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2015-16IndiaQuicknotes
WESTERN ART HISTORY
Old Stone Age/Paleolithic: Chauvet, Lascaux, Altamira animal cave paintings. Venus of Willendorf (statues)
New Stone Age/Neolithic: megaliths, Stonehenge
Mesopotamia: Sumerian ziggurats, Akkadian monarchy, Neo-Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, Babylonian Stele of Hammu-rabi, Assyrian reliefs, Neo-Babylonian Hanging Gardens and
Ishtar Gate, Persian Persepolis
Egypt: monumental, Sphinx, Giza Pyramids, hierarchical scale/Palette of King Narmer, Bust of Nefertiti, Burial Mask of
Tut, fractional representation
Pre-Greek: marine life; Cycladic geometric nudes, Crete sea life/Palace of Knossos, Mycenaean gold
Greek: stoic; Doric/Ionic/Corinthian orders, black-/red-figure pottery, contrapposto statues (Early), Parthenon (High)
Hellenistic: emotional/detailed, Asian-influenced, Venus de Milo, Laocoon Group
Roman: Greek expanded; concrete, curved/Roman arch, Colosseum, Pantheon, Arch of Constantine
Byzantine: Christian, mosaics, Hagia Sofia
Medieval: hand-copied Bibles (Book of Kells, Coronation Gospels), small jewelry (Germanic, Hiberno-Saxon), Ro-
manesque (barrel vault), Gothic (pointed arch, ribbed vault, flying buttresses, Chartres). Emphasizes churches.
Early Renaissance: individual genius, Bondone (perspec-tive), Ghiberti (Gates of Paradise), Brunelleschi (Florence
cathedral, linear perspective), Masaccio (aerial persp.), Do-natello (David bronze sculpture), Botticelli (Birth of Venus)
High Renaissance: Renaissance Men, Da Vinci (Mona Lisa, Last Supper, sfumato smoke), Michelangelo (David, Moses,
Dying/Bound Slave, Sistine Chapel), Raphael (School of Athens, Sistine Madonna)
Other Renaissance: Giorgione (landscape, Tempest), Titian (colorist), Tintoretto (acidic, twisted Mannerism, Last Sup-
per), El Greco (Counter-Reformation, ornate/opulent)
N. Renaissance: more detailed, oil paints, Grunewald (cru-cifix, Isenheim Altarpiece), Durer (woodcut, 4 Horsemen),
Holbein (portrait, England)
Baroque: aristocratic, divine right; Louis XIV (Versailles, Academy), Caravaggio (chiaroscuro), Gentileschi (woman),
Rubens (color), Rembrandt (self-portrait, Night Watch), Velazquez (color patches), Bernini (greatest, Ecstasy of St.
Theresa, cloth-like stone)
Rococo: Watteau (fete galante), Boucher, Fragonard
Neoclassical: Fr. Revolution, Enlightenment; David (lines, Oath of Horatii), Ingres (pupil of David, rival of Delacroix)
Romantic: emotional, nature; Delacroix, Blake, Gericault
Realism: everyday; Courbet Stonebreakers, Daumier, Millet
Impressionism: light, form through brushstrokes; Manet (Luncheon), Monet (Impression: Sunrise), Pissarro, Sisley
Post-Impressionism: Cezanne (form), Seurat (optical mixing), Van Gogh (arbitrary color, Night Cafe), Gauguin
(Primitivism), photography, Degas (Japanese), pre-Raphael-ites (Romantic, archaic), Art Nouveau (decorative)
Early/Mid Modernism: see rest for most movements. Sur-realists (Freud and the mind in art, Dali, Magritte, Miro)
NON-WESTERN ART HISTORY
Abstract Expressionism: subject-less art, American; critics (Rosenberg, Greenberg), action paintings (de Kooning,
Krasner, Kline, Pollock), color fields (Rothko, Albers)
Pre-Pop/Pop Art: Johns (collages), Rauschenberg (com-bines, Bed, Monogram), Warhol (silk screening, soup can),
Lichtensetein (dot comic books), Indiana (stencils)
Minimalism: Stella, Smith (steel), Flavia (neon)
Photorealism: sharp focus, Close, Hanson
Earthworks: huge pieces, Christo/Jeanne-Claude (fabric fence, plastic island, orange gates), Heizer, Smithson
Performance: impermanent, Guerrilla Girls
Postmodern: Johnson, International Style, AT&T Bldg
Chinese: dates to 4000 BC. Great Wall, Emperor of Qin terra-cotta army. Buddhism, started in Tang Golden Age, highly
influential (ceramics, scroll drawings)
India: 1600 languages, varied tradition. Shiva deities in sensuous Hindu style. Greek influenced Buddha depictions
Japanese: artistically isolated 1600-1854; temporarily used Impressionist style; returned to isometric perspective, flat
color. Impressionists copied prints
African: excludes N. Africa (part of West history). Perishable fiber/wood used, meaning art didn’t last. Dan/Bwa masks,
Namibian caves, Nok terra-cotta, Benin bronzes
Oceanic: body art, Asmat shields; also perishable
Islamic: decorated Quran copies, Dome of the Rock; cal-ligraphic and abstract, not figurative
American: utilitarian; Pyramid of the Sun (Mexico); pueblos
TRADITIONAL AND HINDU ART
THE INDUS VALLEY ▪ The Indus River Valley civilization rivalled Egypt and
Mesopotamia ▪ One major accomplishment was sanitation and water
treatment; every home had a well, and there were central water systems
▪ These were better than many modern-day systems in the current Indus River Valley
▪ The best-preserved city is at Mohenjo-daro; the Great Bath of the city was used for ritual purification
▪ Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and many of the ruins were destroyed or weathered away
▪ The Indo-Aryans brought Sanskrit and the Vedas around 1800 BCE from eastern Asia
▪ We know little about Indus Valley culture and life ▪ Key artistic works are small figurines and soapstone seals
as well as larger statues, like Dancing Girl
Bust of a man, possibly a priest, c. 2500-1800 BCE ▪ Soapstone sculpture of a pensive man; his somber expres-
sion and decoration suggests a religious role ▪ Deep-cut, half-closed eyes originally had shell inlay ▪ Missing arm originally wrapped around body ▪ Alkali glaze means original work was white ▪ Repeated trefoil pattern ▪ Earholes suggest necklace originally present ▪ Originally had red gauze filling in most of the patterns
HINDUISM AND SCULPTURE ▪ Hinduism is unified by a body of scripture and tradition
rather than a central figure (like Jesus or Moses) ▪ The Vedas, attributed to the god Brahma, detail sruti (or
“what is heard”) ▪ They were kept as oral tradition for centuries ▪ Four Vedas: Samhitas, Aranyakas, Brahmanas,
Upanishads ▪ Other key (non-Vedic) texts: Mahabharata (and the
Bhagavad Gita), Brahmasutras, Ramayana ▪ These are called smirti, or “what is written”
▪ Three major gods: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, Shiva the Destroyer and Restorer
▪ Each has different aspects or avatars ▪ Shiva can be depicted as a Yogi, householder, and warrior
▪ Key features include a third eye, snake around his neck, Ganges River flowing from hair, small drum
▪ He is often worshipped aniconically as a lingam, or small pillar (phallic symbol)
▪ Key avatars: Nataraja (Lord of Dance), Tripurantaka (Victor of the Three Cities), Chandrasekhara (Moon-Crowned King)
▪ Early statues were permanent stone; however, to allow them to “travel,” they were made of lighter bronze
▪ The Chola dynasty used direct lost-wax casting techniques to improve the sculptures’ stability
▪ This also reduced weight and may have been GreekShiva as the Lord of Dance, copper alloy, 950-1100
▪ Holds flame of destruction (apocalypse) ▪ Points to raised foot (refuge of the soul) ▪ Hindu priest-inspired garments: wrapped sarong, bare
torso ▪ Tramples demon/dwarf Mushalagan in symbolic victory
over ignorance ▪ Lotus pedestal symbolizes creation and primordial being ▪ Outstretched palm reassures the faithful ▪ Drum symbolizes sound of creation ▪ Shiva surrounded by aureole (aura) of flame ▪ Water of the Ganges flows forth from hair ▪ Nataraja is one of the most famous Shiva avatars
Art
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HINDU WALL MURALS
HINDU ART
OVERVIEW EARLY ISLAM IN INDIA ▪ Islam arrived in India in the 600s; the Cheraman Juma
Masjid was the first mosque constructed ▪ Northwestern India and Pakistan was ruled by the Islamic
Ghaznavid Empire and Ghurid Dynasty ▪ Mu’izz ad-Din Muhammed of the Ghurid Dynasty
conquered Delhi in 1200, cementing Islam in India ▪ The Qubbat-ul-Islam Mosque (Delhi, 1198) emphasized
this triumph ▪ The Qutb complex featured minarets and Indian/Hindu
elements ▪ Islamic art was iconoclastic, abstract and often highly
floral
▪ The Ramayana is the most popular Hindu epic in India ▪ The god Rama, an avatar of Vishnu, tries to save his
wife Sita from Ravana, the king of Sri Lanka ▪ It describes the meaning of dharma, or law/duty
▪ Kerala (southwestern India) wall murals and depictions are some of the most famous Ramayana works
▪ The egalitarian Bhakti movement promoted dynamic, shaded, 3D wall paintings in the 1400s
▪ Kerala paintings use Pancha-mala borders, which emphasize five key figures: bhootha-mala (goblins), pakshi-mala (parrots), chitra-mala (abstract), vana-mala (flowers), mrugg-mala (elephants and deer)
▪ They also use the Pancha-vama color scheme of intense red, yellow, green, black and white
▪ The frescos were typically fresco secco ▪ The movement resurged following the destruction of the
Guruvayar Temple frescos
Detail of a wall painting, Mattancherry Palace, 1663 ▪ Painted as part of Dutch restoration in 1663
▪ Better known as the “Dutch Palace;” originally built by Portuguese, whom the Dutch replaced
▪ Traditional Indian building: two stories, narrow hallways
▪ Central figure is Rama: green skin, calm face. Holds arrow ▪ Rama and his brother Lakshmana enter an alliance with
the monkey king Sugriva ▪ Sugriva has white skin, an elongated nose, and a
broad jaw; meant to look like a monkey ▪ Lakshmana is blue-skinned, with open eyes ▪ Sugriva’s attendant Hanuman is also a monkey
▪ Elaborate costumes, headdresses typical for Kerala works ▪ Crowded mural work is typical of this style
ASHOKAN ART
▪ Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama between 500-300 BCE in eastern India
▪ He was born noble but encountered sickness, death, and a renunciate monk
▪ He left his heritage and became an ascetic ▪ Later, he learned yoga and meditation and created the
Middle Way/Path after meditating under a bodhi tree for 49 days
▪ This path attempted to mediate between ascetism and worldly pleasures
▪ He advocated the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path
▪ Buddhism strongly promoted karma, reincarnation, and the ultimate attainment of nirvana
The Great Stupa, overseen by Devi, c. 200 BCE ▪ Anda (central dome) set on platform; symbolizes the
“world mountain” ▪ Yasti pillar on top of anda marks axis of the universe ▪ Three chatras (disks) sit atop the yasti; symbolize Three
Jewels of Buddhism: Law, Buddha, Sangha (monks) ▪ Toranas (gateways) sit at the four cardinal directions
▪ Carvings tell stories from Buddha’s life ▪ Flowers, animals, Buddhist symbols, and elaborate
capitals also decorate the toranas ▪ Harmika fencing surrounds anda ▪ Walkway allows for worship
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE ▪ Babur founded the Mughal Empire by conquering
Hindustan in 1526 ▪ It was the last major pre-colonial empire to rule India
▪ Its people practiced Sunni Islam and spoke Persian, later Urdu (not native Indian languages)
▪ The empire did not practice primogeniture
Relic stupa: remains of Buddha or key disciples
Object stupa: key objects from Buddha’s life
Commemorative stupa: markers of key events
Symbolic stupa: represents key aspect of Buddha
Votive stupa: made as an offering
Seated Buddha from Gandhara, c. 200-300 ▪ Made of grey schist (stone) for permanence ▪ Ushnisha hairknot modelled after Greek statues of Apollo;
ushnisha typically represented larger brain ▪ Urna (mole) in center of forehead ▪ Dhyana cross-legged meditation ▪ Perfectly symmetrical and calm; halo frames figure’s face ▪ Base depicts Buddha, a Bodhisattva (enlightened one),
four other worshippers, and lions ▪ Drapery connects seated Buddha to base ▪ Would have been carried
INDO-ISLAMIC ART
Humayun (r. 1530-40) tried to consolidate his father Babur’s rule but was exiled to Persia in 1540. He returned tri-umphantly in 1555 with the help of the Safavid Persians and Shah Tasmash; this solidified the Persian roots of the Mughal
Empire, but he died in an accident shortly after returning
Babur (r. 1526-30) conquered much of Hindustan from an Afghan king; He focused on battle and was unable to
consolidate/control territories
Sher Shah Suri (r. 1540-45) was an ethnic Pashtun, unlike the Persian Mughals. He was a gifted administrator and ruler; reformed postal system and taxes and built roads.
Died 1545 in an accident
Akbar the Great (r. 1556-1605) ushered in a golden age for Mughal court and art
Shahjahan (r. 1628-58) reached height of Mughal architec-ture; built Taj Mahal and many other works
Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) expanded the empire the most, but overextended; empire faded afterwards
WEAVING AND CARPETMAKING ▪ Carpets are used in Islam for kneeling; they commonly
have a mihrab niche indicating prayer toward Mecca ▪ The weft is pulled through the vertical warp (on a loom)
to create a carpet ▪ They were commonly made from wool, silk, and cotton ▪ Turkish carpets added tufts (extra knots) to create pat-
terns in the pile ▪ They did not spread in India due to the country’s warmth;
Akbar the Great brought Persian weavers in the 1500s ▪ Indian carpets feature large central medallions and floral
patterns
Indo-Persian Carpet with Medallions, c. 1680
▪ Made of cotton, with wool pile added
▪ Perfectly symmetrical ▪ Burgundy, gold, blue/black ▪ Dark outer border: repeating
floral pattern ▪ Central blue medallion; two
matching gold medallions ▪ Staggered medallions unusual
BUDDHIST ART
▪ The Emperor Ashoka spread Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE, after seeing the destruction of the Kalinga War
▪ He constructed pillars and stupas (closed temples) at major points in Buddha’s life
▪ Ashoka’s lion, which topped the pillars, is still a major symbol of India
▪ Stupas often held Buddhist relics or ashes of Buddha; there were 5 major types of stupas
OTHER BUDDHIST ART ▪ Gandharan sculptors, influenced by Greco-Roman and
Hellenistic works, created sculptures of Buddha ▪ Traditionally depicted in a sanghati monk’s outfit
▪ Key events depicted: birth, enlightenment, first sermon, death (parinirvana)
▪ Buddhism split into two branches, Therevada (more human) and Mahanaya (more divine), around 200
▪ Buddha became more Indian-influenced, with a frontal, mask-liked face
▪ His proportions also became fixed around the angula, or width of a finger
▪ Face was 12 angulas; entire figure was 108 standing/60 sitting; 12 angulas for palm
▪ Japanese Buddhism also spread; the Sakyamuni is an enduring sculpture of this movement
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▪ Persian miniatures depicted people, animals, land-scapes in small, intricate paintings
▪ Human form not banned in Persia or Mughal India ▪ Painted on paper made from rags ▪ Style typically flat; subject viewed from slightly above ▪ Miniatures bound with carpet pages and calligraphy
into muraqqa books ▪ Gulshan Album commissioned by Jahangir began
using some Western techniques
INDO-ISLAMIC ART
METALWORKING ▪ Metal objects were used as functional objects at all
levels of Islamic society ▪ Metal water bowls were created for smoking hookah
▪ Key production processes: casting, hammering, turn-ing, spinning
▪ Materials: copper, silver, gold, iron ▪ Key patterns: floral and calligraphic patterns ▪ Bidriware was made in India; emphasized flowers,
Quranic verses ▪ Architecture, animals, people were very rare ▪ Made with silver-inlaid zinc; gold and brass also used
TEXTILES ▪ Cotton originated in India; woven cotton fabrics have
existed since Vedic times ▪ Indian weavers were also skilled at dyeing cotton; they
used mordants (catalysts) to bind dyes to cotton fibre ▪ Pen work directly applied patterns
▪ Resists allowed fabrics to keep their color ▪ Block printing (like silkscreening) allowed for repeated
patterns and elaborate designs ▪ Designs were typically colorful and floral ▪ Europeans loved Indian cottons; Portuguese and Dutch
traders brought chintzes ▪ The British government blocked imports of Indian clothes;
British factories had to process them
MINIATURES
Base for a water pipe, c. 1650-1700 ▪ Zinc alloy with silver and brass inlay ▪ Very unusual: depicts animals and architecture
▪ Animals depicted w/ anatomy emphasized ▪ Posed bird emphasized on flared lip
▪ Chini khana (“China room”) on center; niches used to display prized porcelain
▪ Shows horror vacui; no blank space
The Emperor Shahjahan Riding, 1600s ▪ Shahjahan on horseback; traditional symbol of power
▪ Richly dressed horse: jeweled bridle ▪ Servant’s clothing mirrors Shahjahan’s but is less fancy
▪ Servant holds aftabi (sunshade) above Shahjahan; titled at angle to show detail
▪ Sky suggested by light blue and unpainted yellow paper ▪ Small marsh scene below emphasizes Shahjahan ▪ Patna’s Drawings muraqqa; contains calligraphy,
quotes, other drawings of Shahjahan and his family ▪ Outer border painted with delicate grisaille flowers
▪ The British built large, imposing government buildings in major Indian cities
▪ Government Houses housed the British leadership of each territory
▪ Many of these were English Renaissance-inspired; later works (like the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai) incorporated English and Indian motifs
Rashtrapati Niwas (The Viceregal Lodge), des. Henry Irwin, 1888
▪ Overall style: “Jacobethean,” combining Jacobean and Elizabethan architecture
▪ Material: local limestone and sandstone, like traditional Indian buildings
▪ Built as “hill station” and summer headquarters for Raj leaders, chiefly Lord Dufferin (Viceroy of India 1884-88)
▪ Medieval elements: entrance tower, crenellation, roof spire
▪ Stacked Roman-inspired arcades; small rooftop gardens ▪ Architect Henry Irwin also built Mysore Palace
COLONIAL ART
▪ Early Muslim tombs were simple, in keeping with Muhammed’s wishes
▪ However, later tombs often contained a mosque, which allowed for elaborate tomb decorations
▪ Muhammed’s simple tomb was replaced with the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi, an ornate complex
▪ Turkish tombs featured tomb towers (simple cylinders) and Islamic garden pavilions (with large domed squares)
▪ Mughal tombs adapted these pavilions into octagons ▪ Early Indo-Islamic tombs used post-and-lintel forms with
white marble and red sandstone ▪ Mughal emperors sponsored many tombs:
TOMBS AND THE TAJ MAHAL
Babur: Rambagh in Agra, Persian-style gardens and fountains
Humayun: “floating palace”
Akbar: Humayun’s tomb, Fort at Agra, Great Mosque at Fatehpur Sikri
Jahangir: Shalimar Gardens at Kashmir
Shahjahan: trained architect, golden age of Mughal archi-tecture. Wazir Khan Mosque, Red Fort at Delhi, Pearl
Mosque at Agra, Taj Mahal
Taj Mahal Complex, des. Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, 1632-53
▪ Name means “Crown of Palaces” ▪ Built as tomb for Mumtaz Mahal, second wife and love
of Shahjahan ▪ Double dome in center, with four smaller domes ▪ Octagonal drum base, modeled after Islamic gardens ▪ Sits on large platform with hidden stairwell ▪ Cream-colored marble veneer ▪ Small minarets at corners; four large minarets on pavilion ▪ Many Islamic arches on building ▪ Frieze has repeating floral pattern; echoed throughout
building and platform ▪ Inscribed with Quran verses ▪ Located at back end of long garden, next to the Yamuna
River; most tombs were located in the center of gardens ▪ Red sandstone buildings on either side with similar
domes and designs ▪ Inspired by Throne of God on Judgment Day ▪ Urban legend: English planned to destroy the Taj Mahal
and reuse the marble
Coat (Wentke), mid-1700s ▪ Material: mordant and resist-
dyed cotton ▪ Indian pattern with European
lace trim ▪ Wentke worn by northern
Dutch women for formal occasions
▪ Drawn, painted, and dyed in India
▪ Uses diapering, decorative mo-tifs on plain-color background
ARCHITECTURE
St. Andrew’s Church, Chennai, des. Maj. Thomas Fiott de Havilland, 1818-21
▪ Circular shape instead of basilica, but still modeled after St. Martin-in-the-Fields w/ central tower
▪ Based off of Gibbs’ design; he published a modified design with this circular plan
▪ Neoclassical portico; wide pediment, Ionic columns ▪ Balustrade (stair-stick row) tops church ▪ Material: brick and pottery; painted white to look like
marble ▪ Ionic pillar facade around building ▪ Interior: Palladian style, with Corinthian columns and
circular pews ▪ Dome is blue with golden stars
▪ British also tried to spread Chris-tianity as part of “enlightened imperialism”
▪ The EIC banned missionaries for interfering in trade, but other Europeans and the Raj encour-aged them
▪ St. Martin-in-the-Fields (located in London) was copied across all British colonies
▪ Basilica (cross-shaped) structure with large apse (containing the altar)
▪ Central tower instead of dome at crossing ▪ Des. James Gibbs; became famous because of his
popular Book of Architecture ▪ Indian Corps of Engineers led construction; Capt.
Caldwell, Maj. de Havilland were leaders
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COLONIAL ART
KALIGHAT ART ▪ Kalighat painting spread
from Calcutta and was the first Indian modernist style
▪ They were small watercolors with bold subjects and limited perspective
▪ Subjects “floated” in the background (like Byzantine)
▪ Japanese/Chinese scroll-work reflected in simple shading and brushstrokes
▪ Many works depicted gods
POSTCOLONIALISM ▪ Postcolonialism broadly explores unequal power
relationships inherent in colonialism ▪ Edward Said described the “otherized” East
▪ Postcolonial art uses mimicry (adapting and changing Western styles) and hybridity (fusing styles)
▪ Yinka Shonibare makes statues based on Western paintings but with ghostly, headless, cloth figures
FOLK AND MITHILA ART ▪ Indian government, particularly Office of the Develop-
ment Commissioner, encourages folk art ▪ Mithila (also Madhubani) painting, from Nepal and
northeast India, is one major folk style ▪ Vedic Mithila women painted Hindu gods with fingers,
sticks, and non-brush tools ▪ They often used geometric patterns and flat colors
▪ This art form was “discovered” in the West in 1934 by Wil-liam G. Archer following an earthquake in Nepal
▪ The Ethnic Arts Foundation currently supports female Mithila artists
MODERN AND POSTCOLONIAL INDIAN ART
▪ The British made some pro-female reforms: encouraging female education, discouraging child marriages, and ban-ning sati (widow burns herself on her husband’s pyre)
▪ Often used as an excuse to impose colonialism ▪ Indian feminist groups: Bharat Stree Mahamandal,
Women’s Indian Association, Council of Women in India, All-India Women’s Conference
▪ Indira Gandhi served as Prime Minister for many years ▪ However, problems still exist, particularly with sexual
violence
FEMINISM
The Tables Have Turned, by Nalini Malani, 2008 ▪ Nalini Malani creates large installation pieces; site-
specific, temporary ▪ Counter “timeless” nature of traditional art ▪ Often have audience involvement ▪ Malani references historical/mythological depictions
of women to discuss modern feminism ▪ First major work: City of Desires (2006)
▪ This work: 32 Mylar cylinders spin on turntables 5 times per minute
▪ Projector light shined through them, shining images on the wall
▪ 20-minute looping soundtrack plays text from Cassan-dra: A Novel and Four Essays
▪ Cassandra, a mythical Greek figure, has the gift of prophecy but is damned by Apollo: nobody will believe her, and Troy is destroyed
▪ Symbol of powerlessness, voicelessness
NUMISMATICS ▪ Numismatics studies currency and coins; these artifacts
are crucial in understanding society’s organization ▪ One of the few opportunities for widespread images
of a ruler ▪ Also used for economic analysis (past trade patterns)
▪ The Indian rupee dates to about 500 BCE ▪ Its name is from the Sanskrit “rupa,” or “silver” ▪ Pre-modern versions include Kanishka’s gold coins and
Sher Shah Suri’s rupiya ▪ The British Raj issued paper and metal rupees and
annas (1/16 of a rupee) ▪ The post-independence rupee has been devalued repeat-
edly ▪ First designs: Lion Capital of Ashoka, Hindu text ▪ The Mahatma Gandhi Series was issued in 1996
Englishman on Tiger Hunt, c. 1830 ▪ Subject: Englishman riding elephant and hunting tiger
▪ Figures painted atop each other ▪ Gun upside-down; probably satirical ▪ Typical 1820s English attire: top-hat, cut-away coat ▪ Tiger’s tongue, teeth depicted; elephant appears about
to step on him ▪ Strong black outlines; color added later ▪ No background or setting ▪ Englishman sits on a carpet saddle ▪ In reality: elephant would be driven by mahout (trainer);
hunter would be protected in howdah (carriage)
PHOTOGRAPHY ▪ Maharaja were local “rulers”
appointed by the British ▪ They tried to Westernize by
speaking English and dress-ing in Western clothing
▪ British tourists were interested in pictures of India; lithographic aquatint prints became quite popular
▪ Oriental Scenery, A Pictur-esque Voyage to India
Studio Portrait of Ram Singh of Jaipur, Bourne & Shepherd, c. 1877
▪ Subject: Ram Singh, maharaja of Jaipur ▪ “Normal” photo; meant to show him as “everyday” ▪ No distinct backdrop; patterned carpet, small drapery
piece only major elements ▪ Indian robe, skirt; Western pants and shoes; simple
jewelry ▪ Singh is carefully groomed ▪ Chair, table, book common European portrait elements ▪ European-influenced contrapposto pose
A Holy Man in the Forest (Shiva as Lord of the Animals), by Jogmaya Devi, 1981
▪ Material: ink on paper ▪ Central figure: man (possibly Shiva) with single eye,
dreadlock hair, horizontal forehead marker ▪ Posed with crossed legs and with colorful stripes ▪ Holds prayer beads ▪ Shiva as Pashupati (Lord of Animals) was one com-
mon depiction of the deity ▪ Other animals colorfully depicted:
▪ Two lions, one with with a lizard head and another with polka-dot mane, eye-shaped markings
▪ Deer/antelope with similar markings ▪ Small bird and small, antlered animal ▪ Elephant underneath meditating man
▪ Horror vacui present; no blank space ▪ Repeated motifs and colors unify the work; downward-
looking eye, bright colors, horizontal stripes ▪ Very typical of Mithila paintings
IITK Kelkar Library, des. Achyut Kanvinde, 1962 ▪ Material: reinforced concrete skeleton, brick highlights ▪ Bauhaus, Brutalist influence ▪ Three floors spread outward, shading the bottom and
creating a portico ▪ Strong vertical concrete pillars ▪ Architect Kanvinde trained at Harvard under Gropius,
then established own firm
as secular heroes or actors ▪ Workshop-produced; male patuas would draw outlines,
women would color in ▪ Replaced by lithographs and photographs later
POSTCOLONIAL ARCHITECTURE ▪ Two main schools of postcolonial Indian architecture ▪ Indo-Saracenic Revivalists brought back Hindu styles
▪ Secretariat Building in New Delhi, other govern-ment buildings used this style
▪ Modernists wanted to adapt Western architecture to Indian contexts; this was more successful
▪ The Bauhaus International style was very popular ▪ Louis Kahn (Yale University Art Gallery, Indian Insti-
tute of Management) and Le Courbusier (Chandigarh) ▪ Brutalism was also widespread
▪ Nehru encouraged education and founded the Indian Institute of Technology Karpur (IITK)
▪ Its campus was built in a Brutalist style
Rs. 1000 note, Mahatma Gandhi series, Reserve Bank of India, 1996-present
▪ Image of Gandhi from 1946 photograph with Lord Pethick Lawrence at eve of Independence
▪ Shows him as “father of the nation” ▪ Reversed from photograph
▪ Front side: Ashoka Lion Capital, Reserve Bank of India seal, blank space with watermark
▪ Obverse: India’s economy highlighted with oil drills, fac-tory, satellite, industrial agriculture, computer
▪ Both Hindi and English text ▪ All details created with fine-point intaglio engraving ▪ Other notes in series feature different elements of India:
buildings, landscape, animals
▪ Photography replaced miniatures and Kalighat paintings ▪ They were also used for official purposes
▪ Bourne & Shepherd was a major Indian photography studio and is the oldest still in existence
▪ Two founders: Charles Shepherd, Samuel Bourne ▪ Bourne was a famous celebrity photographer
▪ Photographic portraits very popular among the maharaja ▪ “Royal Photographic Album” collected many that
were presented as gifts at durbars (court gatherings) ▪ Raja Ramachandra Tondaiman, the maharaja of
Pugukkotta, was depicted in several famous ones