Race and Athletic IdentityRace and Athletic Identity

Louis Harrison, Jr., Associate ProfessorLouis Harrison, Jr., Associate ProfessorThe University of Texas at AustinThe University of Texas at AustinGary Sailes, Associate ProfessorGary Sailes, Associate Professor

Indiana UniversityIndiana UniversityWilly K. Rotich, Doctoral CandidateWilly K. Rotich, Doctoral CandidateThe University of Texas at AustinThe University of Texas at Austin

Why Study Race?Why Study Race?Race is a prominent organizing Race is a prominent organizing principal in memory principal in memory categorization categorization (Hewstone, Hantzi, & (Hewstone, Hantzi, & Johnston, 1991)Johnston, 1991)

Race is a Race is a socialsocial variable that variable that denotes a common socio-denotes a common socio-political history political history (LaVeist, 1996).(LaVeist, 1996).

People of different People of different races:races:

experience different experience different world viewsworld views

experience different experience different opportunitiesopportunities

take on different take on different identities and statusidentities and status

demonstrate different demonstrate different behaviorbehavior

Development of CompetenceDevelopment of Competence

Possess and Possess and display abilities or display abilities or skills, then skills, then construct construct perception of perception of competence from competence from knowledge of knowledge of exhibited skillsexhibited skills

Perception of Perception of competence may competence may organize actions organize actions to attain desired to attain desired abilities even abilities even when the skill is when the skill is not present initiallynot present initially

Perceptions serve as a catalyst to develop skills and abilities viewed as self-defining.(Cross & Markus, 1994; Markus, Cross, & Wurf, 1990)

Race-Sport ResearchRace-Sport ResearchDifferent perceptions of suitability for sport Different perceptions of suitability for sport activities (AA basketball, football, track, activities (AA basketball, football, track, etc.) etc.) ((Harrison, 1999). Strong evidence for the persistence of Strong evidence for the persistence of racial stereotypes in sport racial stereotypes in sport (Harrison, 2001; Hodge et (Harrison, 2001; Hodge et al., in press; Sheldon, Epstein & Petty, 2007)al., in press; Sheldon, Epstein & Petty, 2007)

Endorsement of self-descriptive Endorsement of self-descriptive information for sport and by race information for sport and by race ((Harrison, Lee,

& Belcher, 1999).

Race-Sport ResearchRace-Sport Research

Expectations, practice frequency and Expectations, practice frequency and aspirations in sport differ by race aspirations in sport differ by race ((Harrison, Lee, & Belcher, 1999). EAs steered away from high level EAs steered away from high level sport aspirations sport aspirations ((Harrison, Azzarito, & Burden, 2004).

Years of speculation and theorizing regarding the “natural abilities of AA athletes have forged the thinking of entire populations (Hoberman, 1997)

Race-Sport ResearchRace-Sport Research

It is unlikely that a uni-dimensional It is unlikely that a uni-dimensional theory will account for the disparity theory will account for the disparity in sport performance and in sport performance and participation between A A and EA participation between A A and EA athletes. athletes.

Differences in levels of athletic Differences in levels of athletic identity adds still another dimension identity adds still another dimension to this complex dialogue.to this complex dialogue.

Athletic IdentityAthletic Identity

The degree to which an individual The degree to which an individual identifies with the athletic role.identifies with the athletic role.Individuals make a social statement Individuals make a social statement about themselves by choosing to about themselves by choosing to engage in particular sport or physical engage in particular sport or physical activitiesactivities (Brewer, Raalte, & Linder, 1993)(Brewer, Raalte, & Linder, 1993)

Athletic IdentityAthletic Identity

BenefitsBenefitsDevelopment of a salient self-identity Development of a salient self-identity and confidence buildingand confidence building

Positive effect on athletic Positive effect on athletic performanceperformance

Narrowing of external activities to Narrowing of external activities to focus on athletic performancefocus on athletic performance

Athletic IdentityAthletic IdentityPotential RisksPotential RisksDifficulties dealing with sport Difficulties dealing with sport career or status changescareer or status changesEmotional difficulties in Emotional difficulties in dealing with injuriesdealing with injuriesDifficulty adjusting after the Difficulty adjusting after the end of the athletic career end of the athletic career because of a lack of other because of a lack of other sources of self-worthsources of self-worthLess likely to include alternate Less likely to include alternate career or educational options career or educational options (Booby Myles)(Booby Myles)

MethodMethod

109 NCAA Division I football athletes 109 NCAA Division I football athletes from a large predominantly White from a large predominantly White southeastern U.S. university. southeastern U.S. university.

The athletes’ self identified racial The athletes’ self identified racial categorization was 67 African categorization was 67 African Americans and 42 Caucasian Americans and 42 Caucasian Americans. Americans. Administered the Athletic Identity Administered the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) Measurement Scale (AIMS) (Brewer et al., (Brewer et al., 1993) 1993)

AIMSAIMS11 22 33 44

55Strongly Strongly Disagree Uncertain Disagree Uncertain Agree Agree Strongly Disagree Strongly Disagree Agree Agree

1. I consider myself an athlete.1. I consider myself an athlete.2. I have many goals related to sport.2. I have many goals related to sport.3. Most of my friends are athletes.3. Most of my friends are athletes.4. Sport is the most important part of my life.4. Sport is the most important part of my life.5. I spend more time thinking about sport than anything else.5. I spend more time thinking about sport than anything else.6. I need to participate in sport to feel good about myself.6. I need to participate in sport to feel good about myself.7. Other people see me mainly as an athlete.7. Other people see me mainly as an athlete.8. I feel bad about myself when I do poorly in sport.8. I feel bad about myself when I do poorly in sport.9. Sport is the only important thing in my life.9. Sport is the only important thing in my life.10. I would be very depressed if I were injured and could not 10. I would be very depressed if I were injured and could not compete in sport.compete in sport.

ANOVAANOVA

Analysis of Variance for Analysis of Variance for Athletic Identity Total Athletic Identity Total ScoreScoreSourceSource dfdf Mn SqMn Sq FF pp

Btwn GrpsBtwn Grps 11 7.9017.901 6.156 6.156 0.0150.015

Wthn GrpsWthn Grps 104104 133.495133.495 1.2841.284

TotalTotal 105105 141.396141.396

AIMS ResultsAIMS Results

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Af. Am.

Eu. Am.

*

*

*

DiscussionDiscussionThese results point to another socio-cultural These results point to another socio-cultural factor in the race/athletic performance factor in the race/athletic performance debatedebateSince AI is important in performance Since AI is important in performance (Horton & (Horton &

Mack, 2000)Mack, 2000), racial differences in AI should be , racial differences in AI should be considered factors in performance considered factors in performance differencesdifferencesThe AIMS items that display significant The AIMS items that display significant differences are notable.differences are notable.– 5. I spend more time thinking about sport than 5. I spend more time thinking about sport than

anything else.anything else.– 7. Other people see me mainly as an athlete.7. Other people see me mainly as an athlete.– 9. Sport is the only important thing in my life.9. Sport is the only important thing in my life.

DiscussionDiscussion

#5 - I spend more time thinking #5 - I spend more time thinking about sport than anything else.about sport than anything else.

Suggest that AA athletes had more Suggest that AA athletes had more internal focus on their sportinternal focus on their sport– Complexity of football makes focus Complexity of football makes focus

necessary to recognize and reactnecessary to recognize and react– Possibly more mental rehearsal Possibly more mental rehearsal

DiscussionDiscussion#7 - Other people see me mainly as #7 - Other people see me mainly as an athlete.an athlete.Conspicuous in PWU; large bodyConspicuous in PWU; large body– Value at game time; handicap in classValue at game time; handicap in class

Unfavorable faculty attitudes Unfavorable faculty attitudes (Baucom & (Baucom &

Lantz, 2001; Engstrom, Sedlacek, & McEwen, 1995)Lantz, 2001; Engstrom, Sedlacek, & McEwen, 1995) Unfavorable peer academic attitudes Unfavorable peer academic attitudes (Engstrom & Sedlacek, 1991; Sailes, 1993; Simons et al., 2007)(Engstrom & Sedlacek, 1991; Sailes, 1993; Simons et al., 2007) Damaging to the athletes self esteem Damaging to the athletes self esteem and academic identityand academic identity

DiscussionDiscussion

#9 - Sport is the only important thing #9 - Sport is the only important thing in my life.in my life.

Lowest score but most prominent Lowest score but most prominent differencedifference

Identity foreclosure - making a Identity foreclosure - making a commitment to identity role without commitment to identity role without exploring other role possibilities exploring other role possibilities (Murphy, Petitpas, & Brewer, 1996; Lally & Kerr, 2005)(Murphy, Petitpas, & Brewer, 1996; Lally & Kerr, 2005)

Confluence of Influence on Af. Am. Confluence of Influence on Af. Am. Athletic Identity DevelopmentAthletic Identity Development

Home

SchoolCommunity

Media Peer Culture

Dominant CultureHistory Stereotypes

Radial Identity Athletic Identity

SuggestionsSuggestionsFrank discussions of race to Frank discussions of race to dispel myths and stereotypesdispel myths and stereotypesDon’t channel African Don’t channel African American males away from American males away from sport; socialize investment in sport; socialize investment in education with the same education with the same enthusiasm.enthusiasm.Challenge the beliefs of all Challenge the beliefs of all stake holders stake holders Highlight African American Highlight African American athletes’ success in the athletes’ success in the academic realm academic realm (Paul Robeson; (Paul Robeson; RRM)RRM)

Pinar (1994)Pinar (1994)

We say "we are what we know." But, We say "we are what we know." But, we are also what we do not know. If we are also what we do not know. If what we know about ourselves--our what we know about ourselves--our history, our culture--is distorted by history, our culture--is distorted by delusions and denials, then our delusions and denials, then our identity--as individuals, as identity--as individuals, as Americans--is distorted (p. 245).Americans--is distorted (p. 245).

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