qualitative research 質性研究 / 定性研究 中央大學. 資訊管理系 范錚強 mailto:...
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中央資管:范錚強 2
質性研究
研究者本身作為研究的工具 (instrument)
透過其針對研究對象的訪談、觀察、文件分析等,經由資料的詮釋,獲得進一步的瞭解
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Why Use Qualitative Research?
“Most of what influences what we say and do occurs below the level of awareness. That’s why we need new techniques: to get at hidden knowledge – to get at what people don’t know they know.”
Jerry Zaltman
中央資管:范錚強 4
Focus Groups
Qualitative Research
EthnographyEthnography
ObservationObservationData
CollectionTechniques
Data Collection
Techniques
IDIsIDIs
Case Studies
Action ResearchGrounded
Theory
GroupInterviews
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Qualitative Research
Trace EvidenceTrace Evidence
ArtifactsArtifacts
OtherTechniques
OtherTechniques
Behavioral ObservationsBehavioral
Observations
Textual Analysis
Debriefings
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Qualitative Research in Business
Job Analysis
Advertising Concept Development
Productivity Enhancement
New Product Development
Benefits Management
Retail Design
Process Understanding
Union Representation
Market Segmentation
Sales Analysis
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Data Sources
PeoplePeople
OrganizationsOrganizationsTextsTexts
EnvironmentsEnvironments
Events and happeningsEvents and happenings
Artifacts/ media products
Artifacts/ media products
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Distinction between Qualitative & Quantitative
Theory Testing
Theory Building
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瞭解研究問題
實質問題我的研究到底做些什麼? what is my study about?
形式Am I asking a “who,” “what,” “where,” “why,” or “how” question?
研究問題的形式,提供了選擇適當研究策略的提示
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研究策略的選擇
研究的最重要的的一步:定義研究問題判定研究問題的類型一般而言:
什麼 (what) :探索性 (exploratory)
如何 (how) 、為何 (why) :驗證 (confirmatory)
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實徵性 Empirical 研究分類
依研究階段探索性: exploratory
hypothesis building (達爾文)驗證性: confirmatory
hypothesis testing
依實徵資料蒐集方法分類質性研究 Qualitative Research
個案研究,田野調查,參與觀察,歷史探索,行動研究定量研究(數量化研究) Quantitative Research
問卷調查,實驗室實驗,實地實驗,內容分析
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構念層次
探索:構念的形成
實質層次
因果、共變關係
推論:因果關係
y測量
誤差
x誤差
測量
X Y抽象化構念化
抽象化構念化
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The Roots of Qualitative Research
Psychology
Anthropology
Communication
SociologySemiotics符號學
Economics
Qualitative Research
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社會科學研究哲學
Positivism 實證主義康德 (Comte)the only authentic knowledge is that which is based on sense experience and positive verification.
Interpretivism or Anti- positivism/Hermeneutics 詮釋主義韋伯 (Max Weber) ,黑格爾 (Hegel) : 辯證法the study of the interpretation of written texts (also, verbal and nonverbal forms of communication)non-positivist research is usually qualitative, while positivist research is more quantitative.
Interactionismmeaning is produced through the interactions of individuals..
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質性研究的理念分類 1
傳記研究 Biography 研究個人,以及其陳述的經驗
現像學 Phenomenology研究多個個人,以及他們所陳述的經驗
紮根理論 Grounded Theory社會學:針對一個特定情境,試圖從現像中推演理論
民俗誌 Ethnography人類學:針對一個文化的描述和詮釋
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質性研究的理念分類 2
個案研究針對一個或多個對象的描述和詮釋
行動研究組織發展:研究者參與到行動中以規劃、實施、監測行動的變化,並利用研究者的理論與經驗服務於被研究對象
歷史研究詮釋事件之間的關連
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質性研究的資料蒐集方法
次級資料觀察訪談
個人、群體
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質性研究的資料分析方法
程序:Data collection
Data reduction
Data display
Conclusion drawing and Verification
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Qualitative
Understanding
Interpretation
Focus of Research
Quantitative
Description
Explanation
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Researcher Involvement
Qualitative
High
Participation-based
Quantitative
Limited
Controlled
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Research Design
Qualitative
Longitudinal
Multi-method
Quantitative
Cross-sectional or longitudinal
Single method
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Sample Design and Size
Qualitative
Non-probability
Purposive
Small sample
Quantitative
Probability
Large sample
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Data Type and Preparation
Qualitative
Verbal or pictorial
Reduced to verbal codes
Quantitative
Verbal descriptions
Reduced to numeric codes
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TurnaroundQualitative
Shorter turnaround possible 但是,總期程長Insight development ongoing
QuantitativeMay be time-consuming (for a sample)總期程長Insight development follows data entry
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Data Analysis
Qualitative
Nonquantitative; human
Judgment mixed with fact
Emphasis on themes
Quantitative
Computerized analysis
Facts distinguished
Emphasis on counts
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Qualitative Research and the Research Process
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Pretasking Activities
Use product in homeUse product in home
Bring visual stimuliBring visual stimuli
Create collageCreate collage
Keep diariesKeep diaries
Construct a storyConstruct a story
Draw picturesDraw pictures
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Choosing a Qualitative Method
Types of participants
Types of participants
Researcher characteristics
Researcher characteristics
FactorsFactors
ScheduleSchedule
Budget
Topics
Project’s purpose
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NonProbability Sampling
PurposiveSampling
SnowballSampling
Convenience Sampling
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Qualitative Sampling
General sampling rule:
You should keep conducting interviews until no new insights are gained.
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The Interview Question Hierarchy
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Interviewer Responsibilities
Recommends topics and questions
Controls interview
Plans location and facilities
Proposes criteria for drawing sample
Writes screener
Recruits participants
Develops pretasking activities
Prepares research tools
Supervises transcription
Helps analyze data
Draws insights
Writes report
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Elements of a Recruitment Screener
Heading
Screening requirements
Identity information
Introduction
Security questions
Demographic questions
Behavior questions
Lifestyle questions
Attitudinal and knowledge questions
Articulation and creative questions
Offer/ Termination
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Interview Formats
Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured
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Requirements for Unstructured Interviews
Distinctions
Developed dialog
Interviewer skill
Probe foranswers
Interviewer creativity
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The Interview Mode
GroupIndividual
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IDI vs Group
Individual Interview Group InterviewResearch Objective
Explore life of individual in depth
Create case histories: repeated interviews over time
Test a survey
Orient the researcher to a field of inquiry and the language of the field
Explore a range of attitudes, opinions, and behaviors
Observe a process of consensus and disagreement
Topic Concerns
Detailed individual experiences, choices, biographies
Sensitive issues that might provoke anxiety
Issues of public interest or common concern
Issues where little is known or of a hypothetical nature
Participants
Time-pressed participants or those difficult to recruit (e.g., elite or high-status participants)
Participants with sufficient language skills (e.g., those older than seven)
Participants whose distinctions would inhibit participation
Participants whose backgrounds are similar or not so dissimilar as to generate conflict or discomfort
Participants who can articulate their ideas
Participants who offer a range of positions on issues
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Types of Research Using IDIs個人深入訪談
Cultural interviewsCultural
interviews
Sequential interviewingSequential
interviewingTypesTypes
Life historiesLife histories
Critical incident techniques
Oral histories
EthnographyEthnography
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METMET
Projective Techniques
Sensory sortsSensory sorts
Semantic Mapping
Semantic Mapping Data
CollectionTechniques
Data Collection
Techniques
Sentence CompletionSentence
Completion
CartoonsCartoons
Thematic Apperception
Thematic Apperception
LadderingLaddering AssociationAssociation
Component SortsComponent Sorts ImaginationExercises
ImaginationExercises
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個人深入訪談
雙向對談評估
可獲得深入且大量細節的研究資料,比一其他方法獲得的資料品質更佳可獲得詮釋資料的協助更好的控制:可以因受訪者不同,而調整用語成本高:時間和金錢
可中斷訪談──降低成本但,如果該樣本是關鍵性的…
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成功的個人訪談
受訪者具有研究所需的資料受訪者瞭解其所扮演的角色有足夠的誘因使受訪者配合過濾性的問題──資訊層次
確定繼續訪談受訪者訪談者的角色
解釋輔導鼓勵
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訪談技巧 (I)
增加受訪者的配合意願相信過程會是愉快和令人滿意的認為回答問題是重要且值得的能達成一些心理滿足感
開始:破冰萬一受訪者正在忙,或是不在…建立良好的關係
愉快信任
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訪談技巧 (II)
蒐集資料──刺探簡單的表明瞭解和興趣一個期望的表明、暫停重複問題重複受訪者的答案──確認中性的問題,或評論澄清性問題──追問
訪談的紀錄筆記、錄音、錄影先徵求當事人同意
選擇和訓練訪談人假設這是個大規模的研究,有眾多訪談者
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工具(問卷)
是的,訪談也有問卷結構性的問卷非結構性的檢查清單
階段一:發展問卷的設計策略階段二:建構問題和測量方法階段三:草擬問卷和修改問卷
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問卷的用語 / 文字使用
問題是否以共通的用語來呈現問卷中使用的用語是否沒有多重意義避免混淆的用語
問題是否隱含一些未被證實或扭曲的假設問題中是否有可能偏誤的用詞該問題是否適當的個人化
不同的受訪者族群,可能需要不同的用語若有選項,選項是否完整涵蓋所有可能性
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開始和受訪者的過濾
讓受訪者有配合的誘因適當揭露訪談中問題的大致方向告知所需的時間可能包含過濾性的問題揭露研究單位、委託單位和研究目標建立開始的接觸
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終止訪談
問題:當受訪者沒有正確的回答過濾性的問題,是否或如何終止訪談?當受訪者決定停止訪談時,如何終止?
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資料的獲取和整理
記錄整理筆記─文稿整理錄音帶─轉錄成文字稿
文字的分析模版比對:找尋特殊 pattern內容分析語幹分析
詮釋Gaining insight
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Projective Techniques
需要找出隱藏的意義,無法直接經由問答得到。可採用投射方法
p.173/174
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Group Interviews
Dyads
Triads
Mini-Groups
Small Groups
(Focus Group)
Supergroups
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Determining the Number of Groups
ScopeScope
Number of distinct segmentsNumber of distinct segments
Desired number of ideasDesired number of ideas
Desired level of detailDesired level of detail
HomogeneityHomogeneity
Level of distinctionLevel of distinction
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Group Interview Modes
Telephone
Online
Videoconference
Face-to-Face
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Selecting the Data Collection Method
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Selecting an Observation Data Collection Approach
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觀察研究
定性研究的一環可以和其他方式一起進行
如︰訪談、問卷、二手資料等多為研究的探索性階段
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觀察研究
非行為的觀察記錄分析實質狀況分析實質過程分析
行為的觀察非語言的分析語言的分析(包含語言外的分析)空間的分析
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優點
有時是唯一可行的方法在事件發生時,即時蒐集資料掌握可能被遺漏的資料
如︰福爾摩斯可在整個事件發生的自然情境下蒐集資料該情境接受觀察的干擾
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限制
事件發生的不可預測性緩慢而昂貴只能掌握到「檯面上」的動作和表面的情報主觀的判斷和記錄無法用以了解已經過去的事件
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進行觀察研究觀察研究的種類
簡單或有系統性的觀察觀察研究的結構
完全非結構性--自然情境非結構性--實驗室結構性--自然情境完全結構性--實驗室
內容的規範觀察的目標
觀察者的訓練觀察者間的一致性
資料蒐集 (Who; What; When; How)
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選擇觀察者的準則
能在很多干擾的情境下專注能記憶很多經歷事件的細節能在觀察情境下不引起注意能在觀察的資料中萃取最多的 insight—抽象化能力
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Research Design
How?How?
Where?Where?
Task DetailsTask Details
What?(event or time)
What?(event or time)
When?
Who?
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觀察資料的蒐集
Who
What 事件抽樣 時間抽樣
When
How
Where
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Content of Observation
Factual InferentialIntroduction/identification of salesperson and customer. Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of customer.
Time and day of week. Convenience for the customer. Welcoming attitude of the customer
Product presented. Customer interest in product.
Selling points presented per product. Customer acceptance of selling points of product.
Number of customer objections raised per product. Customer concerns about features and benefits.
Salesperson’s rebuttal of objection. Effectiveness of salesperson’s rebuttal attempts.
Salesperson’s attempt to restore controls. Effectiveness of salesperson’s control attempt. Consequences for customer who prefers interaction.
Length of interview. Customer’s/salesperson’s degree of enthusiasm for the interview.
Environmental factors interfering with the interview. Level of distraction for the customer.
Customer purchase decision. General evaluation of sale presentation skill.
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非干擾性的量測
反應性的線索非干擾性的測量
間接測量歷史資料搜尋觀察分類
物理現象的痕跡磨損、消耗、風化累積(如︰垃圾學)
其他方法的極佳輔助
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Data Collection
WatchingWatching
ListeningListening
TouchingTouching
SmellingSmelling
ReadingReading
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Using Observation
Systematic planningSystematic planning
Properly controlledProperly controlled
Consistently dependableConsistently dependable
Accurate account of eventsAccurate account of events
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Observation Classification
Nonbehavioral
Physical condition analysis
Process or Activity analysis
Record analysis
Behavioral
Nonverbal
Linguistic
Extralinguistic
Spatial
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Nonbehavioral Observation
Record Analysis
Physical Condition Analysis
Physical Process Analysis
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Behavioral Observation
“We noticed people scraping the toppings off our pizza crusts. We thought at first there was something wrong, but they said, ‘We love it, we just don’t eat the crust anymore.”
Tom Santor, Donatos Pizza
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Systematic Observation
Encoding observation information
Encoding observation information
StructuredStructured
SystematicSystematic
Trained observersTrained
observers
Standardized procedures
Recording schedules
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Flowchart for Checklist Design
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觀察者和觀察標的的關係
直接或是間接觀察間接例︰單面鏡外的心理學家?
觀察者的身分是否被受觀察者所知道隱瞞或公開
觀察者的角色參與者或純粹觀察
局外觀察者 現場觀察者 參與觀察者
Participative Observation
局內人觀察
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Extralinguistic Observation
Vocal
Temporal
Interaction
Verbal Stylistic
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記錄
記憶每天晚上回去整理成筆記
筆記、速記錄音、錄影
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Errors Introduced by Observers
Observer DriftHalo Effect
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Evaluation of Behavioral Observation
Strengths
Securing information that is otherwise unavailable
Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting
Securing environmental context
Optimizing naturalness
Reducing obtrusiveness
Weaknesses
Enduring long periods
Incurring higher expenses
Having lower reliability of inferences
Quantifying data
Keeping large records
Being limited on knowledge of cognitive processes
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Combining Qualitative Methodologies
Action ResearchCase Study
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Triangulation: Merging Qualitative and Quantitative
Conduct studies simultaneously
Perform series:Qualitative,
Quantitative, Qualitative
Ongoing qualitative with multiple waves
of quantitative
Quantitative precedes Qualitative