all.all.

– It would be next to impossible to see It would be next to impossible to see every Shakespearean play on stage, but every Shakespearean play on stage, but the plays are easily accessible on paper.the plays are easily accessible on paper.

AdvantagesAdvantages

A play is literature before it comes A play is literature before it comes alive in a theater.alive in a theater.

If a play contains difficult language If a play contains difficult language and allusion, reading it enables us to and allusion, reading it enables us to study it at our leisure and return to study it at our leisure and return to parts that demand greater scrutiny.parts that demand greater scrutiny.

Some plays are actually destined to Some plays are actually destined to be read more often than they are be read more often than they are acted.acted.

AdvantagesAdvantages

Sometimes reading a play is the only Sometimes reading a play is the only way of knowing it as the author way of knowing it as the author wrote it in its entirety.wrote it in its entirety.

Producers of plays often leave out Producers of plays often leave out important speeches and scenes in important speeches and scenes in plays, and the production itself is plays, and the production itself is often representative of the often representative of the producer’s interpretation of the play, producer’s interpretation of the play, which may be different from the way which may be different from the way that one perceives it while reading.that one perceives it while reading.

The ElementsThe Elements

The protagonistThe protagonist The antagonistThe antagonist The expositionThe exposition The climaxThe climax The resolutionThe resolution Stage directionsStage directions

TragedyTragedy

Tragedy: a play that portrays a Tragedy: a play that portrays a serious conflict between human serious conflict between human beings and some superior, beings and some superior, overwhelming force.overwhelming force.

It ends sorrowfully and It ends sorrowfully and disastrously, and this outcome disastrously, and this outcome seems inevitable.seems inevitable.

The art of tragedy goes back to The art of tragedy goes back to ancient Athens, where Greek ancient Athens, where Greek dramatists Sophocles, Aeschylus, dramatists Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides wrote plays.and Euripides wrote plays.

TragedyTragedy

Tragedy is fairly simple:Tragedy is fairly simple:– The protagonist undergoes a reversal of The protagonist undergoes a reversal of

fortune, from good to bad, ending in fortune, from good to bad, ending in catastrophe.catastrophe.

– However, tragedies can be tough to However, tragedies can be tough to interpret as many readers will have very interpret as many readers will have very different opinions about the text.different opinions about the text.

– Even though the formula for tragedy is Even though the formula for tragedy is simple, most tragedies will somehow fail simple, most tragedies will somehow fail to observe the “conventions” of tragedy.to observe the “conventions” of tragedy.

Real Life Tragedy vs. Literary TragedyReal Life Tragedy vs. Literary Tragedy

Real life:Real life:– The death of a childThe death of a child– A fire that destroys a family’s houseA fire that destroys a family’s house– The killing of a bystander caught in the The killing of a bystander caught in the

crossfire of a shootout between criminals.crossfire of a shootout between criminals.What do these all have in common?What do these all have in common?

– They involve the infliction of great and They involve the infliction of great and irreversible suffering.irreversible suffering.

– The sufferers are innocent, and they have The sufferers are innocent, and they have done nothing to cause or deserve their fate.done nothing to cause or deserve their fate.

Real Life Tragedy vs. Literary TragedyReal Life Tragedy vs. Literary Tragedy

Literary Tragedy:Literary Tragedy:– The protagonist’s reversal of fortune is brought The protagonist’s reversal of fortune is brought

about through some error or weakness on his about through some error or weakness on his part, generally referred to as his part, generally referred to as his tragic flawtragic flaw..

– Despite this weakness, the hero is traditionally Despite this weakness, the hero is traditionally a person of nobility, of both social rank and a person of nobility, of both social rank and personality.personality.

– In most tragedies, the catastrophe entails not In most tragedies, the catastrophe entails not only the loss of outward fortune—things such only the loss of outward fortune—things such as reputation, power, and life itself, but also as reputation, power, and life itself, but also the erosion of the protagonist’s moral the erosion of the protagonist’s moral character and greatness of spirit.character and greatness of spirit.

StyleStyle

Tragedies are customarily written in Tragedies are customarily written in an elevated style, one characterized an elevated style, one characterized by dignity and seriousness.by dignity and seriousness.

In the Middle Ages, the word In the Middle Ages, the word tragedytragedy indicated a work written in a high indicated a work written in a high style in which the central character style in which the central character went from good fortune to bad.went from good fortune to bad.

ComedyComedy indicated the opposite. indicated the opposite.

How Tragedies Make the Reader FeelHow Tragedies Make the Reader Feel

According to Aristotle, tragedies seek to According to Aristotle, tragedies seek to arouse pity and fear in the reader.arouse pity and fear in the reader.

We feel sorry for those who appear to We feel sorry for those who appear to be worse off than ourselves.be worse off than ourselves.

Even if a tragedy “moves” you, you will Even if a tragedy “moves” you, you will most likely feel a sense of detachment most likely feel a sense of detachment from the protagonist: a “better him from the protagonist: a “better him than me” attitude.than me” attitude.

There is also the element of fear: There is also the element of fear: readers are made to feel vulnerable in readers are made to feel vulnerable in the face of life’s dangers and instability.the face of life’s dangers and instability.

The Theater of SophoclesThe Theater of Sophocles For the citizens of Athens in the fifth century For the citizens of Athens in the fifth century

B.C. theater was both a religious and a civic B.C. theater was both a religious and a civic occasion.occasion.

Plays were presented twice a year at Plays were presented twice a year at religious festivals—both associated with religious festivals—both associated with Dionysius, the god of wine and crops.Dionysius, the god of wine and crops.

In January there was the Lenaea, the In January there was the Lenaea, the festival of the winepress, when plays, festival of the winepress, when plays, especially comedies were performed.especially comedies were performed.

The major theatrical event of the year came The major theatrical event of the year came in March at the Great Dionysia, a city-wide in March at the Great Dionysia, a city-wide celebration that included sacrifices, prize celebration that included sacrifices, prize ceremonies, and spectacular processions as ceremonies, and spectacular processions as well as three days of drama.well as three days of drama.

The Theater of SophoclesThe Theater of Sophocles Each day at dawn a different author Each day at dawn a different author

presented a trilogy of tragic plays—presented a trilogy of tragic plays—three interrelated dramas that three interrelated dramas that portrayed an important mythic or portrayed an important mythic or legendary event.legendary event.

Each intense tragic trilogy was followed Each intense tragic trilogy was followed by a by a satyr playsatyr play, an obscene parody of , an obscene parody of a mythic story, performed with the a mythic story, performed with the chorus dressed as satyrs, unruly mythic chorus dressed as satyrs, unruly mythic attendants of Dionysius who were half attendants of Dionysius who were half goat or horse and half human.goat or horse and half human.

The Theater of SophoclesThe Theater of Sophocles

The Greeks loved competition and The Greeks loved competition and believed it fostered excellence.believed it fostered excellence.

Even the theater was a competitive Even the theater was a competitive event—not unlike the Olympic games.event—not unlike the Olympic games.

A panel of 5 judges voted each year at A panel of 5 judges voted each year at the Great Dionysia for the best the Great Dionysia for the best dramatic presentation, and a dramatic presentation, and a substantial cash prize was given to the substantial cash prize was given to the winning poet-playwright.winning poet-playwright.

The Theater of SophoclesThe Theater of Sophocles

Sophocles triumphed in the Sophocles triumphed in the competition twenty-four times, but competition twenty-four times, but did not win a prize for did not win a prize for Oedipus the Oedipus the KingKing..

Although this play ultimately proved Although this play ultimately proved to be the most celebrated Greek to be the most celebrated Greek tragedy ever written, it lost the tragedy ever written, it lost the award to a revival of a popular trilogy award to a revival of a popular trilogy by Aeschylus, who had recently died.by Aeschylus, who had recently died.

The Theater of Sophocles: The Theater of Sophocles: StagingStaging

As many as 17,000 spectators As many as 17,000 spectators could fit into the open air hillside could fit into the open air hillside amphitheater.amphitheater.

The audience was arranged in The audience was arranged in rows, with the Athenian rows, with the Athenian governing council and young governing council and young military cadets seated in the military cadets seated in the middle sections.middle sections.

Priests, priestesses, and foreign Priests, priestesses, and foreign dignitaries were given special dignitaries were given special places of honor in the front rows.places of honor in the front rows.


The performance space they The performance space they watched was divided into two parts: watched was divided into two parts: the the orchestraorchestra, a level circular , a level circular “dancing space”, and a slightly “dancing space”, and a slightly raised stage built in front of the raised stage built in front of the skeneskene or stage house, originally a or stage house, originally a canvas or wooden hut for costume canvas or wooden hut for costume changes.changes.


The actors spoke and performed on The actors spoke and performed on the stagethe stage

The chorus sang and danced in the The chorus sang and danced in the orchestraorchestra

The skene served as a general set or The skene served as a general set or backdropbackdrop

The StructureThe Structure

No more than 3 actors were allowed No more than 3 actors were allowed on stage at any one timeon stage at any one time

The chorus had to have 15 membersThe chorus had to have 15 members The actors’ spoken monologue and The actors’ spoken monologue and

dialogue alternated with the chorus’ dialogue alternated with the chorus’ singing and dancingsinging and dancing

Each tragedy began with a prologueEach tragedy began with a prologue The parados came next (the song for The parados came next (the song for

the entrance of the chorus)the entrance of the chorus)

The StructureThe Structure

The next action was enacted in The next action was enacted in episodes, like the acts or scenes in episodes, like the acts or scenes in modern playsmodern plays

The episodes were separated by The episodes were separated by danced choral songs or odesdanced choral songs or odes

The play ended with the exodos, or The play ended with the exodos, or closing, in which the characters and closing, in which the characters and chorus concluded the action and chorus concluded the action and departeddeparted

The ActorsThe Actors

The actors wore masksThe actors wore masks Some of these masks had Some of these masks had

exaggerated mouthpieces, possibly exaggerated mouthpieces, possibly designed to project speech across designed to project speech across the open air.the open air.

The masks helped spectators far The masks helped spectators far away recognize the chief characters.away recognize the chief characters.

The MasksThe Masks

The masks often represented certain The masks often represented certain conventional types of characters: the conventional types of characters: the old king, the young soldier, the old king, the young soldier, the shepherd, the beautiful girl (women’s shepherd, the beautiful girl (women’s parts were played by male actors)parts were played by male actors)

The actors also began to wear The actors also began to wear cothurnicothurni, high, thick-soled elevator , high, thick-soled elevator shoes that made them appear taller shoes that made them appear taller than ordinary men.than ordinary men.

The Civic RoleThe Civic Role

Athenian drama was supported and Athenian drama was supported and financed by the state.financed by the state.

Administration of the Great Dionysia Administration of the Great Dionysia fell to the head civil magistrate.fell to the head civil magistrate.

He annually appointed three wealthy He annually appointed three wealthy citizens to serve as citizens to serve as choregoichoregoi, or , or producers, for the competing plays.producers, for the competing plays.


Each producer had to equip the chorus Each producer had to equip the chorus and rent the rehearsal space in which and rent the rehearsal space in which the poet-playwright would prepare the the poet-playwright would prepare the new work for the festival.new work for the festival.

The state covered the expenses of the The state covered the expenses of the theater, actors, and prizes.theater, actors, and prizes.

Theater tickets were distributed free to Theater tickets were distributed free to citizens, which meant that every citizens, which meant that every registered Athenian, even the poorest, registered Athenian, even the poorest, could participate.could participate.


The playwrights addressed The playwrights addressed themselves to every element of the themselves to every element of the Athenian democracy.Athenian democracy.

Only the size of the amphitheater Only the size of the amphitheater limited the attendance. It could hold limited the attendance. It could hold slightly less than half of the slightly less than half of the population of Athens.population of Athens.


Greek theater was directed at the moral Greek theater was directed at the moral and political education of the community.and political education of the community.

The poet’s role was the improvement of The poet’s role was the improvement of the the polispolis or city-state. or city-state.

The purpose of the tragedies was for the The purpose of the tragedies was for the performers and the audience to put performers and the audience to put themselves in the places of persons quite themselves in the places of persons quite unlike themselves, in situations that might unlike themselves, in situations that might engulf any unlucky citizen—war, political engulf any unlucky citizen—war, political upheaval, betrayal, domestic crisis.upheaval, betrayal, domestic crisis.


The release of the powerful emotions The release of the powerful emotions of pity and fear created a sort of of pity and fear created a sort of paradox—how a viewer takes paradox—how a viewer takes aesthetic pleasure in witnessing the aesthetic pleasure in witnessing the suffering of others. suffering of others.

Aristotle’s Concept of TragedyAristotle’s Concept of Tragedy

Aristotle defined Aristotle defined tragedytragedy in in the fourth century B.C. the fourth century B.C.

He didn’t make the definition He didn’t make the definition to “lay down the laws” for to “lay down the laws” for what tragedy should be.what tragedy should be.

More likely, he drew from More likely, he drew from tragedies that he saw or tragedies that he saw or read and gave a general read and gave a general description of them.description of them.


The protagonist is a person of “high The protagonist is a person of “high estate”, such as a king or queen or estate”, such as a king or queen or other member of a royal family.other member of a royal family.

The protagonist must fall from power The protagonist must fall from power and from happiness; his high estate and from happiness; his high estate gives him a place of dignity to fall gives him a place of dignity to fall from and perhaps makes his fall from and perhaps makes his fall seem all the more a calamity in that seem all the more a calamity in that it involves an entire nation or people.it involves an entire nation or people.


The protagonist is not only The protagonist is not only extraordinary because of his position extraordinary because of his position in society: Oedipus is not only a king in society: Oedipus is not only a king but also a noble soul who suffers but also a noble soul who suffers profoundly and who employs profoundly and who employs splendid speech to express his splendid speech to express his suffering.suffering.


The tragic hero is not a superman; he The tragic hero is not a superman; he is fallible.is fallible.

The hero’s downfall is the result of The hero’s downfall is the result of his own error or transgression, or his own error or transgression, or what’s called his “tragic flaw.”what’s called his “tragic flaw.”

Often, the tragic flaw will be extreme Often, the tragic flaw will be extreme pride, leading to overconfidence.pride, leading to overconfidence.


Aristotle implies that after witnessing Aristotle implies that after witnessing a tragedy we feel better, not worse—a tragedy we feel better, not worse—not depressed, but somehow elated.not depressed, but somehow elated.

We take a kind of pleasure in the We take a kind of pleasure in the spectacle of a noble man being spectacle of a noble man being abased.abased.

Part of this pleasure may be based in Part of this pleasure may be based in our feeling of “rightness” or accuracy our feeling of “rightness” or accuracy of what we have just witnessed.of what we have just witnessed.


Recognition: the revelation of some Recognition: the revelation of some fact not known before or some fact not known before or some person’s true identity.person’s true identity.

Tragedy is about the realization of Tragedy is about the realization of the unthinkable.the unthinkable.

Reversal: action that turns out to Reversal: action that turns out to have the opposite effect from the have the opposite effect from the one its doer had intended.one its doer had intended.


The play usually ends with the The play usually ends with the protagonist accepting his fate as the protagonist accepting his fate as the divine will of the gods.divine will of the gods.

The protagonist has fallen from high The protagonist has fallen from high estate but is uplifted in moral dignity.estate but is uplifted in moral dignity.

EndEnd

reading a play

Documents

art of tragedy

producers of plays

real life tragedy

word tragedy

conventions of tragedy

advantagesa play

shakespearean play

oscar wildepurposemost