Rational theories

Overview of Rational Theories

• Late 1970s – 1980s

• Outgrowth of victimization data

• More conservative criminology

• Borrowed from economic models of behavior

Social Context

• 1970s events• Conservative movement• Oil crisis & Iranian hostage incident• Individual responsibility

• Political use of crime• Crime control & “lock ‘em up” CJS policies• Just deserts punishment philosophy• War on crime and drugs • Victim rights

Intellectual Context

• New methodology and data – victimization statistics

• Concept of “evil” or self-interested person• Effect of Travis Hirschi’s view of human nature• Need for punishment – return of deterrence• Rational nature of humans – offenders responsible for

their own decisions– Incorrect thinking – cognitive &

personality theory

• More efficient CJS was needed

Major Rational Theories

Rational Choice Theory

Cornish & Clark

Rational Choice Theory

Cornish & Clark

Lifestyle TheoryHindelang, Garofalo, & Gottfredson

Lifestyle TheoryHindelang, Garofalo, & Gottfredson

Routine Activitie

s

Cohen & Felson

Routine Activitie

s

Cohen & Felson

Precursors to Rational Theories

The beginnings of rational criminals/victims

Environmental Design (1969/1971)– C. Ray Jeffery creates a form of crime prevention based not

on treating criminal motivation, but on making it more difficult to commit a crime by changing the physical crime environment.

Defensible Space (1972)– Architect Oscar Newman develops a theory of physical

spaces designed to reduce crime, primarily based on territoriality and surveillance of people who live in them.

Routine Activities Theory

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Lawrence Cohen & Marcus Felson (1979)

•Originally based on changes in routine social behaviors across time– Routine activities are normal daily patterns of social interaction– They involve things like the where & how often:

Going to work Work patternsTime spent at home Recreational activitiesShopping behaviors Dropping off/picking up kids

– Theory evolved from observations of changes in gender-based work/home patterns since WWII with increased burglary rates

Routine Activities Theory: Characteristics

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• The theory is not particularly interested in offender motivation.

– Focuses on the characteristics of crime rather than on the offender

– Looks at range of options offenders select from when committing a crime

• Has been used to explain:– Rates of victimization for specific crimes– Rates of urban homicide– Hot spots – areas that get a disproportionate number of

crimes

Assumptions of Routine Activities

•Offenders disproportionately find victims in certain settings.

•Three elements of a crime:

•Volume of criminal offenses is related to normal everyday patterns of interaction– Work, leisure, school, errands, socializing

Absence of a

Capable Guardian

Absence of a

Capable Guardian

Suitable Target

Suitable Target

Likely Offender

Likely Offender

Crime Rates and Victimization

Not related to social and cultural conditions

•Crime rates rise with:– An increase in the number of suitable victims – The absence of protectors

•Individuals are more likely to be victimized:– The more they associate with, or come in contact with, members of

demographic groups containing a greater number of offenders (young, males)

Patterns of Routine Activities

Now take place further from home (since WWII)

•Routine patterns of work, play, leisure affect the convergence in TIME and PLACE of motivated offenders, suitable targets, & absence of guardians.

– If one component of 3 is missing, crime is unlikely to be committed– If all 3 are present & one is strengthened, then crime risk is likely to increase

•Theory does not look at offender motivation

Lifestyle Theory

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Michael Hindelang, James Garofalo, & Michael Gottfredson (1978 article)

•Originated in an attempt to explain different victimization rates among groups of people

•Those with patterns of activities (lifestyles) which bring them more frequently into contact with criminals and criminal environments are more likely to be victimized– Time of day, frequency of nighttime activities, physical location of activities

Lifestyle Elements

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• Social roles– Based on expectations of others, individuals construct

lifestyles more conducive to victimization

• Position in social structure– Victimization rates are the inverse of social status, based on

normal places frequented and activities

• Rational decisions– Choices to engage in more or less risky behavior

Similarities of Victim & Offender

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Similar demographics & lifestyles

•People who are disproportionately victimized by personal crimes have demographic traits similar to those who are offenders.

•These demographics are NOT causal, but are indicators of:– Constraints (structural, economic, family, legal)– Expectations (roles, duties, schedules)

Lifestyle Characteristics

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• Same people often alternate between offender & victim (in serious assaults) in both official (police) reports & self-reports

• Lifestyle patterns are determined by adaptations (individual & subcultural) to structural constraints & role expectations

• Intervening variables of associations & exposures determine whether or not victimization results from lifestyle

Rational Choice Theory

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Derek Cornish & Ronald Clarke (1986/7)

•Crime is a way to meet basic needs– Usually monetary, usually property crime

•Rationality is a decision-making process– What opportunities exist?– What are the potential costs of action?– What are the anticipated benefits?

•Does not require full rationality, sophisticated thinking, or accurate information

Components of Rational Decision

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Two types of decisions

Details can vary by type of crime – part of the reason why offenders specialize

Involvement DecisionsIs it worthwhile?

Are risks reasonable?Or pass up opportunity?

Event Decisions

Tactics (methods) are acceptable, easy enough – helps to justify

involvement

Policy Implications of Rational Theories

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Crime prevention

Improve environment for feel of safety• Use adjacent businesses, parks, shops, nearness

of suitable activities• Target hardening

Neighborhood Watch

Mapping of crime “hot spots”

Design greater costs and reduce benefits of offenses

Policy Implications: Environmental Design

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Typical approaches to indicators of refuge, prospect, & escape

Refuge for potential offender• Tall shrubs, alcoves, blind corners

Prospect for user• Long lines of sight, wide angle of view

Escape for user• Multiple exit points close at hand

The Ecology of Crime

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Routine Activities, Defensible Space, Crime Prevention

Guardians are not the only inhibitors of crime• Look at architecture, use of space, traffic patterns,

lighting, vegetation

Combines traditional techniques with new technologies (electronic IDs, CCTV)

Target hardening