reactor concepts

7/29/2019 Reactor Concepts

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Reactor types and reactor concepts

Classifications

Natural nuclear fission reactorAlthough mankind has only tamed nuclear power recently, the first nuclear reactors werenaturally occurring. A natural nuclear fission reactor can occur under certain circumstancesthat mimic the conditions in a constructed reactor. Fifteen natural fission reactors have so far

been found in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa. Firstdiscovered in 1972 by French physicist Francis Perrin, they are collectively known as theOklo Fossil Reactors. These reactors ran for approximately 150 million years, averaging 100kW of power output during that time. The concept of a natural nuclear reactor was theorizedas early as 1956 by Paul Kuroda at the University of Arkansas.Such reactors can no longer form on Earth: radioactive decay over this immense time span hasreduced the proportion of U-235 in naturally occurring uranium to below the amount required

to sustain a chain reaction.The natural nuclear reactors formed when a uranium-rich mineral deposit became inundatedwith groundwater that acted as a neutron moderator, and a strong chain reaction took place.The water moderator would boil away as the reaction increased, slowing it back down againand preventing a meltdown. The fission reaction was sustained for hundreds of thousands ofyears.These natural reactors are extensively studied by scientists interested in geologic radioactivewaste disposal. They offer a case study of how radioactive isotopes migrate through theearth's crust. This is a significant area of controversy as opponents of geologic waste disposalfear that isotopes from stored waste could end up in water supplies or be carried into theenvironment.

Classification by type of nuclear reactionA. Nuclear fission. Most reactors, and all commercial ones, are based on nuclear

fission. They generally use uranium as fuel, but research on using thorium isongoing. This article assumes that the technology is nuclear fission unlessotherwise stated. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes,depending on the energy of the neutrons that are used to sustain the fission chainreaction:

Thermal reactors use slow or thermal neutrons. Most power reactors are of this

type. These are characterized by neutron moderator materials that slow neutronsuntil they approach the average kinetic energy of the surrounding particles, thatis, until they are thermalized. Thermal neutrons have a far higher probability offissioning uranium-235, and a lower probability of capture by uranium-238 thanthe faster neutrons that result from fission. As well as the moderator, thermalreactors have fuel (fissionable material), containments, pressure vessels,shielding, and instrumentation to monitor and control the reactor's systems.

Fast neutron reactors use fast neutrons to sustain the fission chain reaction. Theyare characterized by an absence of moderating material. Initiating the chainreaction requires enriched uranium (and/or enrichment with plutonium 239), dueto the lower probability of fissioning U-235, and a higher probability of capture

by U-238 (as compared to a moderated, thermal neutron). In general, fast


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reactors will produce less waste and the waste they do produce will have avastly shorter halflife, but they are more difficult to build and more expensive tooperate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in mostapplications. Some early power stations were fast reactors, as are some Russiannaval propulsion units. Construction of prototypes is continuing (see fast breeder

or generation IV reactors).

B. Nuclear fusion. Fusion power is an experimental technology, generally withhydrogen as fuel. Not suitable for power production.

C. Radioactive decay. Examples include radioisotope thermoelectric generators andatomic batteries, which generate heat and power by exploiting passiveradioactive decay.

Classification by moderator materialUsed by thermal reactors.

Graphite moderated reactors Water moderated reactors Heavy Water moderated reactors Light water moderated reactors (LWRs).

Light water reactors use ordinary water to moderate and cool the reactors. When at operatingtemperatures if the temperature of the water increases, its density drops, and fewer neutrons

passing through it are slowed enough to trigger further reactions. That negative feedbackstabilizes the reaction rate. Graphite and heavy water reactors tend to be more thoroughlythermalised than light water reactors. Due to the extra thermalization, these types can usenatural uranium/unenriched fuel.

Classification by coolant

Water cooled reactor Pressure water reactorMost commercial and naval reactors use pressure vessels. Pressure vessels arealmost always lined up to reactors and are only isolated from reactors duringspecial maintenance or tests.Pressurised channels (Chernobyl type). Channel-type reactors can be refuelledunder load.

Boiling water reactor, e.g. ABB-Atom design

Pool-type reactor

Liquid metal cooled reactor.Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. Allfast neutron reactors that have been used for power generation have been liquidmetal cooled reactors, but research continues in gas cooled reactors.

Gas cooled reactor

These are cooled by a circulating inert gas, usually helium. Nitrogen and carbondioxide have also been used. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the


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reactor. Some reactors run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gasturbine. Older designs usually run the gas through a heat exchanger to makesteam for a steam turbine.

Classification by generation

Generation I reactor Generation II reactor Generation III reactor Generation IV reactor

Classification by phase of fuel Solid fueled Fluid fueled Gas fueled

Classification by use

Power plants Propulsion, foremost nuclear marine propulsion Various proposed forms of rocket propulsion Other uses of heat, e.gH2 production for use in a hydrogen economy. Desalination Heat for domestic (gesta reactor) and industrial heating Production reactors for transmutation of elements Breeder reactors. Fast breeder reactors are capable of enriching Uraniumduring the fission chain reaction (by converting fertile U-238 to Pu-239) whichallows an operational fast reactor to generate more fissile material than itconsumes. Thus, a breeder reactor, once running, can be re-fueled with naturalor even depleted uranium. Creating various radioactive isotopes, such as americium for use in smokedetectors, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging andmedical treatment. Production of materials for nuclear weapons such as weapons-grade plutonium Providing a source of neutron radiation and positron radiation (e.g. Neutronactivation analysis and Potassium-argon dating) Research reactors : Typically reactors used for research and training, materialstesting, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These aremuch smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on

university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and internationalefforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel.

Current technologies

A. Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR)

These are reactors cooled and moderated by high pressure liquid (even at extremetemperatures) water. They are the majority of current reactors, and are generally consideredthe safest and most reliable technology currently in large scale deployment, although ThreeMile Island (known for the Harrisburg accident) is a reactor of this type. This is a thermal

neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the Advanced Pressurized Water Reactor andthe European Pressurized Reactor. United States Naval reactors are of this type.


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B. Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)

These are reactors cooled and moderated by water, under slightly lower pressure. The water isallowed to boil in the reactor. The thermal efficiency of these reactors can be higher, and theycan be simpler, and even potentially more stable and safe. Unfortunately, the boiling water

puts more stress on many of the components, and increases the risk that radioactive water mayescape in an accident. These reactors make up a substantial percentage of modern reactors.This is a thermal neutron reactor design, the newest of which are the Advanced Boiling WaterReactor and the Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor.

C. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR), e.g. the Canadian design, known as CANDU.These reactors are heavy-water-cooled and -moderated Pressurized-Water reactors. Instead ofusing a single large pressure vessel as in a PWR, the fuel is contained in hundreds of pressuretubes. These reactors are fuelled with natural uranium and are thermal neutron reactordesigns. PHWRs can be refueled while at full power, which makes them very efficient in theiruse of uranium (it allows for precise flux control in the core). CANDU PHWR's have been

built in Canada, Argentina, China, India (pre-NPT), Pakistan (pre-NPT), Romania, and SouthKorea. India also operates a number of PHWR's, often termed 'CANDU-derivatives', builtafter the 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear weapon test.

D. Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor RBMK, Chernobyl

type)

A Soviet Union design, built to produce plutonium as well as power. RBMKs are watercooled with a graphite moderator. RBMKs are in some respects similar to CANDU in thatthey are refuelable On-Load and employ a pressure tube design instead of a PWR-style

pressure vessel. However, unlike CANDU they are very unstable and too large to havecontainment buildings making them dangerous in the case of an accident. A series of criticalsafety flaws have also been identified with the RBMK design, though some of these werecorrected following the Chernobyl accident. RBMK reactors are generally considered one ofthe most dangerous reactor designs in use. The Chernobyl plant had four RBMK reactors.

E. Gas Cooled Reactor (GCR) and Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (AGCR)

These are generally graphite moderated and CO2 cooled. They can have a high thermalefficiency compared with PWRs due to higher operating temperatures. There are a number ofoperating reactors of this design, mostly in the United Kingdom, where the concept wasdeveloped. Older designs (i.e. Magnox stations) are either shut down or will be in the nearfuture. However, the AGCRs have an anticipated life of a further 10 to 20 years. This is a

thermal neutron reactor design. Decommissioning costs can be high due to large volume ofreactor core.

F. Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor (LMFBR)

This is a reactor design that is cooled by liquid metal, totally unmoderated, and produces morefuel than it consumes. These reactors can function much like a PWR in terms of efficiency,and do not require much high pressure containment, as the liquid metal does not need to bekept at high pressure, even at very high temperatures. Superphnix in France was a reactor ofthis type, as was Fermi-I in the United States. The Monju reactor in Japan suffered a sodiumleak in 1995 and is approved for restart in 2008. All three use/used liquid sodium. Thesereactors are fast neutron, not thermal neutron designs. These reactors come in two types:


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Lead cooledUsing lead as the liquid metal provides excellent radiation shielding, and allowsfor operation at very high temperatures. Also, lead is (mostly) transparent toneutrons, so fewer neutrons are lost in the coolant, and the coolant does not

become radioactive. Unlike sodium, lead is mostly inert, so there is less risk of

explosion or accident, but such large quantities of lead may be problematic fromtoxicology and disposal points of view. Often a reactor of this type would use alead-bismuth eutectic mixture. In this case, the bismuth would present someminor radiation problems, as it is not quite as transparent to neutrons, and can betransmuted to a radioactive isotope more readily than lead.

Sodium cooledMost LMFBRs are of this type. The sodium is relatively easy to obtain and workwith, and it also manages to actually prevent corrosion on the various reactor

parts immersed in it. However, sodium explodes violently when exposed towater, so care must be taken, but such explosions wouldn't be vastly more

violent than (for example) a leak of superheated fluid from a SCWR or PWR.

G. Aqueous Homogeneous ReactorTriga pulsed reactors allowing bursts of high neutron flux are of this type

H. Advanced reactors

More than a dozen advanced reactor designs are in various stages of development. Some areevolutionary from the PWR, BWR and PHWR designs above, some are more radicaldepartures. The former include the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR), two of whichare now operating with others are under construction, and the planned passively safe ESBWRand AP1000 units.

The Integral Fast ReactorThis reactor was built, tested and evaluated during the 1980s and then retiredunder the Clinton administration in the 1990s due to nuclear non-proliferation

policies of the administration. Recycling spent fuel is the core of its design andit therefore produces only a fraction of the waste of current reactors. TheIntegral Fast Reactor shows great advantages over current reactor design,especially in the areas of safety, efficient nuclear fuel usage and reduced waste.

The Pebble Bed Reactor

This is a High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGCR) so designed that hightemperatures reduce power output by doppler broadening of the fuel's neutroncross-section. It uses ceramic fuels so its safe operating temperatures exceed the

power-reduction temperature range. Most designs are cooled by inert helium,which avoids the risk of steam explosions. Moreover, helium does not easilyabsorb neutrons and become radioactive, or dissolve contaminants that can

become radioactive. Typical designs have more layers (up to 7) of passivecontainment than light water reactors (usually 3). A unique feature that mightaid safety is that the fuel-balls actually form the core's mechanism, and arereplaced one-by-one as they age. The design of the fuel makes fuel reprocessingexpensive.


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SSTAR, Small, Sealed, Transportable, Autonomous ReactorThis reactor is being primarily researched and developed in the US, intended asa fast breeder reactor that is passively safe and could be remotely shut down incase the suspicion arises that it is being tampered with, cf. Secure and Priusdesigns in Sweden.

The Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor (CAESAR)This is a nuclear reactor concept that uses steam as a moderator - this design isstill in development

Advanced Heavy Water ReactorA proposed heavy water moderated nuclear power reactor that will be the nextgeneration design of the PHWR type. Under development in the Bhabha AtomicResearch Centre (BARC).

Subcritical Reactors

These are designed to be safer and more stable, but pose a number ofengineering and economic difficulties. One example is the Rubia EnergyAmplifier.

Thorium Based Reactors.It is possible to convert Thorium-232 into U-233 in reactors specially designedfor the purpose. In this way, Thorium, which is more plentiful than uranium, can

be used to breed U-233 nuclear fuel. U-233 is also believed to have favourablenuclear properties as compared to traditionally used U-235, including betterneutron economy and lower production of long lived transuranic waste.

KAMINIA unique reactor using Uranium-233 isotope for fuel. Built byBARC and IGCAR Uses thorium.

FBTR, fast breeder thorium reactor.India is building this to harness the power with the use of thorium.

Generation IV reactorsGeneration IV reactors are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently beingresearched. These designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial

construction before 2030. Current reactors in operation around the world are generallyconsidered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having beenretired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by theGeneration IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals

being to improve nuclear safety, improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and naturalresource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants.

Gas cooled fast reactor Lead cooled fast reactor Molten salt reactor Sodium-cooled fast reactor

Supercritical water reactor (SCWR)


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The Supercritical Water-cooled Reactor combines higher efficiency than a GCR with thesafety of a PWR, though it is perhaps more technically challenging than either. The water is

pressurized and heated past its critical point, until there is no difference between the liquidand gas states. An SCWR is similar to a BWR, except there is no boiling (as the water iscritical), and the thermal efficiency is higher as the water behaves more like a classical gas.

This is an epithermal neutron reactor design.

Generation V+ reactors. Very high temperature reactor

Designs which are theoretically possible, but which are not being actively considered orresearched at present. Though such reactors could be built with current or near termtechnology, they trigger little interest for reasons of economics, practicality, or safety.

Liquid Core reactor.A closed loop liquid core nuclear reactor, where the fissile material is moltenuranium cooled by a working gas pumped in through holes in the base of thecontainment vessel.

Gas core reactor.A closed loop version of the nuclear lightbulb rocket, where the fissile materialis gassious uranium-hexafluoride contained in a fused silica vessel. A workinggas (such as hydrogen) would flow around this vessel and absorb the UV light

produced by the reaction. In theory, using UH6 as a working fuel directly (ratherthan as a stage to one, as is done now) would mean lower processing costs, andvery small reactors. In practice, running a reactor at such high power densitieswould probably produce unmanageable neutron flux.

Gas core EM reactor.As in the Gas Core reactor, but with photovoltaic arrays converting the UV lightdirectly to electricity.

Fission fragment chemical reactorReactors for direct chemical conversions

Fusion reactorsControlled nuclear fusion could in principle be used in fusion power plants to produce powerwithout the complexities of handling actinides, but significant scientific and technicalobstacles remain. Several fusion reactors have been built, but as yet none has 'produced' more

thermal energy than electrical energy consumed. Despite research having started in the 1950s,no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. The ITER project is currently leadingthe effort to commercialize fusion power.


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Appendix 1 Generation IV Reactor Concepts

Gas Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)

The Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR) system features a fast-neutron-spectrum, helium-cooledreactor and closed fuel cycle.

Like thermal-spectrum, helium-cooled reactors, the high outlet temperature of the heliumcoolant makes it possible to deliver electricity, hydrogen, or process heat with high efficiency.The reference reactor is a 288-Mwe helium-cooled system operating with an outlettemperature of 850 degrees Celsius using a direct Brayton cycle gas turbine for high thermalefficiency.

Several fuel forms are candidates that hold the potential to operate at very high temperaturesand to ensure an excellent retention of fission products: composite ceramic fuel, advancedfuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core configurations may be

based on prismatic blocks, pin- or plate-based assemblies. The GFR reference has anintegrated, on-site spent fuel treatment and refabrication plant.

The GFR uses a direct-cycle helium turbine for electricity generation, or can optionally use itsprocess heat for thermochemical production of hydrogen. Through the combination of a fastspectrum and full recycle of actinides, the GFR minimizes the production of long-livedradioactive waste. The GFRs fast spectrum also makes it possible to use available fissile andfertile materials (including depleted uranium) considerably more efficiently than thermal

spectrum gas reactors with once-through fuel cycles.


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Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)

The Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR) system features a fast-spectrum lead or lead/bismutheutectic liquid metal-cooled reactor and a closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertileuranium and management of actinides.

The system has a full actinide recycle fuel cycle with central or regional fuel cycle facilities.Options include a range of plant ratings, including a battery of 50-150 Mwe that features avery long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300-400 Mwe, and a large monolithic

plant option at 1200 Mwe. The term battery refers to the long-life, factory fabricated core, notto any provision for electrochemical energy conversion. The fuel is metal or nitride-based,containing fertile uranium and transuranics. The LFR is cooled by natural convection with areactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 degrees C, possibly ranging up to 800 degrees Cwith advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen bythermochemical processes.

The LFR battery is a small factory-built turnkey plant operating on a closed fuel cycle withvery long refueling interval (15 to 20 years) cassette core or replaceable reactor module. Itsfeatures are designed to meet market opportunities for electricity production on small grids,and for developing countries that may not wish to deploy an indigenous fuel cycleinfrastructure to support their nuclear energy systems. The battery system is designed fordistributed generation of electricity and other energy products, including hydrogen and

potable water.


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Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)

The Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) system produces fission power in a circulating molten saltfuel mixture with an epithermal-spectrum reactor and a full actinide recycle fuel cycle.

In the MSR system, the fuel is a circulating liquid mixture of sodium, zirconium, and uraniumfluorides. The molten salt fuel flows through graphite core channels, producing an epithermalspectrum. The heat generated in the molten salt is transferred to a secondary coolant systemthrough an intermediate heat exchanger, and then through a tertiary heat exchanger to the

power conversion system. The reference plant has a power level of 1,000 Mwe. The systemhas a coolant outlet temperature of 700 degrees Celsius, possibly ranging up to 800 degreesCelsius, affording improved thermal efficiency.

The closed fuel cycle can be tailored to the efficient burn up of plutonium and minoractinides. The MSRs liquid fuel allows addition of actinides such as plutonium and avoidsthe need for fuel fabrication. Actinides and most fission products form fluorinides in the

liquid coolant. Molten fluoride salts have excellent heat transfer characteristics and a very lowvapor pressure, which reduce stresses on the vessel and piping.


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Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)

The Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) system features a fast-spectrum, sodium-cooledreactor and a closed fuel cycle for efficient management of actinides and conversion of fertileuranium.

The fuel cycle employs a full actinide recycle with two major options: One is an intermediatesize (150 to 500 Mwe) sodium-cooled reactor with uranium-plutonium-minor-actinide-zirconium metal alloy fuel, supported by a fuel cycle based on pyrometallurgical processingin facilities integrated with the reactor. The second is a medium to large (500 to 1,500 Mwe)sodium-cooled reactor with mixed uranium-plutonium oxide fuel, supported by a fuel cycle

based upon advanced aqueous processing at a central location serving a number of reactors.The outlet temperature is approximately 550 degrees Celsius for both.

The SFR is designed for management of high-level wastes and, in particular, management ofplutonium and other actinides. Important safety features of the system include a long thermal

response time, a large margin to coolant boiling, a primary system that operates nearatmospheric pressure, and intermediate sodium system between the radioactive sodium in theprimary system and the water and steam in the power plant. With innovations to reducecapital cost, the SFR can serve markets for electricity.

The SFRs fast spectrum also makes it possible to use available fissile and fertile materials(including depleted uranium) considerably more efficiently than thermal spectrum reactorswith once-through fuel cycles.


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Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)

The Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR) system is a high-temperature, high-pressurewater-cooled reactor that operates above the thermodynamic critical point of water (374degrees Celsius, 22.1 Mpa, or 705 degrees Fahrenheit, 3208 psia).

The supercritical water coolant enables a thermal efficiency about one-third higher thancurrent light-water reactors, as well as simplification in the balance of plant. The balance of

plant is considerably simplified because the coolant does not change phase in the reactor andis directly coupled to the energy conversion equipment. The reference system is 1,700 Mwewith an operating pressure of 25 Mpa, and a reactor outlet temperature of 510 degrees Celsius,

possibly ranging up to 550 degrees Celsius. The fuel is uranium oxide. Passive safety featuresare incorporated similar to those of simplified boiling water reactors.

The SCWR system is primarily designed for efficient electricity production, with an option

for actinide management based on two options in the core design: the SCWR may have athermal or fast-spectrum reactor; the second is a closed cycle with a fast-spectrum reactor andfull actinide recycle based on advanced aqueous processing at a central location.


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Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR)

The Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) is a graphite-moderated, helium-cooled reactorwith a once-through uranium fuel cycle.

It supplies heat with core outlet temperatures of 1,000 degrees Celsius, which enablesapplications such as hydrogen production or process heat for the petrochemical industry orothers. The reference reactor is a 600 MWth core connected to an intermediate heat exchangerto deliver process heat. The reactor core can be a prismatic block core such as the operatingJapanese HTTR, or a pebble-bed core such as the operating Chinese HTR-10. For hydrogen

production, the system supplies heat that could be used efficiently by the thermochemicaliodine-sulfur process (Bunsen reaction).

The VHTR system is designed to be a high-efficiency system that can supply process heat to abroad spectrum of high-temperature and energy-intensive, nonelectric processes. The systemmay incorporate electricity generating equipment to meet cogeneration needs. The systemalso has the flexibility to adopt uranium/plutonium fuel cycles and offer enhanced waste

minimization. Thus, the VHTR offers a broad range of process heat applications and anoption for high-efficiency electricity production, while retaining the desirable safetycharacteristics offered by modular high-temperature gas-cooled reactors.


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Appendix II

World NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS 2006-07

and Uranium RequirementsNuclear

Electricity

generation

2006

Reactors

operable

Aug 2007

Reactors

under

construction

Aug 2007

Reactors

planned

Aug 2007

Reactors

proposed

Aug 2007

Uranium

required

2007

Country

billion

kWh

%

eNo. MWe No. MWe No. MWe No. MWe tonnes U

Argentina 7.2 6.9 2 935 1 692 1 740 1 740 135Armenia 2.4 42 1 376 0 0 0 0 1 1000 51Belgium 44.3 54 7 5728 0 0 0 0 0 0 1079Brazil 13.0 3.3 2 1901 0 0 1 1245 4 4000 338Bulgaria 18.1 44 2 1906 0 0 2 1900 0 0 255Canada* 92.4 16 18 12595 2 1540 4 4000 2 2200 1836China 51.8 1.9 11 8587 5 4540 26 27640 88 72000 1454China: Taiwan 38.3 20 6 4884 2 2600 0 0 0 0 906CzechRepublic

24.5 31 6 3472 0 0 0 0 2 1900 550

Egypt 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 600 0Finland 22.0 28 4 2696 1 1600 0 0 1 1000 472France 428.7 78 59 63473 1 1630 0 0 1 1600 10368Germany 158.7 32 17 20339 0 0 0 0 0 0 3486Hungary 12.5 38 4 1826 0 0 0 0 2 2000 254India 15.6 2.6 17 3779 6 2976 4 2800 15 11100 491Indonesia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2000 0Iran 0 0 0 0 1 915 2 1900 3 2850 143Israel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1200 0Japan 291.5 30 55 47577 2 2285 11 14945 1 1100 8872Kazakhstan 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 300 0Korea DPR(North)

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 950 0 0 0

Korea RO(South)

141.2 39 20 17533 3 3000 5 6600 0 0 3037

Lithuania 8.0 69 1 1185 0 0 0 0 2 3200 134

Mexico 10.4 4.9 2 1310 0 0 0 0 2 2000 257Netherlands 3.3 3.5 1 485 0 0 0 0 0 0 112Pakistan 2.6 2.7 2 400 1 300 2 600 2 2000 64Romania 5.2 9.0 2 1310 0 0 2 1310 1 655 92Russia 144.3 16 31 21743 7 4920 7 7800 18 21600 3777Slovakia 16.6 57 5 2064 2 840 0 0 0 0 299Slovenia 5.3 40 1 696 0 0 0 0 1 1000 145South Africa 10.1 4.4 2 1842 0 0 1 165 24 4000 332Spain 57.4 20 8 7442 0 0 0 0 0 0 1473Sweden 65.1 48 10 9086 0 0 0 0 0 0 1468Switzerland 26.4 37 5 3220 0 0 0 0 1 1000 575Turkey 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4500 0 0 0Ukraine 84.8 48 15 13168 0 0 2 1900 20 27000 2003United

Kingdom

69.2 18 19 11035 0 0 0 0 0 0 2021

USA 787.2 19 104 99049 0 0 7 10180 25 32000 20050Vietnam 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2000 0

WORLD

2658 16 439 372,002 34 27,838 81 89,175 223 200,445 66,529billion

kWh%e

No. MWe No. MWe No. MWe No. MWe tonnes U

Sources:

Reactor data: WNA to 30/8/07.IAEA- for nuclear electricity production & percentage of electricity (% e) 5/07.WNA: Global Nuclear Fuel Market (reference scenario) - for U. Includes first cores for new reactors.Operating = Connected to the grid;Building/Construction = first concrete for reactor poured, or major refurbishment under way (* In Canada,'construction' figure is 2 laid-up Bruce A reactors);

Planned = Approvals, funding or major commitment in place, or construction well advanced but suspendedindefinitely;Proposed = clear intention or proposal but still without firm commitment.TWh = Terawatt-hours (billion kilowatt-hours), MWe = Megawatt net (electrical as distinct from thermal), kWh= kilowatt-hour NB: 66,529 tU = 78,458 t U3O8


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Appendix III: Nuclear History by IAEA

1951: The EBR-1 and the Four Light Bulbs

Idaho might not be the first State that comes to mind when people think about the atom, but

"the Gem of the Mountains" has played a significant role in developing nuclear power formore than 50 years. In 1951, the National Reactor Testing Station (now known as the IdahoNational Energy and Environmental Laboratory, or INEEL) used the world's first nuclear-provided electricity to light one of its buildings. The source of the power was the Station'sExperimental Breeder Reactor-1 (EBR-1), a unit that continued in service untildecommissioned in 1964. More information on the EBR-1, including tours at the museumsite, and on the lab's other projects, can be obtained on theINEELweb site.

1954: The First (World)

In the mid-1950's, both the Soviet Union and western countries were expanding their nuclear

research to include non-military uses of the atom. However, as with the military program,much of the non-military work was done in secret. On June 27, 1954, the World's first nuclear

power plant generated electricity but no headlines--at least, not in the West. The capacity ofthe world's first nuclear electricity generator was only 5 megawatts (electric), unimpressivewhen compared to some of today's giants (about a fourth of the World's generators exceed1,000 megawatts in capacity). Of course, being the first makes the Obninsk Nuclear PowerPlant no less impressive.Minatompovides a photo of the Obninsk plant on its web site.

Also in 1954: the world's first nuclear powered submarine, the USS Nautilus, was launched.

1955: The X-39 Engine and the Aircraft that Never Was (and Likely never Will Be)

By 1955, nuclear bombs, nuclear power plants, and nuclear-powered ships and submarineshad been developed. Was an atomic-powered aircraft a logical next step? No. But in 1955, theX-39 engine for a proposed atomic-powered bomber was tested in the Heat Transfer ReactorExperiment-1. The original X-39 engine was too heavy to lift by aircraft. The problem wasovercome by eliminating the shielding. It will never be known if the Nation could have founda pilot willing to risk significant exposure to radiation while guiding his nuclear-powered

bomber down its 10-mile long runway. President Kennedy cancelled the project in 1961. Theaircraft was never built but the twin X-39 engines are on display at the Idaho National Energyand Environmental Laboratory.

Also in 1955: Arco, Idaho, became the first town to be lit entirely by nuclear power. TheBORAX II reactor, a Boiling Water Reactor(BWR) prototype was used. By the end of the 20th century, 20 percent of the Nation's electricity was supplied by nuclear power.

1956: Calder Hall unit 1 Comes on Line; the longest-operating reactor

The oldest commercial nuclear generating unit still in operation in 2001 was the Calder HallUnit 1 (Capacity, 50 MWE) at Seascale, Cumbria, Great Britain. When Calder Hall 1 beganoperation in August 1956, there were no commercial jet airliners, no man or woman hadflown in space, U.S. refineries exported $600,000,000 worth of petroleum products, and

motor gasoline sold for 30 cents per gallon . Unit 1 was later joined by the World's secondoldest currently operational unit (Unit 2, February 1957) and the third oldest (Unit 3, March
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1958). Calder Hall outlasted the 20th century, but none of the quartet (which includes CalderHall 4) will outlast the 21st century. On March 31, 2003, Cader Hall shut down permanently.Update:The World's Oldest Reactor Retires.

1957: The First Nuclear-Powered Surface Ship (World)

Launched by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the World's first nuclear-powered surfaceship never fired a shot in anger: it had no guns, missiles, depth charges or weapons of anykind. Built in the Admiralty Shipyards of what was then Leningrad, the Soviet icebreakerLenin was launched on December 5, 1957. The Lenin's career was disrupted in the 1960's bya nuclear accident that killed 30 crewmen. The vessel was repaired and the reactor replaced. Itretired in 1989, having completed three decades of service. The first nuclear-poweredicebreaker is being converted into a museum, but it has descendents. The Murmansk ShippingCompany in Russia has the largest nuclear surface fleet in the world: five Artic-typeicebreakers, two icebreakers designed to serve on rivers, and one nuclear-powered containership. And theLenin is not the only one that can claim a first. The Artika, which began

operation in 1975, was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole. More information on theLenin and the Artika, and the other eight vessels is available on theBellonaweb site.

Also in 1957: Shippingport, the first U.S. Nuclear Power Plant, comes on line

Before the first U.S. nuclear power plant went on line in 1957, nuclear reactors were alreadyin service in the former Soviet Union and in the United Kingdom. Contrary to the saying thatthere is no glory in being second (let alone third or fourth), the Shippingport Nuclear PowerPlant fully earned a place in history. The Dusquesne Light Company worked in partnershipwith the Federal Government to build the world's first large scale commercial nuclear power

plant. The reactors were designed by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation in cooperationwith the Division of Naval Reactors of the Atomic Energy Commission. By the standards ofthe day, it seemed to belong to a different era. President Eisenhower attended the openingceremonies. Shippingport continued to provide power during the terms of PresidentsKennedy, Johnson, Nixon, Ford, and Carter before finally retiring in 1982, during PresidentReagan's first term. It was decommissioned and the Government declared the site safe for

public use in 1987. The Federation of American Scientists displays a photograph worth alook, especially by readers who might wonder if this description is too grandiose.

1962: The First U.S. Nuclear-Powered Surface Ship

The contrast between the world's first nuclear-powered surface ship, Lenin, and the world'sfirst nuclear-powered commercial vessel, the Nuclear ShipSavannah, is substantial. Theycan be visualized as two horses, the workhorse Lenin and the show horse Savannah,snubbing each other. The U.S. vessel is the namesake of a vessel launched a century earlier,the first steam-powered vessel to cross the ocean. The nuclear-powered version was aremarkably beautiful and graceful ship, that could (and did) carry cargo. It was an expensiveway to carry cargo, however, so the vessel was heavily dependent on the Federal subsidy itreceived as a unique ship. The nuclear-powered Savannah was conceived by PresidentEisenhower to promote the "Atoms for Peace" program (a program that also led to the

building of the first U.S. nuclear power plant. The ship was launched in 1962 and retired in1979. Their careers were vastly different, but the show horse and the workhorse share

identical fates: put out to pasture as museums.
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Also in 1962: The first Swiss Reactor begins a short life

It is quite possible that the first thought that will occur to most readers is, "I didn't knowSwitzerland had any nuclear reactors." Those familiar with the Swiss nuclear industry may besurprised that Switzerland's oldest reactor is not Beznau 1. Beznau 1 is the oldest of

Switzerland's 5 commercial reactors. According to Swissinfo1

, the experimental reactor atLucens opened in 1962 and generated electricity for the first time in January 1968. Thereactor closed permanently following a pressure tube burst in 1969, the same year that Beznau1 went on line. No tours of the power plant are conductedin fact, visitors to Lucens,Switzerland, may be tempted to ask if this power plant is in a cave somewhere. The answer isyes.

1964: Construction Begins on a Time Machine

A vehicle that can carry people back and forth through time remains a product of sciencefiction, but the Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) is, in a sense, a virtual time machine.

Construction of the ATR began in 1964, and the reactor first reached criticality in 1967. Theimpact of years of radioactive exposure of materials in a commercial nuclear reactor can beduplicated in weeks or months by the ATR. Why would anyone want to duplicate years ofexposure in such a hurry? One answer is that the Navy used it to test materials and fuels used

by nuclear-powered vessels. Now that you've read about the birth of the ATR, leap ahead intime to 2004 and read about theATR: Still New After 37 Years.

1965: The ML-1: Reactor in a Box

The startup date for the ML-1 Mobile Power System is believed to have been some time in1965. Although the ML-1 reactor itself could be packed into a single box, the completesystem required 6 shipping containers. In addition to the reactor, a container was needed forthe control room, another for the heat conversion system, and a total of three boxes for thecabling, auxiliary gas storage and handling equipment, and tools and supplies. The containerscould then be loaded aboard a train, truck, or large cargo plane. The ML-1 is described byAtomic newsletter was the first nitrogen cooled, water moderated reactor with a nitrogenturbine energy conversion system.

1967: The Last that Became a First

Years ago, Hollywood produced a comedy called, "The Wackiest Ship in the Army." It was

loosely based of the real life (and highly dangerous) exploits of the USS Kiwi, a spy ship inWorld War II. The Kiwi was not the Army's only ship. The last nuclear power plant built bythe U.S. Army was on a converted liberty ship, the USS Sturgis. The Department of Energydescribes the Sturgis as follows: STURGIS Floating Nuclear Power Plant; Designation MH-1A,Location: Gatun Lake, Canal Zone; Principal nuclear contractor: Martin; Pressurized waterreactor, Capacity: 10,000 net kW(e), Authorized 45,000 kW(t), Initial criticality, 1967;Shutdown (permanently), 1976. The vessel provided power to the Canal Zone. It was the firstfloating nuclear power plant and, for nearly three decades, appeared to be the last. In 2008(described in the 2008 highlight), the Russians plan to bring on line the next floating nuclear

power plant. More information on the Sturgis, is available from two sources: "MH-1A" First

Nuclear Power Barge: Pioneer Barge Built in America" in the August 1996 issue ofAtomic
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and "Nuclear Power: An Option for the Army's Future," in theArmy Almanac. In the lattersource, there is a photo of the ship.

1969: Oyster Creek and Nine Mile Point, the two Oldest U.S Reactors, go on line

By the time the 21 st century began, the United States had no commercial nuclear generatingunits still in operation that were built in the 1950's. The retirement of Haddam Neck 1 (theU.S. record-holder for longevity) in 1996, reduced to 4 the number of operable U.S. reactors

built during the 1960's. The record for longevity is now shared by two reactors that went intoservice one year after Haddam Neck: Oyster Creek 1 in Forked River, New Jersey, and NineMile Point 1 in Oswego, New York. Both units are boiling water reactors, both went intoservice on the first day of December 1969, both were built by General Electric, and both werestill producing electricity according to the latest available data (February 2003). OysterCreek's license was issued before that of Nine Mile Point, making it officially the oldestoperating U.S. reactor.

1986: The Reactor that Changed History (plus Three Reactors that did Not)

More than a decade has passed since a nuclear accident in the Ukraine made "Chernobyl" ahousehold word throughout the world. Even with the millions (billions?) of words writtensince the incident in April 1986, many false perceptions continue. For example, the death tollwas not in the hundreds. The fire did not destroy the power plant. In fact, three of Chernobyl'sfour reactors were later returned to service. The number 3 reactor continued operating into the21st century (depending on how the century is calculated, since it closed in December 2000).As often happens, however, failures are better remembered than successes. The U.S. NuclearRegulatory Commission (NRC)produced a fact sheet on Chernobyl which may or may notanswer all the questions, but at least approaches the subject impartially.

1989: (August 1988 and June 1989) Largest U.S. Reactors Go into Operation

When the South Texas Project reactors went on line in 1988 (unit 1) and 1989 (unit 2), theywere the largest reactors in the United States at that time. They were the largest ever to go online in the United States but new construction at Palo Verde may have increased capacitysufficiently to make Palo Verde unit 2 the largest (as of July 31, 2005) in operation now. Onlyone fourth of the World's commercial nuclear generating units currently in operation havecapacities of 1,000 MWE or greater. The United States has 51 such units, the most of any

country. The five largest U.S. units are located in the Southwest.

The largest reactors are not in the United States, however. (see 2000: The First of the World'sTwo Largest Reactors Goes On Line)

2000: The First of the World's Two Largest Reactors Goes On Line

The United States has the most nuclear reactors, Russia had the first, and the United Kingdomhas the longest-operating, but all four of the largest reactors ever built are in France. Theywere supplied by a French company, Framatome, toElectricite de France. Chooz B1 (with anet capacity of 1,455 megawatts/electric) , was the first of the four to be completed. It went

into service in the Ardennes in August 1996. Its twin, Chooz B2, is equal in capacity and isnow also in service. They are larger (by 5 megawatts/electric) than the recently completed
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Civaux 1 and 2 reactors. By comparison, the total capacity of all the electric powerplants,nuclear and otherwise, in Vermont and Rhode Island (as of January 1, 1997) is slightly under1,650 MWE.

2003: Do They Deliver? Japan Offers to Build a Reactor in Galena, Alaska

As pro- and anti-nuclear advocates (and many of those in between) ponder when, where, andif the next commercial reactor will come on line in the United States, the possibility arises thatit might be in Galena. Where?? Japan's Toshiba Corporation has offered to build a 10 MWereactor to provide light and heat to Galena, a remote Alaskan village on the Yukon River. The

proposal, its possible implications, its prospects and potential hurdles are discussed in"Village invited to test cheap, clean nuclear power," by Joel Gay. Thearticle, which includesa diagram of the proposed reactor, appears on the web page of the Anchorage Daily News.One of the obstacles cited is "public skepticism." For many of the reactors described in thissection, public skepticism proved a very significant hurdlebefore they were built.

Also in 2003, India Announces a Breakthrough

Anil Kakodkar, Chairman of India's Atomic Energy Commission, announced that India plansto build a prototype advanced heavy water reactor (AWHR). The unique design hascompleted peer review. The estimated construction time is seven years, but a start date has notyet been announced. According to The Times of India, this unique reactor will be fueled by amix of thorium and uranium and will yield more uranium than it consumes3.

2004: The ATR: Still New After 37 Years

Construction work on Idaho's Advanced Test Reactor (ATR) began in 1964, making 2004 its40 th anniversary. The unit went critical in 1967. Most of the new technologies of the 1960'shave long ago disappeared into obsolescence, but the ATR remains the most powerful testreactor in the United States. The ATR has had a very active life, but it is far from ready for

retirement. It is currently being used to support the development of the Generation IV reactorsfor the U.S. Department of Energy, and it will be contributing to NASA's space program. Forsome spectacular photos of the ATR and a more information on its very active past and future,see Tamara Bailey's article entitled, The Advanced Test Reactor Turns 40 and Still Meeting

Research Needs on theINEELweb site.

2008: The Floating Reactor (the Severodvinsk Reactor)

In 2008, if all goes according to plan, the world's first commercial floating nuclear powerplant will be ready to begin operation... Pravda, the Russian news publication, reported theproject was approved by the head of the Ministry for Nuclear Power, Alexander Rumyantsev.Sevmash Enterprise, which specializes in submarine construction, will build the vessel.Rosenergoatom, the Russian nuclear firm, will supply the reactors. Two such floating powerstations are planned, each anticipated to cost $100 to $120 million. The first one will supply

power to the city of Severodvinsk, approximately 50 miles west of Archangel.
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