qualitative data analysis - learningresources.ui.edu.ng · and understanding the mental mapping...
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Ayodele S. Jegede E-Mail: [email protected], [email protected]
Outline
Objective
Learning outcome
Introduction
Qualitative research design
Qualitative data collection techniques
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Objective
To familiarize participant with the importance of qualitative data in biomedical research.
To develop their skills for conducting Qualitative research.
To stimulate their interest in the use of Qualitative Methods (QM) as a useful tool for biomedical research.
Learning Outcomes
Participants have adequate knowledge of the different approaches of qualitative research design
Participants have adequate knowledge of the different approaches of qualitative data collection techniques
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What is Qualitative Research?
Although there is still some debate, the general consensus is that qualitative research is a naturalistic, interpretative approach concerned with understanding the meanings which people attach to actions, decisions, beliefs, values etc. within their social world, and understanding the mental mapping process that respondents use to make sense of and interpret the world around them (Ritchie and
Lewis)
Qualitative research can: describe or provide further understanding of a subject and its contextual
setting;
provide explanation of reasons and associations;
evaluate effectiveness;
aid the development of theories or strategies
Design The Qualitative Research
Design
An initial focus (problem, phenomenon, question)
Phases of the study (background, entry, exploration, closure)
Plan for identifying setting and data sources
Plan and logistics for data collection and analysis
Plan for ensuring trustworthiness (Whitt, 1991)
Selecting Research Participants The goal is to get the deepest
possible understanding of the setting being studied
Requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied
It is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied
Utilizes purposive sampling
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•Sample size is always determined by the analysis. It is part of the design and so is influenced by the nature of the inquiry, quality of the informants, the quality of the data.
•The researcher is looking for saturation—the point at which there are no new cases coming from each new participant and redundant information keeps coming up.
•This must be differentiated from participant saturation where the researcher cannot drag anything new out of the umpteenth interview with that particular person.
Sources of Qualitative Data Primary sources:
Ethnography
In-depth interviews
Key informant interviews
Participant and non-participant observations
Interviews (e.g. semi-structured and narrative)
Focus groups
Case studies (typically involving multiple methods of data collection)
Life histories
Secondary sources: Media texts (e.g. television programmes, newspaper reports)
Diaries, letters, other oral and visual artefacts
Responses to open-ended questions in surveys
Published studies and the “grey literature”
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Ethnographic Approach: Research Complex Situations Holistically
What is Ethnography
Most closely associated with
anthropology, but also sociology
Ethnography is an approach for
developing understandings of the
everyday activities of people in
local settings
Ethnography’s Project: enable
conversations across social and
cultural boundaries between
people quite different from one
another
Us trying to understand our
customers
Principles and Methods of Ethnography
Principles Holism
focus on relations among activities and not on single tasks or single isolated individuals
everything connected to everything else
Natives’ point(s) of view
how people see their own worlds
opportunity to engage with customers
Study people in their native habitats
e.g., home, office, school, library, hospital, community...
Methods
In-depth interviews in context
Observation Participant-observation
Non-participant observation
Intensive interactions
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Medicine, money, and… as field equipment
Advantages
Deeper, more nuanced
understandings
More ecological validity
Represent what’s really going on in some everyday setting
What’s meaningful to people
(disconnect between e.g., survey questions... and how people think about things)
Respect for complexity of human
activity
Design for human needs; reflect
users’ own issues and everyday
problems
Cheaper to do it right the first time
considering the cost of launching a new product
Disadvantages
Seeing the world in a single grain of sand
comparative work needed
build from multiple cases
Ethnography in a mobile, distributed world
it’s easier when the natives sit still, but we have to modify our methods and perspectives...
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Participatory Observation
Researcher participate actively in
the activities of the group being studied
Researchers may decide to be an overt participatory observer,
they declare their true identity and purposes
covert participant observer, their status as researchers is not disclosed
Most of the time “researchers
choose to be partially open but do not provide those being studied with the full story” (Haralambos & Holborn, 1995)
Non-participatory Observation
Unlike participant observation, researchers do
not take active part in the activities of the studied group
Observation can be covert overt
Useful because there are some social situations where the presence of an observer is prohibited, or is not likely to be allowed Some treatment procedures
Even when observation is allowed, the presence
of the researcher may alter the behaviour of those being observed to such an extent that the data are not that valid
In some situations, the longer the researcher observes, the more likely those being studied are to forget about his/her presence and the more likely they are to act naturally
“Doctors left Carlos McIntosh’s abdomen open after surgery,
anticipating they would have to operate again on the 18-
year-old, who was near death after being shot twice”
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In-depth Interview (IDI)
In-depth interviews (IDI)
unstructured interview
conversation
interviewer does not strictly adhere to the interview guide or predetermined questions
usually conducted with purposively selected individuals among a studied category
Key Informant Interview
A person with unique skills or professional background on the issue being evaluated
A person who is knowledgeable about the project and participants
Someone who can help you better understand the project participants, their backgrounds, behaviors, and attitudes and any language or culturally relevant considerations
Discussion between an individual respondent and an interviewer
Can be via telephone or face-to-face
Can range from informal chats to highly structured discussions
Should be planned in advance
Can have varying formats and approach
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Purpose of Key Informant Interview
Collect qualitative, in-depth information from a wide range of people
Collect information about a pressing issue or problem in the community
Understand beliefs and motivations
Understand sensitive topics
Get the story behind a participant’s experiences
Types of Key Informant Interview
Informal, conversational interview
General, guided interview
Standardized, open-ended interview
Closed, fixed-response interview
Advantages
Provides in-depth and rich information about a topic
Gives an opportunity to explore causes of problems
Relatively easy and inexpensive
Allows interviewer to be flexible in administering interview
Permits personal contact and provides an opportunity to build or strengthen relationships with important community stakeholders
Allows interviewer to clarify information
Can be used with all groups
Disadvantages
Conducting many interviews can be time consuming
Relationship between evaluator and informants may influence responses
Interviewee may distort information through biases
May overlook perspectives of community members who are less visible
Difficult to generalize results to larger population
Volume of information is large and may be difficult to analyze
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Case Study e.g. Street Violence
A case study involves an in-depth study of a single example of a phenomenon
Thus, a case study could involve the study of a single institution, community, social group, or individual person, a particular historical event, or a single social action e.g. street violence
Life History: August Comte 1798 - 1857
Life histories are particular types of
case study, where the whole study concerns one individual’s life (Haralambos and Holborn, 1995)
They can be carried out using a number of methods but the most frequently used method is extended unstructured interviews
In fact, some life histories make considerable use of personal documents like diary
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Focus Group Discussion
Consists of homogenous
population
A face-to-face round table-like sitting arrangement
Discussion is guided by a moderator assisted by a note taker
It involves use of tape/video
Allows a comprehensive view of community wide problem
Moderating FGD/Conducting In-depth/Key Informant Interviews
Building rapport
Warm-up [Ice Breaking]
In-depth discussion - probe
Ending the discussion – recap and clarify issues
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Attributes of a Good Moderator/Note Taker
Good listener
Flexibility
Ability to manage group dynamics
Unbiased
HOW CAN WE DO THESE?
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Interviewer skills
– Knowledgeable on the subject matter
– Comfortable with meeting and talking to new people
– Ability to concentrate and engage attention while taking notes
– Flexible
– Attentive to non-verbal cues
– Strong communication skills
– Good listener
– Comfortable with silence
– Able to balance between formal and casual talk
Techniques for Collecting Qualitative Data
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Location Interview should be in a place…
Provides privacy
No distractions and easy to hear
Comfortable
Non-threatening environment
Easily accessible for respondent
Where there will be no interruptions
Asking questions
Prepare a discussion guide that contains important topics and questions
Consider the sequence of questions Introductory Key Probing
Ask some fact questions first and then follow with questions that ask about opinions and
beliefs Design questions to yield in-depth information
Ask about the present before the past or future Closing questions should allow respondents to provide any other information or
recommendations
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Tips for asking questions
Keep questions open-ended
Ask neutral questions
Ask questions one at a time
Make sure the wording is clear
Be careful with “why” questions
Use probing questions such as:
“Can you give me examples”
“What changes have you noticed”
Conducting an effective interview
Setting the environment
Communicating the questions clearly and consistently
Recording the interview
Staying on track
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Setting the environment
Establish rapport with an introduction
Be sensitive to interviewee’s responses, attitudes, and beliefs
Show sincere interest in the person beyond just getting the information
Do not interrupt
Remain “tuned in” to the interviewees responses
Begin with questions least in-depth
Communicate questions clearly and consistently
Give same explanations and directions to each respondent
Try to read the questions in the same way for each respondent
Make sure every question is asked
Do not show personal feelings about the questions or expected response
Provide transitions in major topics
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Staying on track
Keep interviewee’s attention on the question being asked
Probe for further information
Review interview guide to make sure all questions were discussed
Thank the interviewer at the end and leave on a positive note
Taking notes
Options: -Interviewer or assistant facilitator
-Audio or video taping
-Combination of note-taking and tape recording
Tips:
-Record main ideas, key phrases
-Don’t allow note-taking to disrupt the flow of conversation
-Fill in gaps immediately after the interview
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After the interview
Make sure the tape recorder worked
Make any extra notes on those you’ve already taken
Write observations made during the interview
Record any surprises during the interview
Send a thank you note
Incentive
Monetary
Non-monetery
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Ethical Norms Guiding Report Writing
Multiple side of the story must be told
Ensure that there is no harm to participants from the report
Report the data in participant’s own words
Describe the context of your interaction and discuss the role you played
Selected References
Boeije, H. R. (2009) Analysis in Qualitative Research Sage Publishers ISBN: 9781847870070
Haralambos & Holborn (2008) Sociology: themes and perspectives. Harper Collins Pub.
Hancock B., Windridge K., and Ockleford E. (2007) An Introduction to Qualitative Research. The NIHR RDS EM / YH.
Glaser BG, Strauss AL. (1966). The purpose and credibility of qualitative research Nursing Research.Winter;15(1):56-61
Hancock B., Windridge K., and Ockleford E. An Introduction to Qualitative Research. The NIHR RDS EM / YH, 2007(Last updated; 2009). www.rds-eastmidlands.nihr.ac.uk. [Accessed: Tuesday 18 February, 2014]
Jegede AS (2005) “Analysis of Qualitative data.” In Olayinka AI., Taiwo VO., Raji-Oyelade A & Farai I. P. (eds.) Methodology of Basic and Applied Research 1nd Edn. 113 – 131.
Mack N, Woodsong C, Macqueen K. M, Guest G & Namey E (2005) Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Ccollector’s Field Guide. Family Health International. http://www.fhi.org [Accessed: Tuesday 18 February, 2014]
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P. & Larkin, M (2009) Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, Method and Research Sage Publishers ISBN: 9781412908344 http://www.uk.sagepub.com/books/Book227528?
Wodak, R & Meyer, M (2009) Methods for Critical Discourse Analysis Second Edition March 2009 Sage Publishers ISBN 9781847874559
NATASHA MACK, CYNTHIAWOODSONG KATHLEEN M.MACQUEEN , GREG GUEST • EMILY NAME. YResearch Methods: A Data Collector’s Field Guide