reactive nitrogen in the troposphere

Reactive nitrogen in the troposphuere

Chemistry and transport of NO, and PAN

Hanwant B. S i NASA Ames Research Center

Moffen Field, Calif: 94035

During the middle part of this century, it became evident that human activities were altering the chemical composition of the Earth's ahnosphere. Photochemi- cal smog was discovered and found to be. a byproduct of reactions involving hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO + NOJ and sunlight. It was determined that the hydrocarbon-NO, precursors were principally emitted by anthropogenic sources and that ozone (0,) was a major component of smog.

In addition, there is evidence that background levels of carbon dioxide, halocarbons, ozone, methane, carbon monoxide, and probably the hydroxyl radical (OH) are steadily changing in the Earth's atmosphere. These changes are. intricately linked with changes in climate and biosphere habitability. Fur- thermore, nitrogen oxides play a cen- tral role in many of these processes of local, regional, and global change. Our arrival at more complete knowledge of the chemistry and transport of reactive nitrogen species is one essential step toward understanding and controlling the effects of human activity on the air en- vironment.

Sources and chemistry Nitrogen oxides are emitted as nitric

oxide (NO) from a variety of sources. The estimated emissions of NO, have large uncertainties associated with them, but lhble 1 shows that 7690% of emissions are from anthropogenic sources (1-3). Thus, substantial change to this natural cycle has already oc- curred. Although most of the emissions of reactive nitrogen occur as nitric oxide, it is typically converted to nitrogen dioxide in minutes by reaction with

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320 Envimn. Sci. Technol., MI. 2.1. NO. 4. I987

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1 This article not aub)en to U.S. oopyright. Published 1987 Amrican Chemical Society

ozone. Nitrogen dioxide in turn ab- sorbs ultraviolet light at relatively long wavelengths and photolyzes rapidly, eventually reforming ozone (Equation 1). These reactions provide a basis for ozone formation even though no net ozone is produced by these reactions alone, and they are called a null reaction sequence. If there were no other reactive species, a stationary state could be reached in a matter of minutes (Equation 2).

Equation 1 is not the only set of reactions that takes place in the troposphere (0-12 km above the Earth's surface). Nitric oxide also can react with species other than ozone. The most important of these is the hydroperoxy radical @IO2), which originates from photochemistry involving the hydroxyl radical and hydrogen atoms. Various organic peroxyradicals (RO,), produced in a variety of ways from hydrocarbon oxidation, are also important. The sequence shown in Equation 3 is typical of alkane (RH) oxidation.

These reactions do produce ozone, and because nitric oxide is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide without removing mne, they are in fact responsible for producing much of the m n e associated with photochemical smog. This is because nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are cycled catalytically; the amount of m n e produced depends on the N@I NO ratio. Hence, the concentration of omne created is greater than the origi- nal concentration of NO,. Further- more, breakdown of the resultant alde- hydes and ketones yields other

products, the most important of which is the peroxyacetyl radical, CH3C(0)-0-0. This radical reacts quickly with nitrogen dioxide to form peroxyacetyl nitrate-PAN (Equation 4) ( 4 . 9 .

The most common carbonyl compounds that yield the peroxyacetyl radical are acetaldehyde (CH3CHO), acetone (CH3COCH3), and biacetyl (CH3COCOCH3), all of which are hy- products of hydrocarbon oxidation (Equation 5).

Acetaldehyde is an oxidation product of virtually all n-alkanes and alkenes. Acetone is similarly produced from C3H8, iC4H,o, iC5H12; biacetyl is a major product of oxylene oxidation. Although PAN is probably the most abundant oxidation product, other organic nitrate prcducts, such as peroxy-

nitric acid @I&N02), peroxypropionyl nitrate 0, and peroxybenzoyl nitrate (PBzN) are formed as well.

The role of the hydroxyl radical is important in Equation 5 . This radical is believed to be ubiquitous and is formed hy ozone photolysis. However, the recycling of other free radicals and the photolysis of secondary products are additional important sources of the hydroxyl radical. The reactions shown in Equation 6 determine the hydroxyl radical's principal routes of formation.

In addition to the importance for ozone and PAN formation, NO, greatly influences the atmospheric concentrations of hydroxyl radical. The recycling of the hydroperoxy radical via the H02 + NO reaction is the most important in this regard. Nitrous acid @IN@) is relatively stable at night, but it is eas-

Cghtning Mtcmbia) activity in soils Input from thestratosphere Total

PAN) I

- Environ. ki. Technol., Vol. 21. No. 4, 1987 921

ily photolyzed and therefore l i l y to be a major source of early-morning OH. The hydroxyl radical is one of the most reactive species in the atmosphere and is responsible for the chemical removal of a large number of man-made and naturally occumng chemical species in- jected into the atmosphere.

In the presence of hydrocarbons and NO,, net photosynthesis of ozone and PAN occurs. In the remote free troposphere (over the ocean, for example), the hydrocarbons involved may be sim- ply methane and ethane or carbon monoxide. Significant ozone and PAN synthesis in the remote troposphere has

been postulated (1, 6, 7). In the polluted ahnosphere and in the boundary layer (the layer below the inversion layer, from the ground to 1-2 km above the Earth), highly reactive hydrocarbons of anthropogenic origin (such as a l h e s , alkenes, and aromatics) and of biogenic origin (such as isoprene and terpenes) are more important and domi- nate the reaction more than methane and ethane do.

Along with ozone, PAN is present in polluted atmospheres and has been sug- gested as an indicator of photochemical smog (8). U d i i ozone, PAN does not have large natural sources in the strato-

Photochemically active nitrogen spec ies in the troposphere h e following are the important reactive nitrogen species found in the t r o w sphere.

Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NOZ). Primary emissions of these species occur nearly universally as NO. Both NO and NOz recycle easily and often are referred to as NO. (NO + NOZ). NO, is estimated to have a lifetime of

ummer and a few days in winter. produced primarily from the oxidation of ime: Nighttime formation occurs through N205 and liquid water. "Os is a sink for

ry and wet deposition processes over a

Peroxynitric acid (H02NOZ). H02N02 has never been measured. Its lifetime depends largely on temperature and may be several months in the upper trow sphere. It is much tw unstable to be present at significant levels in the boundary layer.

Paroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN, CH3C(0)-O-O-NOZ); peroxypmplonyl nl- ate (PPN, CzH5C(0)-0-0-NOz); peroxybenzoyl nitrate (PBzN. BH5C(0)-O-0-N02); peroxymethacrylyl nitrate (MPAN, CHz= (CH)sC(0)-O-O-NOz); peroxy(hydroxy)acetyI nitrate (HPAN,

HOCH2C(0)-O-O-NOZ), PAN is the most abundant pernitrate species and has been shown to be globally ubiquitous. The concentration of PPN is only 5- 10% that of PAN. The lifetime of PAN can range from a few hours to several months, depending on temperature. It is not a sink for NO, as it can rerelease NOz under warmer conditions. Its stability greatly increases with falling temperatures. Nighttime PAN losses occur principally in the boundary layer through surface deposition. MPAN and HPAN are possible products of isoprene oxidation.

NIrous acid ("03. HN02 is easily photolyzed to release OH and NO during daytime. it has been measured only in highly polluted atmospheres at night (12 73). Because it can photolyze rapidly (1-2 h) it may be an important source of Barb-morning OH.

Dlnitmgan pentoxide (N2O5). This species provides an important route to nighttime "Os formation, in which heterogeneous chemical processes are involved. N& h a s not been measured directly, and it is not expected to be present during daytime.

Nitrate radical (NO3). NO, is stable only at night. It has been detected at concentrations that are always much lower than predicted and at levels of about 1% of NO2 present in the troposphere (14). it is a highly reactive radical that can play a role similar to that of OH during daytime. NOs has been observed in polluted and remote atmospheres (15).

Total reacthre nitrogen (NO,) is the sum of NO, NOz, "Os, HOZNOz, the PANS, " 4 , 2NZO5, NOa and the gaseous nitrates.

Other "odd nitrogen species, such as NHa, HCN, and CH3CN, are present in the troposphere as well. Ammonia is the only basic gas in the atmosphere, and it acts as an acid neutralizer. Ammonia may be a small source or sink of NO, but the chemistry involved is highly uncertain (1). Both CH&N and HCN are relatively inert (1-2-yr lifetimes) and do not appear to play any important role in tropospheric chemistry (14 77).

The most abundant nitrogen oxide species, NzO, is not an odd nitrogen species. It is virtually inert in the troposphere. In the stratosphere, however, N20 photolyzes and reacts with f ree radicals to provide a major source of NO., which plays a criiical role in maintaining the stratospheric ozone layer.

sphere (12-50 km above the Earth's surface). It therefore offers advantages over ozone as a specific indicator of hydrocarbon-NO, photochemistry. PAN also has been associated with crop damage, most of which occurs during the daytime. Although potentially phy- totoxic episodes (> 15 ppb PAN for 4 h during daytime) occur frequently in Southern California, PAN levels in much of the rest of the world are sub- stantially lower (9). Lovelock has sug- gested that PAN also is likely to be involved in the epidemiology of skin can- cer (10).

Nitric acid, a key component of acid deposition, is for all practical purposes a product of photochemistry that is re- moved by precipitation and surface deposition over a period of 1-10 days (1). During the daytime, nitrogen dioxide reacts rapidly with the hydroxyl radical to produce nitric acid over a period of a few hours. Although nighttime gas-phase and liquid-phase reactions lead to acid formation, it is the heterogeneous reaction of Nz05 with liquid water that is the most important (F.quation 7).

In theory, gas-phase nitric acid can further participate in the nitrogen chemistry of the atmosphere via the reactions shown in Equation 8. In prac- tice, the rates of t h m reactions are so slow that this is a less important role in the lower troposphere. In the upper troposphere, however, HN03 can exist in equilibrium with nitrogen dioxide if air masses are isolated from precipitation scavenging for long periods of time _ _ (Quation 6. -

There is further reason to believe that there is an atmospheric equilibrium involving gaseous HNO,, gaseous NH3, and solid ammonium nitrate, although available data are insufficient to fully support this contention (11). This HN03-NH3-N&N03 equilibrium is highly sensitive to tempenlture, and equilibrium mass concentrations in the gas phase increase fourfold over a range of 20-30 OC (Equation 9). Distribution and transport

Although NO, is principally emitted as nihic oxide, it reacts quickly to transform into a variety of oxidized species. There are a number of important photochemically active nitrogen species liely to be present in the troposphere (12-17). A list of these species is shown in the sidebar, not all of them have been identified or measured. Based on reaction with the hydroxyl

radical alone, the lifetime of NO, can be estimated to be less than one day in summer and about one week in winter. A number of field studies conducted across the continental United States support this estimate, although in sum-

22 Environ. Sci. Technol., Vol. 21, No. 4, 1987

mer lifetimes of as little as 4-8 h have been determined (28, 19). This short lifetime l i t s the transport scale to a few hundred kilometers. Although nitric acid can be m p o r t e d over long distances, its loss occurs by highly vari- able physical processes of dry and wet deposition, and it plays a small role in promoting photochemistry. Except for the pernitrates, all active nitrogen species listed in the sidebar are short-lived and are not likely to be transported over distances of more than a few hundred kilometers.

In recent years, the role of PAN as a carrier and reservoir of NO, has re- ceived considerable attention. This possibility arose from the understanding that PAN exists in equilibrium with nitrogen dioxide, and this equilibrium is greatly affected by small changes in temperature. As a first approximation, PAN’S behavior can be illuminated by the assumption that all peroxyacetyl

radicals are produced by the oxidation of acetaldehyde. The reaftions of Equa- tion 10 describe the principal formation and removal processes for PAN. AU rate conslilnts in Equation 1oSe in units of cm3/molecule/s unless other- wise specified. They are taken from the literature, and they apply to mid-lati- Nde conditions found in the Northern Hemisphere (20). Equations 1 1-13 are derived by as-

suming that the peroxyacetyl radical is in steady sate. The lifetime of PAN (rpAN) is mathematically defined by Equation 12. Conceptually, it is con- venient to think of rpAN as indicative of the PAN decay rate undcr conditions in which no new PAN synthesis occurs.

The thermal decomposition reaction rate of PAN m.3) is highly temperature dependent and occurs within expected times (Ilk,) of I h at 298 K, 2 days at 273 K, 148 days at 250 K, and 42 years at 230 K. These kinetic considerations

led to the proposal of a mechanism in which the principal form of reactive nitrogen in the middle and upper troposphere was shown to be PAN (7).

Figure 1 shows modeled distributions of reactive nitrogen species in the sum- mertime marine (Figure la) and continental tropospheres (Figure lb) at 45 ON. Aircraft measurements are in general agreement (20, 21). From the equilibrium reaction (k3,k.3) it is obvi- ous that a mass of cold air from the upper troposphere would release nitre gen dioxide when it warms because the equilibrium shifts rapidly toward that species. The upper tropospheric reservoir of PAN could thus transport nitrogen dioxide to lower latitudes and lower altitudes, where warmer temperatures prevail. Consistent with the temperature dependence of rpAN, the upper tropospheric abundance of PAN has been shown to favor a strong seasonal cycle (21).

NigMfimf m

Envimn. Sci. Technol.. MI. 21, No. 4, 1987 323

lbo aaamonal observauons on me fate of PAN also must be noted. First, PAN photolyzes and reacts with the hydroxyl radical (jPAN. ks). These reactions place an upper bound of about three months on its mean lifetime (Equation 12). For temperatures above 273 K, ks and jpAN do not compete with k., and can be neglected. Contrary to some published estimates, PAN’S lifetime in the upper troposphere never a p proaches years. Second, at night when nitric oxide and peroxyl radical concentrations approach zero, PAN is almost infhtely stable (Equation 12). Thus, PAN is transported freely during the night, and deposition processes con- tinue to OCCUT in the boundary layer.

Measurements show that PAN is in- soluble in acidic aqueous solutions and that surface deposition over the ocean is not appreciable (22). Over land, however, a deposition velocity of 0.25 c d s has been measured (22). Therefore, some nighttime loss of PAN occu~s in the boundary layer as a result of surface removal. Because the lifetime of PAN is a few months in the upper troposphere, it can be freely transported within each hemisphere. Little ex- change between hemispheres is possible, however, because this process takes about a year.

At warmer temperatures, PAN is longer lived, because of the reverse reaction &), than its thermal dissociation rate (I.,) would imply. For a typical

(Equation 12). The formation reaction (k,) causes PAN to be nearly three times as stable as the decomposition reaction does. Despite this, rpAN has been calculated to be only 4-5h at 2OoC and 21h at 10DC. However, like ozone, PAN is continually synthesized during transport.

Equation 11 shows that daytime long-range transport of PAN is nearly always associated with continued synthesis. The magnitude of the first term on the right-hand side of the equation is

324 Environ Scl. Technol.. Val. 21. No. 4, I987

N o m a ratio of 0.2; T ~ A N = 3/k4

such that the overall kte of loss, including production and destruction, is drastically reduced. Hov has simnlated PAN transport in air masses traveling fim the United Kingdom toward Oslo, Norway (23). Figure 2a shows ozone and PAN transport; Figure 2b is a map of the associated back trajectories. Many previous studies have shown that PAN, like ozone, is an excellent indicator of the transport of photochemical air pollution (8, 24, 25). When PAN synthesis during transport is included, the overall *fold loss of PAN (that is, the amount of time required to reduce PAN concentrations from 100% to 37%) is estimated to be 3 days at 20 OC and 35 days at 5 OC.

Thus, although PAN can always be transported distances of > 10,oOo lan in the upper troposphere over several months, its transport in the lower tmp- osphere and in the boundary layer is a function of prevailing temperatures and continued synthesis from precursors. In the absence of continued synthesis, its lifetime in the boundary layer is not likely to exceed one or two days. This

tances similar to those for NO,--a few hundred kilometers.

The ratio of PAN to NO, increases as the air mass ages because PAN is a byproduct of hydrocarbon-NO, chemistry. This is best demonmated in a smog chamber where no new emissions occur. In one such experiment, the PAN/ NO, ratio rose from 0 to 3 in 5 h (26). A direct demonstration of this phenom- enon as it was measured in summer and fall in the Rocky Mountains is shown in Figure 3 (27).

Depending on the prevailing winds, this site can receive polluted air (easter- lies) to ai^ that has seen little or no recent pollution (westerlies). It is evident from Figure 3 that the PANINO, ratio increases as the air becomes cleaner (low NO, and westerly trajectories) and indicates an aged air mass. As expected, this role of PAN is much more

therefore limits PAN transport to dis-

impomt in autumn than it is in summer, presumably because of the much greater stability of PAN associated with lower temperatures. Even higher ratios have been reported in arctic air masses at 82 ON (28. For the higher NO, levels typical of moderately polluted conditions these ratios are comparable to those that have been reported in the literature (19.29, 30).

In addition, PAN and PAN-lie compounds also are sources of organic peroxyradicals during the day and at night (Equation 13). For one experiment (23, it is estimated that daytime CH,C(O)-0-0 concentrations of 2-3 x lo7 molecules per cm3 prevailed under relatively clean tropospheric wn- ditions associated with average temperatures of 290 K at 3 lan altitude (Equa- tion 13). Measured PAN-NO, behavior implied that acetaldehyde was present in concentrations of 0.1-0.3 ppb. It also is clear from Equation 13 that the CH,C(O)-0-0 concentration would be highly dependent on temperature.

Reactive nitrogen budget Although a number of reactive nitro-

gen species are present in the air, the bulk of the odd nitrogen should he ac- counted for by NO, N@, H N a , PAN, and PPN. This assertion is tested by measuring these species individually and comparing them with direct measurements of total reactive odd nitrogen (NO,). The instrument used to make such measurements is basically an NO chemiluminescent insaument equipped with a catalytic converter that reduces all odd nitrogen species (except NH,,

Figure 4 shows the CNOy,INOy ratio @NOyi is the sum of measured odd nitrogen species) based on measurements taken at Niwot Ridge, Colo., at an altitude of 3 km in the summer and fall of 1984 (31). It is clear from this figure that significant quantities of odd nitrogen (45% in summer and 10% in winter) are still unaccounted for. Other ex-

HCN, and CH3CN) to NO.

CH3CH0 + OH (02) > CHsC(O)-O-O + H20 k2 = 1.6 x IO-’’

CH3C(O)-O-O + NO2 ,A CH,C(O)-O-O (PAN) k3 = 6 x 13330 IC3 = 1.12 x 10’6 exp (--- T

CH&(O)-0-0 + NO CH3 + COP + NO2 k4 = 1.4 X 10.” 651 PAN + OH - Products k5 = 1.23 x lW’* exp (-T)

PAN + hv Products j,, = 1.2 x IO-’S-’

Envimn. Sci. Technol., MI. 21. No. 4, 1987 a25

how is it transported globally? Does the upper tropospheric PAN reservoir pre vide a principal mechanism for transport of NO,? No measurements of pernitric acid

have been made to date, but it is expected to be important in the upper troposphere. The vertical distribution of the PANINO, and H@N@lNO, ratios have not been determined in the troposphere. Theory suggests that these ratios should increase with height. This further suggests that in the middle and upper troposphere most of the reactive nitrogen exists as PAN rather than as N@. Nighttime chemistry is only be- ginning to be understood. Nitrate radicals (NO,) are found to be less abundant than predicted. What are some of the processes that remove NO, from the troposphere? Measurements of N20, have not been possible to date, although it is recognized as a key intermediate in nighttime nitric acid formation.

Nitrogen chemistry is receiving a g r a deal of attention both here and abroad because of the important role it plays in the troposphere. In one recent NASA-sponsored program (the Global Tropospheric Experiment-Chemical In- strumentation Est and Evaluation), aircraft measurements were made of PAN, NO, N@, HNO,, NH,, O,, and other important species. Although the results are not in, it is hoped that these and other planned experiments will go a long way toward answering many of these important questions of tropospheric chemistry.

Acknowledgment Portions of thls work are supported by the NASA Global ’lkopospheric Experiment and by the National Scienfe Foundation under grant ATM8606269 to SRI Interna- tional. We are grateful to F. Fehsenfeld and coworkers at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Boulder, Colo., and to B. Ridley and coworkers at the National Center for Atmospheric RG seaxh, also in Boulder, for their particip- tion in many of the field sNdies from which this article draws extensively. This article has been reviewed for ouit-

ability as an ES&T feature by D. H. Sted- man, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. 80208; and by Thomas J. Kelly. Environ- mental Chemistry Division, Bmokhaven National Laboratory, Upton, N.Y. 11973.

Reference

-_ed with a characteristic time ( l / k ) of 31 days and 10 days, respectively. As- suming steady state, methyl nitrate concentrations can be estimated at 15-50% those of PAN, [CH,0N02] = ks [PAN]/jcH,oNoz. at temperatures of 290-298 K. This fraction may increase if the CH30N@ photolysis quantum yield is less than unity, thus resulting in a longer estimated lifetime.

A second possibility is the presence of other PAN-lie compounds that have not yet been measured. It is now known that PPN abundance is only about 5% that of PAN. The possibility should be considered that biogenic hydrocarbons such as isoprene and a-pinene also can sequester reactive nitrogen. Such biogenic hydrocarbons are highly reactive, are emitted most often in summer, and typically are present only in the boundary layer. The chemistry of isoprene clearly suggests that its major oxidation products (methyl vinyl ketone and me- thacrolein) can react further to produce PAN and a variety of PAN-like compounds (35). None of these compounds has been measured to date, but it is probable that they contributeto the NO, defipiency in the boundary layer during warm atmospheric conditiw.

A third possibility arises from the formation of alkyl nitrates (RON@) directly from the reaction of organic peroxyradicals with nitric oxide @quation 15). Experimental data show that for alkanes of carbon number less than 3, no significant alkyl nitrate formation occurs. However, at carbon numbers of 4 or more alkyl nitrate formation becomes significant (36). Ratios for k7/b of 0.1, 0.25, and 0.5 have been reported for C4, C6, and C8 alkanes, respectively.

The alkyl nitrate yield is lower at lower pressures and higher temperatures. In the boundary layer, sizable

32s Environ. Sci. Technol., Vol. 21, No. 4. 1987

concentrations of C4-CI0 anthropogenic hydrocarbons and biogenic hydrocarbons (>C& such as isoprene and other terpenes, could produce significant amounts of alkyl nitrates. High concentrations of organic peroxyradicals have been detected in moderately polluted to relatively clean environ- ments (37). It is expected that many of these radicals have high carbon numbers.

In the winter, reduced temperatures, slower photochemistry, and reduced biogenic emissions should combine to make alkyl nitrates far less abundant. Although the proposed presence of alkyl nitrates and peroxynitrates seems plausible, the possibility that some as- yet unknown odd nitrogen species are present cannot be ruled out. Possible deficiencies of reactive nitrogen in the upper troposphere have not yet been investigated.

Laoking ahead Although our knowledge of nitrogen

chemistry has improved greatly over the past two decades, a number of important questions must be answered. Among the most basic of these is the disagreement between measured and predicted N@/NO ratios @pation 4), especially in clean atmospheres. Most models suggest N@/NO ratios that are significantly lower than the measured values (1). Is this a problem associated with measurements, or is the simplest step in nitrogen chemistry not well understood? It is clear that there are un- discovered reactive nitrogen species present at least in the boundary layer. What are these species? Are they present only in the lower troposphere, or are they globally pervasive? What is the chemistry of these missing nitrogen compounds? What role do they play? If NO, has a lifetime of only a few hours,

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HanwMl B. Smgh is the leader of the Trace Gas Measurements and Analysis Group at the NASA Ames Research Center at Moffen Field. Calif: He served as direc- tor of rhe atmospheric chemistry program at SRI-Infernational in Menlo Park, Calif:, and has been involved in a variety offield experiments and theoretical studies involving the distribution and fore of chemicals in the atmosphere.

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Envimn. Sci. Technol.. MI. 21. No. 4.1987 327

reactive nitrogen in the troposphere

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