Brief Communication

Qualitative Exploration of Learners’ Information-SeekingProcesses Using Perseus Hypermedia System

Shu Ching Yang*Wu Feng Junior College of Technology and Commerce, Chia-Yi, Taiwan, R.O.C.E-mail: shyang@ucs.indiana.edu

Introduction ence, political science, and journalism, while one learnerhad an undeclared major. All took the introductory courseThe study examined six cases of information-seekingabout Greek culture for elective credit. At the outset,behavior in the conduct of discourse synthesis in Perseus,they were inexperienced in both the Perseus hypermediaa Greek history hypermedia database. Discourse synthesissystem and the content domain of Greek culture. Therefers to the process in which learners integrate theirsubjects participated individually, and were later inter-ideas, with information selected from multiple sourceviewed on a one-to-one basis. Three subjects took part intexts within Perseus, to compose new texts (Spivey,task A and three in task B.1983).

Methodology Experimental Tasks

The tasks investigated in the study required the learn-Instrumentationers’ thoughtful and sustained examination of a given topic

This study uses Perseus 1.0 as an instrument to under-over an extended period of time using the Perseus applica-

stand the learners’ information-seeking process. The Per-tion. The subjects had to complete five assignments dur-

seus Project, formally in existence since July 1987, ising the semester. Two of them were used as the tasks for

a non-profit enterprise. It is a constructive hypermediathe study; the first ( task A) in mid-semester, the second

database of interactive multimedia resources about Ar-( task B) at the end of the semester. Task A was concerned

chaic and Ancient Greece. Perseus 1.0 features an histori-with 1) to what extent the ruins of Athens left an impres-

cal overview, original historical texts, site plans, an archi-sion of inadequacy? 2) What does an inspection of Athens

tectural catalog for 30 Greek sites, and a catalog of severaltell about the magnitude and the nature of Athens’s power.

hundred objects of Greek art (Crane, 1992; Crane & My-Task B examined the attitudes toward competition and

lonas, 1988). These materials are interconnected, or hyp-its manifestations in Classical Greece. The students sub-

ertextual, which allows the learners to pursue differentmitted their path assignments (on floppy disks) as inter-

threads of inquiry simultaneously.pretive essays that both illustrated and analyzed the as-signed problems or themes. Due to the very open-ended

Participants and time-consuming nature of path assignments, the sub-The subjects were six volunteers from a mid-western jects were observed at different stages. The duration of

university. Their majors were psychology, computer sci- their participation ranged from 2 to 6 hours.

* To whom all correspondence should be addressed c/o Professor Data Collection and AnalysisAn-sing Chen, Department of Finance, Chung-Cheng University, Chia-Yi, Taiwan, R. O. C. Verbal protocols and the observation approach were

the methods used to collect the data. Data were collectedReceived April 12, 1996; revised June 13, 1996; accepted November

using audio-visual tapes, observations, and interviews.5, 1996.The procedure for both tasks A and B consisted of anorientation, a warm-up activity, the main task (verbalq 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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protocol) , and post-task interviews. First, the subjects example, they typically engaged in exploratory searchingbefore they came up with a specific direction. They usedwere informed of the aim of the study. Next, the instruc-

tions for the experiment were read by an experimenter, prescriptive searching to incorporate the assignment’s re-quirements and constraints.while the subjects followed along using their own copies.

The subjects then practiced thinking aloud under the guid- Purposeful searching occurred once they could main-tain more constant points of reference by limiting theirance of the experimenter.

In both tasks A and B, the subjects undertook the Per- searches to the current goal at hand. Associative searchingtook place when the learners anticipated and mentallyseus path assignments which the instructor had assigned

at that time. While the subjects worked on their assign- sketched out the best information to prove their points.They proactively looked for related and interconnectedment, they verbalized their thought processes. The re-

searcher observed their decisions and noted their opera- information to support arguments they had in mind. Curi-ous searching happened when the subjects pursued some-tions and body language. The verbal data gathered from

the subjects’ problem-solving was recorded and analyzed thing which piqued their interest, whether or not it wasessential to their task. Tangential searching occurredto find the information-seeking structures employed in

their justification of problems’ solution. Finally, in the when their searches went clearly beyond the requirementsof the assignment. Accidental searching occurred occa-post-task interview, the researcher asked the subjects

questions about their decision-making processes. sionally, either because of the database design, or fromserendipitous glitches in using function buttons.The categories in the present study are developmental

in nature; they gradually emerged and evolved from the The subjects’ deployment of searching strategies wasreflected in the stage differences and their preparation ofdata as this analysis proceeded. The categories were set

by each subjects’ transcripts, and further subdivided, the task at hand. As they progressed, the proportion ofexploratory and purposeful browsing declined steadilymodified, refined, expanded, or abandoned as the re-

searcher learned the specifics of all the subjects investi- and they engaged increasingly in more proactive and asso-ciative searching. For example, one subject demonstratedgated.more exploratory behaviors in the initial stages than inthe intermediate stage. Two subjects showed much more

Findings and Discussionassociative and proactive searching behavior, especiallywhen observed variously in the intermediate and finalDrawing from the thinking-aloud protocols of six

cases, the model classification scheme of information- stages.The study showed that the learners managed the infor-seeking (IS) in Perseus was established. The IS model

was established in light of the Marchionini (1992) and mation load, orchestrating the access and storage by usingthe application functions to regulate capacity and for stor-the Dreher and Guthrie models (1993). The proposed

model characterizes the information-seeking within a ing the information. For example, the learners managedthe information load through selective allocation of atten-broader context—the learners initiate information-seek-

ing activities to marshall evidence and to compose their tion to relevant texts by using tools such as GoTo todirectly access a specific line or chapter, and FindText tothematic essays. IS is contingent upon a variety of pro-

cesses, including cognitive and metacognitive processes, search quickly for a specific word or phrase. In addition,the learners retained the desired information on the desk-reasoning operations, and affective responses. The IS

model consists of five activities: (1) Selecting sources of top, with path cards or in mental notes, either for perma-nent or temporary storage. The study also showed thatinformation, (2) executing the search, (3) interpreting

the problem, (4) judging for relevance, and (5) retaining the learners judged the resources and links to determinewhich would be the most relevant to their tasks, and whichor rejecting. It is emphasized that these processes are not

sequential or logical, but are nonlinear, evolving, iterative, direction would be the most productive to follow. Theyretained information based on criteria such as relevance,opportunistic, and affect-linked. This supported earlier

findings by Bates (1989), Kuhlthau (1993), and Marchi- usefulness, meaningfulness, clarity, or completeness; orthey abandoned information because of its redundancy oronini (1992).

The information scheme describes the process the irrelevance.learners use to search for, assess, select, and manage theinformation in the resources. It includes three main activi-ties: (1) Different types of searching and retrieving, (2) Conclusionsevaluating the content for relevance and usability, and (3)managing information load. The subjects demonstrated a The study was constrained by the inherent nature of

Perseus. Therefore, the results are necessarily tentative.range of searching behaviors: Prescriptive, exploratory,purposive, associative, intuitive, curious, tangential, and Follow-up studies could contribute to a better understand-

ing of information-seeking theory by investigating multi-accidental. Each type of searching appeared to reflect thesubjects’ current mental state or intention, which was ple methodologies, different tasks, and including a larger

sample of subjects.not static, but occurred in a flux of constant change. For

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Dreher, M. J., & Guthrie, J. T. (1993). Searching for information. Con-Referencestemporary Educational Psychology, 18(2) , 127–279.

Kuhlthau, C. (1993). A principle of uncertainty for Information Seek-Bates, M. J. (1989). The design and browsing and berrypicking tech-niques for the online search interface. Online Review, 13(5) , 407– ing. Journal of Documentation, 49(4) , 339–355.

Marchionini, G. (1992). Information retrieval interfaces for end users.424.Crane, G. (1992). Perseus 1.0: Interactive sources and studies on an- Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 43, 156–

163.cient Greece: Users’ guide. New Haven: Yale University Press.Crane, G., & Mylonas, E. (1988). The Perseus project: Interactive Spivey, N. N. (1983). Discourse synthesis: Constructing texts in read-

ing and writing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University ofcurriculum on classical Greek civilization. Education Technology,28(11), 25–32. Texas, Austin.

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