quadrant machinists handbook - quadrant plastics · quadrant machinists handbook ... 7 1. drill a...

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QUADRANTMACHINISTSHANDBOOKMachining Plastics Made Easy

8 0 0 - 3 6 6 - 0 3 0 0 quadrantplastics.com

OVERVIEWPLASTICS

THE WORLD’S LEADING MANUFACTURER OF PLASTIC STOCK SHAPESPlastics increasingly replace traditional materials such as bronze, stainless steel, cast iron and ceramics. They are chosen for improved performance and cost reductions.

Typical applications include extreme high tech markets like Aerospace, Alternative Energy, Automotive, Chemical, Oil & Gas Processing, Defense, Food Processing & Packaging, Heavy & Industrial Equipment, Medical & Life Sciences, Semiconductor & Electronics, and Transportation.

Machinable plastic stock shapes (sheet, rod, and tubular bar) are now available in more than 50 grades, spanning the performance/price range of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals to specialty ceramics. Plastics capable of long term service up to 800°F (425°C), with short term exposures to 1,000°F (540°C) are now available. As the number of material options has increased, so has the difficulty of selecting the right material for a specific application.

ADVANCED PLASTIC & POLYMER

INNOVATORS

PLASTICS CAN :/ Reduce weight/ Eliminate corrosion/ Improve wear performance in unlubricated conditions

/ Reduce noise/ Increase part life/ Insulate & isolate, both thermally & electrically

800-366-0300 | quadrantplastics.com

CONTENTS TABLE OF

Fabrication Guidelines .....................................................................................

Machinability ....................................................................................................

Drilling Guidelines ............................................................................................ Troubleshooting - Drilling ................................................................................

Sawing Guidelines ...........................................................................................

End Milling/ Slotting Guidelines ...................................................................... Face Milling ......................................................................................................

Troubleshooting - Turning & Boring ................................................................

Troubleshooting - Cutting Off ..........................................................................

Turning Guidelines ...........................................................................................

Annealing .........................................................................................................

Air Annealing Guidelines .................................................................................Diagrams .......................................................................................................... Conversions .....................................................................................................Notes .................................................................................................................

11131517

3

1921222325

3127

3335

9

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Name:

Company:

Dept:

Address:

City:

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Zip:

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2

3

The following guidelines are presented for those machinists not familiar with the machining characteristics of plastics. They are intended as guidelines only and may not represent the most optimum conditions for all parts. The troubleshooting quick reference guides in this booklet should be used to correct undesirable surface finishes or material responses during machining operations. All Quadrant materials are stress relieved to ensure highest degree of machinability and dimensional stability. However, the relative softness of plastics (compared to metals) generally results in greater difficulty maintaining tight tolerances during and after machining. A good rule of thumb for tolerances of plastic parts is +/- .001˝ per inch of dimension although tighter tolerances are possible with very stable, reinforced materials.

WHEN MACHINING QUADRANT STOCK SHAPES REMEMBER...

• Thermal expansion is up to 10x greater with plastics than metals

• Plastics lose heat more slowly than metals, so avoid localized overheating

• Softening (and melting) temperatures of plastics are much lower than metals

• Plastics are much more elastic than metals

Because of these differences, you may wish to experiment with fixtures, tool materials, angles, speeds and feed rates to obtainoptimum results.

GETTING STARTED

• Positive tool geometries with ground peripheries are recommended

• Carbide tooling with ground top surfaces is suggested for optimum tool life and surfaces finish. Polycrystalline diamond tooling provides optimum surface finish when machining Duratron® PBI.

• Use adequate chip clearance to prevent clogging

• Adequately support the material to restrict deflection away from the cutting tool

3 800-366-0300 | quadrantplastics.com

FABRICATION GUIDELINES

4

COOLANTS

Coolants are generally not required for most machining operations (not including drilling and parting off). However, for optimum surface finishes and close tolerances, non-aromatic, water soluble coolants are suggested. Spray mists and pressurized air are very effective means of cooling the cutting interface. General purpose petroleum based cutting fluids, although suitable for many metals and plastics, may contribute to stress cracking of amorphous plastics such as Quadrant® PC 1000, Quadrant® PSU, Duratron® U1000 PEI, and Quadrant® PPSU.

MACHINING TIPS

Coolants are strongly suggested during drilling operations, especially with notch sensitive materials such as Ertalyte® PET-P, Duratron® PAI, Duratron® PBI and glass or carbon reinforced products.

In addition to minimizing localized part heat-up, coolants prolong tool life. Two (flood) coolants suitable for most plastics are Trim E190 and Trim Sol LC SF (Master Chemical Corporation – Perrysburg, OH).

4

THREADING & TAPPINGThreading should be done by single point using a carbide insert and taking four to five 0.001˝ passes at the end. Coolant usage is suggested.

For tapping, use the specified drill with a two flute tap. Remember to keep the tap clean of chip build-up. Use of a coolant during tapping is also suggested.

Use of a coated tap can improve the toughness of threads in a notch sensitive material.

MILLINGSufficient fixuring allows fast table travel and high spindle speeds when end milling plastics. When face milling, use positive geometry cutter bodies.

SAWINGBand sawing is versatile for straight, continuous curves or irregular cuts. Table saws are convenient for straight cuts and can be used to cut multiple thicknesses and thicker cross sections up to 4˝ with adequate horsepower. Saw blades should be selected based upon material thickness and surface finish desired.


FABRICATION GUIDELINES

6

SAWING TIPS• Rip and combination blades with a 0º tooth rake and 3º to 10º tooth set are best for general sawing in order to reduce frictional heat.

• Hollow ground circular saw blades without set will yield smooth cuts up to 3/4˝ thickness.

• Tungsten carbide blades wear well and provide optimum surface finishes.

The insulating characteristics of plastics require consideration during drilling operations, especially when hole depths are greater than twice the diameter.

Small diameter holes (1/32˝ to 1˝ diameter)

High speed steel twist drills are generally sufficient for small holes. To improve swarf removal, frequent pulling out (peck drilling) is suggested. A slow spiral (low helix) drill will allow for better swarf removal.

Large diameter holes (1˝ diameter & larger)

A slow spiral (low helix) drill or general purpose drillbit ground to 118º point angle with 9º to 15º lip clearance is recommended. The lip rake should be ground (dubbed off) and the web thinned.

It is generally best to drill a pilot hole (maximum 1/2˝ diameter) using 600 to 1,000 rpm and a positive feed of 0.005˝ to 0.015˝ per revolution. Avoid hand feeing because of the drill grabbing which can result in microcracks forming. Secondary drilling at 400 to 500 rpm at 0.008 to 0.020˝ per revolution is required to expand the hole to larger diameters.

A two step process using both drilling and boring can be use on notch sensitive materials such as Ertalyte® PET-P and glass reinforced materials. This minimizes heat build-up and reduces the risk of cracking.

7

1. Drill a 1˝ diameter hole using an insert drill at 500 to 800 rpm with a feed rate of 0.005 to 0.015˝ per revolution.

2. Bore the hole to final dimensions using a boring bar with carbide insert with 0.015˝ to 0.030˝ radii at 500 to 1,000 rpm and a feed rate of 0.005 to 0.101˝ per revolution.

DRILLINGTIP:


8

TURNINGTurning operations require inserts with positive geometries and ground peripheries. Ground peripheries and polished top surfaces generally reduce material build-up on the insert, improving the attainable surface finish. A fine grained C-2 carbide is generally best for turning operations.

9

Acet

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GP

POM

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, Ace

tron®

AF

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F Bl

end

1

Dura

tron®

CU6

0 PB

I 10

Dura

tron®

T42

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AI

5Du

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4301

PAI

5

Dura

tron®

T45

01 P

AI

6Du

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4503

PAI

6

Dura

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40 P

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6Du

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5530

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U10

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3, 7

Erta

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PV

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MC9

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MAT

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MACHINABILITY


10

Acet

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GP

POM

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1Ac

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, Ace

tron®

AF

1Ac

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n® A

F Bl

end

1

Dura

tron®

CU6

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I 10

Dura

tron®

T42

03 P

AI

5Du

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n® T

4301

PAI

5

Dura

tron®

T45

01 P

AI

6Du

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n® T

4503

PAI

6

Dura

tron®

T45

40 P

AI

6Du

ratro

n® T

5530

PAI

8

Dura

tron®

U10

00 P

EI &

U23

00 P

EI

3, 7

Erta

lyte

® P

ET-P

2

Erta

lyte

® T

X PE

T-P

2 Fl

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sint

® M

T01

3Fl

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1Fl

uoro

sint

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1Fl

uoro

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PV

1

Ketro

n® 1

000

PEEK

5

Ketro

n® G

F30

PEEK

7

Ketro

n® C

F30

PEEK

7

Ketro

n® H

PV P

EEK

6

Nyla

tron®

MC9

01 P

A6 &

MC9

07 P

A6

1Ny

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PA66

& G

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1Ny

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6, N

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703

XL

2

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® N

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101

PA6

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C 10

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3

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Tech

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PSB

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Tech

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Tech

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Tech

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PE

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B

ASE

RESI

N

Smaller diameter holes • High speed twist drills • Peck drill suggested

Larger diameter holes • Drill pilot hole • Use slow speed spiral drills or inserted drills

Proteus® PP, Quadrant® PC 1000, Quadrant® PSU, Quadrant® PPSU and Duratron® PEI based materials

Fluorosint® PTFE (1) based materials

NominalHoleDiameter

0.007 - 0.0150.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

0.007 - 0.0150.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

0.002 - 0.0050.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

0.007 - 0.0150.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

0.007 - 0.0150.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

1/2" or larger

0.015 - 0.025

FeedIn./Rev.

Symalit®

PVDF and ECTFE based materials

Ertalyte® PET-Pbased materials

Duratron® PAI and Duratron® PI based materials

Duratron® PBIbased materials

Techtron® PPS based materials

TIVAR® UHMW-PE, Nylatron® PA6, Acetron® POM based materials

0.002 - 0.0050.004 - 0.0080.008 - 0.012

Ketron® PEEK based materials

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

0.007 to 0.0150.015 to 0.0250.020 to 0.050

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

0.002 - 0.0050.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

(1) For Fluorosint® MT01 PTFE contact Quadrant’s Technical Service Team

11

DRILLING GUIDELINES


Smaller diameter holes • High speed twist drills • Peck drill suggested

Larger diameter holes • Drill pilot hole • Use slow speed spiral drills or inserted drills

Proteus® PP, Quadrant® PC 1000, Quadrant® PSU, Quadrant® PPSU and Duratron® PEI based materials


NominalHoleDiameter

0.007 - 0.0150.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

0.007 - 0.0150.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

0.002 - 0.0050.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

0.007 - 0.0150.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

0.007 - 0.0150.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

1/2" or larger

0.015 - 0.025

FeedIn./Rev.

Symalit®






TIVAR® UHMW-PE, Nylatron® PA6, Acetron® POM based materials

0.002 - 0.0050.004 - 0.0080.008 - 0.012


1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

0.007 to 0.0150.015 to 0.0250.020 to 0.050

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

0.002 - 0.0050.015 - 0.0250.020 - 0.050

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"

1/16" to 1/4"1/2" to 3/4"1" to >2"


12

TIP

TIP:

13

DIFF

ICUL

TY

C

OMM

ON C

AUSE

1. In

corr

ectly

sha

rpen

ed d

rill

2. In

suffi

cien

t cle

aran

ce3.

Fee

d to

o he

avy

1. W

rong

type

dril

l2.

Inco

rrec

tly s

harp

ened

dril

l3.

Fee

d to

o lig

ht4.

Dul

l dril

l5.

Web

too

thic

k6.

Not

pec

k dr

illin

g

1. F

eed

too

heav

y2.

Cle

aran

ce to

o gr

eat

3. T

oo m

uch

rake

(thi

n w

eb a

s de

scrib

ed)

1. T

oo m

uch

clea

ranc

e2.

Fee

d lig

ht3.

Dril

l ove

rhan

g to

o gr

eat

4. T

oo m

uch

rake

(thi

n w

eb a

s de

scrib

ed)

1. F

eed

too

heav

y2.

Dril

l not

cen

tere

d3.

Dril

l gro

und

off-

cent

er

1. D

rill g

roun

d of

f-ce

nter

2. W

eb to

o th

ick

3. In

suffi

cien

t cle

aran

ce4.

Fee

d ra

te to

o he

avy

5. P

oint

ang

le to

o gr

eat

1. D

ull d

rill

2. T

oo m

uch

clea

ranc

e3.

Poi

nt a

ngle

too

smal

l

1. F

eed

too

heav

y2.

Spi

ndle

spe

ed to

o sl

ow3.

Dril

l ent

ers

next

pie

ce to

o fa

r4.

Cut

-off

tool

leav

es n

ib,

w

hich

defl

ects

dril

l5.

Web

too

thic

k6.

Dril

l spe

ed to

o he

avy

at s

tart

7. D

rill n

ot m

ount

ed o

n ce

nter

8. D

rill n

ot s

harp

ened

cor

rect

ly

1. D

ull c

ut-o

ff to

ol2.

Dril

l doe

s no

t pas

s co

mpl

etel

y th

roug

h pi

ece

1. F

eed

too

light

of d

rill

2. S

pind

le s

peed

too

fast

3. In

suffi

cien

t lub

ricat

ion

from

coo

lant

TAPE

RED

HOLE

BURN

T OR

MEL

TED

SURF

ACE

CHIP

PING

OF

SURF

ACES

CHAT

TER

FEED

MAR

KS O

R SP

IRAL

LIN

ES O

N IN

SIDE

DIA

MET

ER OV

ERSI

ZE H

OLES

UNDE

RSIZ

E HO

LES

HOLE

S NO

T CO

NCEN

TRIC

BURR

AT

CUT-

OFF

RAPI

D DU

LLIN

G OF

DRI

LL

DRILLING


14

1. In

corr

ectly

sha

rpen

ed d

rill

2. In

suffi

cien

t cle

aran

ce3.

Fee

d to

o he

avy

1. W

rong

type

dril

l2.

Inco

rrec

tly s

harp

ened

dril

l3.

Fee

d to

o lig

ht4.

Dul

l dril

l5.

Web

too

thic

k6.

Not

pec

k dr

illin

g

1. F

eed

too

heav

y2.

Cle

aran

ce to

o gr

eat

3. T

oo m

uch

rake

(thi

n w

eb a

s de

scrib

ed)

1. T

oo m

uch

clea

ranc

e2.

Fee

d lig

ht3.

Dril

l ove

rhan

g to

o gr

eat

4. T

oo m

uch

rake

(thi

n w

eb a

s de

scrib

ed)

1. F

eed

too

heav

y2.

Dril

l not

cen

tere

d3.

Dril

l gro

und

off-

cent

er

1. D

rill g

roun

d of

f-ce

nter

2. W

eb to

o th

ick

3. In

suffi

cien

t cle

aran

ce4.

Fee

d ra

te to

o he

avy

5. P

oint

ang

le to

o gr

eat

1. D

ull d

rill

2. T

oo m

uch

clea

ranc

e3.

Poi

nt a

ngle

too

smal

l

1. F

eed

too

heav

y2.

Spi

ndle

spe

ed to

o sl

ow3.

Dril

l ent

ers

next

pie

ce to

o fa

r4.

Cut

-off

tool

leav

es n

ib,

w

hich

defl

ects

dril

l5.

Web

too

thic

k6.

Dril

l spe

ed to

o he

avy

at s

tart

7. D

rill n

ot m

ount

ed o

n ce

nter

8. D

rill n

ot s

harp

ened

cor

rect

ly

1. D

ull c

ut-o

ff to

ol2.

Dril

l doe

s no

t pas

s co

mpl

etel

y th

roug

h pi

ece

1. F

eed

too

light

of d

rill

2. S

pind

le s

peed

too

fast

3. In

suffi

cien

t lub

ricat

ion

from

coo

lant

TAPE

RED

HOLE

BURN

T OR

MEL

TED

SURF

ACE

CHIP

PING

OF

SURF

ACES

CHAT

TER

FEED

MAR

KS O

R SP

IRAL

LIN

ES O

N IN

SIDE

DIA

MET

ER OV

ERSI

ZE H

OLES

UNDE

RSIZ

E HO

LES

HOLE

S NO

T CO

NCEN

TRIC

BURR

AT

CUT-

OFF

RAPI

D DU

LLIN

G OF

DRI

LL

NOTES

15

Proteus® PP, Quadrant® PC 1000, Quadrant® PSU,

Quadrant® PPSU and Duratron® PEI based materials


Symalit®






TIVAR® UHMW-PE,Nylatron® PA6, Acetron® POM based materials



Tooth Form

MaterialThickness

PitchTeeth/In.

Band SpeedsFt./Min.

Precision Butress

10-14 6 3 3

2,500 2,000 1,5003,000

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

10-14 6 3 3

3,500 3,000 2,5004,000

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

4,300 3,500 3,0005,000

10-14 6 3 3

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

10-14 6 3 3

3,500 3,000 2,5004,000

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

3,500 3,000 2,5004,000

Precision Butress

10-14 6-8 3 3

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

2,5003,000

Precision

10-14 6-8

<.5" .5"-1.0"

1,5002,000

3 3

1.0"-3.0" >3.0"

Butress

4,300 3,500 3,0005,000

Precision Butress

10-14 6-8 3 3

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

4,300 3,500 3,0005,000

10-14 6-8 3 3

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

3,000 1,500

10 10

.375"-1.0" 1.0"-2.0"

SAWING GUIDELINES


16




Symalit®









Tooth Form

MaterialThickness

PitchTeeth/In.

Band SpeedsFt./Min.

Precision Butress

10-14 6 3 3

2,500 2,000 1,5003,000

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

10-14 6 3 3

3,500 3,000 2,5004,000

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

4,300 3,500 3,0005,000

10-14 6 3 3

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

10-14 6 3 3

3,500 3,000 2,5004,000

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

3,500 3,000 2,5004,000

Precision Butress

10-14 6-8 3 3

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

2,5003,000

Precision

10-14 6-8

<.5" .5"-1.0"

1,5002,000

3 3

1.0"-3.0" >3.0"

Butress

4,300 3,500 3,0005,000

Precision Butress

10-14 6-8 3 3

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

4,300 3,500 3,0005,000

10-14 6-8 3 3

<.5" >3.0".5"-1.0" 1.0"-3.0"

Precision Butress

3,000 1,500

10 10

.375"-1.0" 1.0"-2.0"

17(1) For Fluorosint® MT01 PTFE contact Quadrant’s Technical Service Team

Depthof Cut

RecommendCarbide

Speed,Feet/Min.

Feed,In./Tooth

0.2500.050

270 - 450300 - 500

0.002, 0.003, 0.005,0.008, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.2500.050

270 - 450300 - 500

0.002, 0.003, 0.005,0.008, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.2500.050

270 - 450300 - 500

0.002, 0.003, 0.005,0.008, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.1500.060

500 - 750

0.0200.005

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.2500.050

270 - 450300 - 500

0.002, 0.003, 0.005,0.008, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.1500.060

500 - 700550 - 750

0.0100.005

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.035

500 - 800

0.006 - 0.035

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.015

250 - 350

0.002 - 0.006

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"


Quadrant® PPSU andDuratron® PEI based materials


Symalit®






TIVAR® UHMW-PE,Nylatron® PA6, Acetron® POM

based materialsKetron® PEEK based materials

END MILLING/SLOTTING GUIDELINES


18(1) For Fluorosint® MT01 PTFE contact Quadrant’s Technical Service Team

Depthof Cut

RecommendCarbide

Speed,Feet/Min.

Feed,In./Tooth

0.2500.050

270 - 450300 - 500

0.002, 0.003, 0.005,0.008, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.2500.050

270 - 450300 - 500

0.002, 0.003, 0.005,0.008, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.2500.050

270 - 450300 - 500

0.002, 0.003, 0.005,0.008, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.1500.060

500 - 750

0.0200.005

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.2500.050

270 - 450300 - 500

0.002, 0.003, 0.005,0.008, 0.001, 0.002, 0.004

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.1500.060

500 - 700550 - 750

0.0100.005

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.035

500 - 800

0.006 - 0.035

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"

0.015

250 - 350

0.002 - 0.006

1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 1", 2",1/4", 1/2", 3/4"


Quadrant® PPSU andDuratron® PEI based materials


Symalit®








Climb milling is recommended over conventional milling (See Figure 1, Page 31).

MILLING TIPS

19

500 - 700550 - 750

0.1500.060


Depthof Cut

Speed,Feet/Min.

Feed,In./Tooth




Symalit®PVDF and ECTFE based materials







0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

0.1500.060

0.0200.005

500 - 750

0.1500.060

270 - 450300 - 500

0.0200.005

0.0100.005

0.035

500 - 800

0.006 - 0.035

0.015

250 - 350

0.002 - 0.006

0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

FACE MILLING (C-2, Carbide Tool)


20

500 - 700550 - 750

0.1500.060


Depthof Cut

Speed,Feet/Min.

Feed,In./Tooth




Symalit®PVDF and ECTFE based materials







0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

0.1500.060

0.0200.005

500 - 750

0.1500.060

270 - 450300 - 500

0.0200.005

0.0100.005

0.035

500 - 800

0.006 - 0.035

0.015

250 - 350

0.002 - 0.006

0.1500.060

1300 - 15001500 - 2000

0.0200.005

MILLING TIPSClimb milling is recommended over conventional milling (See Figure 1, Page 31).

21

Mel

ted

Surfa

ce1.

Du

ll to

ol2.

In

suffi

cien

t sid

e cl

eara

nce

3.

Insu

ffici

ant c

oola

nt s

uppl

y

1.

Feed

too

heav

y2.

To

ol im

prop

erly

sha

rpen

ed3.

Cu

tting

edg

e no

t hon

ed

1.

Tool

rubs

dur

ing

its re

treat

2.

Burr

on

poin

t of t

ool

1.

Poin

t ang

le to

o gr

eat

2.

Tool

not

per

pend

icul

ar to

spi

ndle

3.

Tool

def

lect

ing

4.

Feed

too

heav

y5.

To

ol m

ount

ed a

bove

or

be

low

cen

ter

1.

Poin

t ang

le n

ot g

reat

eno

ugh

2.

Tool

dul

l3.

Fe

ed to

o he

avy

1.

No c

ham

ber b

efor

e cu

t-of

f

diam

eter

2.

Dull

tool

Roug

h Fi

nish

Spira

l Mar

ks

Conc

ave

or

Co

nvex

Sur

face

s

Nib

s or

Bur

rsat

Cut

-off

Poin

t

Burr

s on

Out

side

Diam

eter

Mel

ted

Surfa

ce

Roug

h Fi

nish

Chat

ter

Burr

s at

Edg

e of

Cut

Crac

king

or

Chip

ping

of

Corn

ers

1.

Tool

dul

l or h

eel r

ubbi

ng2.

In

suffi

cien

t sid

e cl

eara

nce

3.

Feed

rate

too

slow

4.

Spin

dle

spee

d to

o fa

st

1.

Feed

too

heav

y2.

In

corr

ect c

lear

ance

ang

les

3.

Shar

p po

int o

n to

ol

(slig

ht n

ose

radi

us re

quire

d)4.

To

ol n

ot m

ount

ed o

n ce

nter

1.

No c

ham

fer p

rovi

ded

at

sh

arp

corn

ers

2.

Dull

tool

3.

Insu

ffici

ent s

ide

clea

ranc

e4.

Le

ad a

ngle

not

pro

vide

d on

to

ol (t

ool s

houl

d ea

se o

ut o

f

cut g

radu

ally,

not

sud

denl

y)

1.

Too

muc

h po

sitiv

e ra

ke o

n to

ol2.

To

ol n

ot e

ased

into

cut

(to

ol s

udde

nly

hits

wor

k)3.

Du

ll to

ol4.

To

ol m

ount

ed b

elow

cen

ter

5.

Shar

p po

int o

n to

ol

(slig

ht n

ose

radi

us re

quire

d)

1.

Too

muc

h no

se ra

dius

on

tool

2.

Tool

not

mou

nted

sol

idly

3.

Mat

eria

l not

sup

porte

d pr

oper

ly4.

W

idth

of c

ut to

o w

ide

(use

2 c

uts)

DIFF

ICUL

TY

COM

MON

CAU

SE


TURNING & BORING NOTES

22

Mel

ted

Surfa

ce1.

Du

ll to

ol2.

In

suffi

cien

t sid

e cl

eara

nce

3.

Insu

ffici

ant c

oola

nt s

uppl

y

1.

Feed

too

heav

y2.

To

ol im

prop

erly

sha

rpen

ed3.

Cu

tting

edg

e no

t hon

ed

1.

Tool

rubs

dur

ing

its re

treat

2.

Burr

on

poin

t of t

ool

1.

Poin

t ang

le to

o gr

eat

2.

Tool

not

per

pend

icul

ar to

spi

ndle

3.

Tool

def

lect

ing

4.

Feed

too

heav

y5.

To

ol m

ount

ed a

bove

or

be

low

cen

ter

1.

Poin

t ang

le n

ot g

reat

eno

ugh

2.

Tool

dul

l3.

Fe

ed to

o he

avy

1.

No c

ham

ber b

efor

e cu

t-of

f

diam

eter

2.

Dull

tool

Roug

h Fi

nish

Spira

l Mar

ks

Conc

ave

or

Co

nvex

Sur

face

s

Nib

s or

Bur

rsat

Cut

-off

Poin

t

Burr

s on

Out

side

Diam

eter

Mel

ted

Surfa

ce

Roug

h Fi

nish

Chat

ter

Burr

s at

Edg

e of

Cut

Crac

king

or

Chip

ping

of

Corn

ers

1.

Tool

dul

l or h

eel r

ubbi

ng2.

In

suffi

cien

t sid

e cl

eara

nce

3.

Feed

rate

too

slow

4.

Spin

dle

spee

d to

o fa

st

1.

Feed

too

heav

y2.

In

corr

ect c

lear

ance

ang

les

3.

Shar

p po

int o

n to

ol

(slig

ht n

ose

radi

us re

quire

d)4.

To

ol n

ot m

ount

ed o

n ce

nter

1.

No c

ham

fer p

rovi

ded

at

sh

arp

corn

ers

2.

Dull

tool

3.

Insu

ffici

ent s

ide

clea

ranc

e4.

Le

ad a

ngle

not

pro

vide

d on

to

ol (t

ool s

houl

d ea

se o

ut o

f

cut g

radu

ally,

not

sud

denl

y)

1.

Too

muc

h po

sitiv

e ra

ke o

n to

ol2.

To

ol n

ot e

ased

into

cut

(to

ol s

udde

nly

hits

wor

k)3.

Du

ll to

ol4.

To

ol m

ount

ed b

elow

cen

ter

5.

Shar

p po

int o

n to

ol

(slig

ht n

ose

radi

us re

quire

d)

1.

Too

muc

h no

se ra

dius

on

tool

2.

Tool

not

mou

nted

sol

idly

3.

Mat

eria

l not

sup

porte

d pr

oper

ly4.

W

idth

of c

ut to

o w

ide

(use

2 c

uts)

DIFF

ICUL

TY

COM

MON

CAU

SE

CUTTING OFF NOTESNOTES

23

Turning Guidelines (C-2, Carbide Tool)

www.quadrantplastics.comNOTESTurning Tips

Inserts with positive geometries and ground peripheries • Use Recommended Turning Tooling Geometry (See Diagram 2, page 32).

Nylatron®, Nylon (PA), Acetron®,Polycarbonate (PC), Polysulfone (PSU) and Ultem® PEI based materials

Fluorosint® PTFE basedmaterials

Depthof Cut

.150" deep cut

.025" deep cut.150" deep cut.025" deep cut

.150" deep cut

.025" deep cut

500 - 600600 - 700

350 - 500500 - 600

600 - 1000600 - 700

.010 - .015

.004 - .007.010 - .015.003 - .008

0.150" deep cut0.025" deep cut

350 - 500500 - 600

0.010 - 0.0150.003 - 0.008

.010 - .016

.004 - .007

.025" deep cut

150 - 225

.002 - .006

SpeedFeet/Min.

Feed,In./Min.

Ketron® PEEK based

materials

Ertalyte®

PET based materials

Torlon® (PAI) based

materialsCelazole® PBI

Techtron®

PPS based materials

0.015 - 0.25


Depthof Cut

Speed,Feet/Min.

Feed,In./Rev




Symalit®




Duratron®

PBIbased materials





500 - 600600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0150.004 - 0.007


600 - 1000600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0160.004 - 0.007


500 - 600600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0150.004 - 0.007


100 - 300250 - 500

0.010 - 0.0200.005 - 0.010

0.025" deep cut

300 - 800

0.004 - 0.025

0.025" deep cut

150 - 225

0.002 - 0.006


500 - 600600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0150.004 - 0.007


500 - 600600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0150.004 - 0.007


TURNING GUIDELINES (C-2, Carbide Tool)

24

Inserts with positive geometries and ground peripheries• Use Recommended Turning Tooling Geometry (See Figure 2, page 32).

Turning Guidelines (C-2, Carbide Tool)

www.quadrantplastics.comNOTESTurning Tips

Inserts with positive geometries and ground peripheries • Use Recommended Turning Tooling Geometry (See Diagram 2, page 32).

Nylatron®, Nylon (PA), Acetron®,Polycarbonate (PC), Polysulfone (PSU) and Ultem® PEI based materials

Fluorosint® PTFE basedmaterials

Depthof Cut

.150" deep cut

.025" deep cut.150" deep cut.025" deep cut

.150" deep cut

.025" deep cut

500 - 600600 - 700

350 - 500500 - 600

600 - 1000600 - 700

.010 - .015

.004 - .007.010 - .015.003 - .008


350 - 500500 - 600

0.010 - 0.0150.003 - 0.008

.010 - .016

.004 - .007

.025" deep cut

150 - 225

.002 - .006

SpeedFeet/Min.

Feed,In./Min.

Ketron® PEEK based

materials

Ertalyte®

PET based materials

Torlon® (PAI) based

materialsCelazole® PBI

Techtron®

PPS based materials

0.015 - 0.25


Depthof Cut

Speed,Feet/Min.

Feed,In./Rev




Symalit®




Duratron®

PBIbased materials





500 - 600600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0150.004 - 0.007


600 - 1000600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0160.004 - 0.007


500 - 600600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0150.004 - 0.007


100 - 300250 - 500

0.010 - 0.0200.005 - 0.010

0.025" deep cut

300 - 800

0.004 - 0.025

0.025" deep cut

150 - 225

0.002 - 0.006


500 - 600600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0150.004 - 0.007


500 - 600600 - 700

0.010 - 0.0150.004 - 0.007

TURNING TIPS

25

WHEN SHOULD PARTS BE ANNEALED AFTER MACHINING TO ENSURE OPTIMUM PART PERFORMANCE?Experience has shown us that very few machined plastic parts require annealing after machining to meet dimensional or performance requirements.

All Quadrant stock shapes are annealed using a proprietary stress relieving cycle to minimize any internal stresses that may result from the manufacturing process. This assures you that the material will remain dimensionally stable during and after machining.

Machined-in stress can reduce part performance and lead to premature part failure. To prevent machined-in stress, it is important to identify the causes.

MACHINED-IN STRESS IS CREATED BY:

• Using dull or improperly designed tooling

• Excessive heat – generated from inappropriate speeds and feed rates

• Machining away large volumes of material – usually from one side of the stock shape

To reduce the potential for machined-in stress, review the fabrication guidelines for the specific material. Recognize that guidelines change as the material type changes.


ANNEALING

26

IMPROVED CHEMICAL RESISTANCEPolycarbonate, polysulfone, and Duratron® PEI, like many amorphous (transparent) plastics may be annealed to minimize stress crazing. Duratron® PAI also benefits from post machining annealing. Annealing finished parts becomes more important as machining volume increases. Annealing after machining reduces ˝machined-in˝ stresses that can contribute to premature failure.

BETTER FLATNESS AND TIGHTER TOLERANCE CAPABILITYExtremely close–tolerance parts requiring precision flatness and non-symmetrical contour sometimes require intermediate annealing between machining operations. Improved flatness can be attained by rough machining, annealing and finish machining with a very light cut. Balanced machining on both sides of the shape centerline can also help prevent warpage.

IMPROVED WEAR RESISTANCEExtruded or injection molded Duratron®

PAI parts that require high PV’s or the lowest possible wear factor benefit from an additional cure after machining. This curing process optimizes the wear properties. Only Duratron® PAI benefits from such a cycle.

MACHINED-IN STRESS IS CREATED BY:BENEFITS OF POST-MACHINING ANNEALING

POST MACHINING


POST MACHINING AIR ANNEALING GUIDELINES

Type 6 Nylons

Type 6/6 Nylons

Ertalyte® PET-P

Acetron® GP POM-C

Acetron® POM-H

Quadrant® PC 1000

Quadrant® PSU

4 hours to 300˚ F

4 hours to 350˚ F

4 hours to 350˚ F

4 hours to 310˚ F

4 hours to 320˚ F

4 hours to 275˚ F

4 hours to 330˚ F

30 minutes per 1/4” Thickness







50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

Oil or Nitrogen

Oil or Nitrogen

Oil or Nitrogen

Nitrogen or Air

Nitrogen or Air

Air

Air

• Ensure parts are fixtured to desired shape or flatness. • Do not unfixture until parts have completed entire cycle and are cool to the touch. • Do not take short-cuts.

MATERIAL HEAT UP HOLD COOL DOWN ENVIRONMENT

28

Finish machining of critical dimensions should be performed after annealing.

IMPORTANT: Annealing cycles have been generalized to apply to a majority of machined parts. Changes in heat up and hold time may be possible if cross sections are thin. Parts should be fixtured during annealing to prevent distortion.

Type 6 Nylons

Type 6/6 Nylons

Ertalyte® PET-P

Acetron® GP POM-C

Acetron® POM-H

Quadrant® PC 1000

Quadrant® PSU

4 hours to 300˚ F

4 hours to 350˚ F

4 hours to 350˚ F

4 hours to 310˚ F

4 hours to 320˚ F

4 hours to 275˚ F

4 hours to 330˚ F








50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

Oil or Nitrogen

Oil or Nitrogen

Oil or Nitrogen

Nitrogen or Air

Nitrogen or Air

Air

Air


MATERIAL HEAT UP HOLD COOL DOWN ENVIRONMENTTIP:


POST MACHINING AIR ANNEALING GUIDELINES


MATERIAL

Quadrant® PPSUDuratron® PEI

Duratron® PAI

Duratron® PI

Techtron® PPS

Ketron® PEEK

4 hours to 390˚ F

4 hours to 350˚ F

4 hours to 300˚ F4 hours to 375˚ F4 hours to 300˚ F4 hours to 420˚ F4 hours to 470˚ F4 hours to 500˚ F4 hours to 300˚ F4 hours to 450˚ F4 hours to 600˚ F

30 minutes per 1/4” thickness

30 minutes per 1/4” thickness60 minutes per 1/4” thickness60 minutes per 1/4” thickness

60 minutes per 1/4” thickness60 minutes per 1/4” thickness

1 day1 day1 day

3 to 10 days

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

Nitrogen or Air

Air

Air

Air

Air

HEAT UP HOLD COOL DOWN ENVIRONMENT

30


MATERIAL

Quadrant® PPSUDuratron® PEI

Duratron® PAI

Duratron® PI

Techtron® PPS

Ketron® PEEK

4 hours to 390˚ F

4 hours to 350˚ F

4 hours to 300˚ F4 hours to 375˚ F4 hours to 300˚ F4 hours to 420˚ F4 hours to 470˚ F4 hours to 500˚ F4 hours to 300˚ F4 hours to 450˚ F4 hours to 600˚ F

30 minutes per 1/4” thickness

30 minutes per 1/4” thickness60 minutes per 1/4” thickness60 minutes per 1/4” thickness

60 minutes per 1/4” thickness60 minutes per 1/4” thickness

1 day1 day1 day

3 to 10 days

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

50˚ F per hour

Nitrogen or Air

Air

Air

Air

Air

HEAT UP HOLD COOL DOWN ENVIRONMENT

Finish machining of critical dimensions should be performed after annealing.

IMPORTANT: Annealing cycles have been generalized to apply to a majority of machined parts. Changes in heat up and hold time may be possible if cross sections are thin. Parts should be fixtured during annealing to prevent distortion.

TIP:

31

CUTTERROTATION

TABLE FEED

CUTTERROTATION

TABLE FEED

CLIMB MILLING CONVENTIONAL MILLING


CLIMB MILLING VS. CONVENTIONAL MILLING 1

FIG

32

5˚

5˚

3˚30'

3˚30' 11̊

CPG

RECOMMENDED TURNING TOOLING GEOMETRY 2

FIG

33

FRAC

TION

S D

ECIM

AL

M

M

.015

6.0

312

.046

8.0

625

.078

1.0

937

.109

3.1

25.1

406

.156

2.1

718

.187

5.2

031

.218

7.2

343

.250

.265

6.2

812

.296

8.3

125

.328

1.3

437

.359

3.3

75.3

906

.406

2.4

218

.437

5.4

531

.468

7.4

843

.500

.515

6.5

312

.546

8.5

625

.578

1 .5

937

.609

3.6

25.6

406

.656

2.6

781

.687

5.7

031

.718

7.7

343

.750

.765

6.7

812

.796

8.8

125

.828

1.8

437

.859

3.8

75.8

906

.906

2.9

218

.937

5.9

531

.968

7.9

843

1.00

0

1/64

1/32

3/64

1/16

5/64

3/32

7/64 1/8

9/64

5/32

11/6

43/

1613

/64

7/32

15/6

41/

417

/64

9/32

19/6

45/

1621

/64

11/3

223

/64

3/8

25/6

413

/32

27/6

47/

1629

/64

15/3

231

/64

1/2

33/6

417

/32

35/6

49/

16

37/6

419

/32

39/6

45/

841

/64

21/3

243

/64

11/1

645

/64

23/3

247

/64

3/4

49/6

425

/32

51/6

413

/16

53/6

427

/32

55/6

47/

857

/64

29/3

259

/64

15/1

661

/64

31/3

263

/64

1

0.

396

0.

793

1.

190

1.

587

1.

984

2.

381

2.

778

3.

175

3.

571

3.

968

4.

365

4.

762

5.

159

5.

556

5.

953

6.

350

6.

746

7.

143

7.

540

7.

937

8.

334

8.

731

9.

128

9.

525

9.

921

10.

318

10.

715

11.

112

11.

509

11.

906

12.

303

12.

700

13.

096

13.

493

13.

890

14.

287

14.6

84 1

5.08

1 1

5.47

8 1

5.87

5 1

6.27

1 1

6.66

8 1

7.06

5 1

7.46

2 1

7.85

9 1

8.25

6 1

8.65

3 1

9.05

0 1

9.44

6 1

9.84

3 2

0.24

0 2

0.63

7 2

1.03

4 2

1.43

1 2

1.82

8 2

2.22

5 2

2.62

1 2

3.01

8 2

3.41

5 2

3.81

2 2

4.20

9 2

4.60

6 2

5.00

3 2

5.40

0

ww

w.q

uadr

antp

last

ics.

com

CONVERSIONS


34

FRAC

TION

S D

ECIM

AL

M

M

.015

6.0

312

.046

8.0

625

.078

1.0

937

.109

3.1

25.1

406

.156

2.1

718

.187

5.2

031

.218

7.2

343

.250

.265

6.2

812

.296

8.3

125

.328

1.3

437

.359

3.3

75.3

906

.406

2.4

218

.437

5.4

531

.468

7.4

843

.500

.515

6.5

312

.546

8.5

625

.578

1 .5

937

.609

3.6

25.6

406

.656

2.6

781

.687

5.7

031

.718

7.7

343

.750

.765

6.7

812

.796

8.8

125

.828

1.8

437

.859

3.8

75.8

906

.906

2.9

218

.937

5.9

531

.968

7.9

843

1.00

0

1/64

1/32

3/64

1/16

5/64

3/32

7/64 1/8

9/64

5/32

11/6

43/

1613

/64

7/32

15/6

41/

417

/64

9/32

19/6

45/

1621

/64

11/3

223

/64

3/8

25/6

413

/32

27/6

47/

1629

/64

15/3

231

/64

1/2

33/6

417

/32

35/6

49/

16

37/6

419

/32

39/6

45/

841

/64

21/3

243

/64

11/1

645

/64

23/3

247

/64

3/4

49/6

425

/32

51/6

413

/16

53/6

427

/32

55/6

47/

857

/64

29/3

259

/64

15/1

661

/64

31/3

263

/64

1

0.

396

0.

793

1.

190

1.

587

1.

984

2.

381

2.

778

3.

175

3.

571

3.

968

4.

365

4.

762

5.

159

5.

556

5.

953

6.

350

6.

746

7.

143

7.

540

7.

937

8.

334

8.

731

9.

128

9.

525

9.

921

10.

318

10.

715

11.

112

11.

509

11.

906

12.

303

12.

700

13.

096

13.

493

13.

890

14.

287

14.6

84 1

5.08

1 1

5.47

8 1

5.87

5 1

6.27

1 1

6.66

8 1

7.06

5 1

7.46

2 1

7.85

9 1

8.25

6 1

8.65

3 1

9.05

0 1

9.44

6 1

9.84

3 2

0.24

0 2

0.63

7 2

1.03

4 2

1.43

1 2

1.82

8 2

2.22

5 2

2.62

1 2

3.01

8 2

3.41

5 2

3.81

2 2

4.20

9 2

4.60

6 2

5.00

3 2

5.40

0

ww

w.q

uadr

antp

last

ics.

com

NOTES

35

NOTES


QUADRANT MATERIAL SELECTOR

Explore the industry’s broadest family of engineering

plastic products, online! The perfect match for your

application, environment and performance level is

just a few clicks away.

The global industry leader replacing metals & alloys by delivering STRONGER, LIGHTER-WEIGHT plastic & polymer materials with superior corrosion & extreme temperature resistance


450˚F(230˚C)

250˚F(120˚C)

150˚F (65˚C)

Duratron® PBIDuratron® PI

Duratron® PAI

Duratron® PBIDuratron® PIDuratron® PAI

Ketron® PEEK*Techtron® PPS

Symalit® PVDF/ECTFEFlourosint® PTFE*

Ertalyte® PET-PNylatron® PA

Acetron® POM*TIVAR® UHMW-PE

Semitron® ESdDuratron® PEI*Quadrant® PPSUQuadrant® PSU

Quadrant® PC

Quadrant® PPO

PVCProteus® PP

Sanalite® HPE/PPLDPE

*Available in Semitron® static dissapative grades.

STRUCTURAL BEARING & WEAR

THERMOPLASTICS & THERMOSETSPlastics are commonly described as being either a thermoplastic (meltable) or a thermoset (non meltable). Thermoset materials such as phenolic and epoxy were developed as early as 1900 and were some of the earliest ˝high volume˝ plastics. Both thermoplastic and thermoset stock shapes are available for machined parts, although thermoplastic stock shapes are much more commonly used today. Their ease of fabrication, self-lubricating characteristics, and broad size and shape availability make thermoplastics ideal for bearing and wear parts as well as structural components.

quadrantplastics.com

All statements, technical information and recommendations contained in this publication are presented in good faith, based upon tests believed to be reliable and practical field experience. The reader is cautioned, however, that Quadrant Engineering Plastic Products does not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of this information and it is the customer’s responsibility to determine the suitability of Quadrant’s products in any given application. Acetron, CleanStat, Corzan, Duraspin, Duratron, Erta, Ertacetal, Ertalene, Ertalon, Ertalyte, Extreme Materials, Fluorosint, Ketron, MC, Monocast, Novatron, Nylatrack, Nylatron, Polypenco, Proteus, Sanalite, Semitron, Symalit, Techtron, TIVAR, Ultrawear and Vibratuf are registered trademarks of the Quadrant group of companies. * Classix is a registered trademark of Invibio Ltd. Corp.* Rulon is a registered trademark of Saint Gobain Performance Plastics * Torlon and Udel are registered trademarks of Solvay Advanced Polymers * Vespel, Delrin and Teflon are registered trademarks of E.I. DuPont * Noryl and Lexan are registered trademarks of GE Plastics* Celazole is a registered trademark of PBI Performance Products, Inc. * Kynar is a registered trademark of Arkema* Corzan is a registered trademark of Noveon

Design and content created by Quadrant Engineering Plastic Products and are protected by copyright law. Copyright © 2014 The Quadrant group of companies. All rights reserved.

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