QiLi I for4 xoatorfcrf UnMrtHy LtaWWGDept. of 3p«c«rf Co»»cSon6

Col J&^M* TUte-

; hoi. imeFo!

615

Conclusions interstitial water is non-Newtonian. 9- For example, the Eocene Jackson

fauna

ap-In a few areas, called embayments, T^Lt^Z^gZltT^nTt^

The complex down-to-the-basin the growth faulting caused certainstrati-

of

the Fno in the J. p. Owen Fontenot No. 1

Qrowth faults of southern Louisiana graphic units to be abnormally thick, formation was absent ° Wh°le VicksburBbpear to have been caused by slumping and the abnormal pressures are found at 10- Ji'7E-5:annon and R- c- Craze*

Trans,

aimelong the edge of the continental shelf particularly shallow depths. Salt domes 11. Q. ' Dickinson, ' Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol.Storing sedimentation. The toes of the are notably scarce in the embayments, 12. Sr^X^,4^^'^6> 3 (1965).slides must resemble low-angle over- probably because the shales never be- 13. c. e. Hottman and r. k. Johnson, j. Petrol.

thrusts, with repetition of section. Al- came denseenough to make the salt rise Tec*"°l

196S

* 7n (1965).a. . , aa-

t.

, jar j14. L. F. Athy, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geolo-tnough such repetition has never been and form domes. gists

u,

i (1930); h. d. Hedburg, Amer. i."at^a^reported, one may expect to find it in „ . J„ . ld- 31- 241 (1936)-

-1 1. , _ - ' References and Notes 15. I>. G. Williams, W. (). Brown. J. J. Wooddrilling deep, off-shore Wells.

Oil

Gas J.

63,

No.

41,

145 (1965).tl r i

a, r,

r 1- s- w-

Lowman,

Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. ,j , „.„ „, . '. _ ' , .■aaaa^B The growth faults Seal the flow of Geologists

33,

1939 (1949); L. L. Limes and 16' ?' £" Hl": W , A- Colburn, J. W. Knight,

■atflllids and down-din from them ah J- C. Stipe, Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc.

Geol.

'" Ec°"°m> cs ff Petroleum Exploration andana, down dip trom them, ab-

Soc

, ?? (1959). w R' pajne „Geology

of

Property Evaluation (Prentice-Hall, Newhigh pressures are found. The Acadia and Jefferson Davis

Parishes," Geol.

,n „?',.' °P' ~- »' "» ■ J . . , ,

Surv

r ol,iuana Bull No ?n

C1962,

17. P. F. Lovi, in Proceedings Bth National Con-haleS m these lntervals are less

Com

" 2. nkv££rJ__?<w'ciL(A2L Geol. >" °\

C

'^,J"d

C

'<" M"'al° <**■C^^P%d than is usual at the depth at Soc.

16,

261 (1966). ,„ «amon' °. °rd' 1960)' pp' 170~ 182'%. u-M.au u " j

t,

a 3. R. D

Ocamb,

ibid 11 139 (1961) 18- Many other characteristics

of

the reservoirswhJl they are buried. The normal 4c E

fhorsen,

ibid.

13,

103 (1963).' were tabulated* a<i<* the data were stored onprocesses of Compaction and diaeenesis 5 - The stratigraphic horizons shown on' the cross a ,digital maBnetic tape together with other

aa u au e ia- tlsection ar<= "Ot the

first

appearance

of

for- ?ata on baslc "servoir

factors

supplied bywere arrested by the faulting. The pore aminifera species, as might be supposed from interstate pipelines purchasing

gas

in southernwater has remained in the sediments ,he name- They are recognizable and well- Louisiana. Copies of the tape

may

be ob-Wdter nas remained in me sediments, established

features of

the electrical log com- aln".

from

the Fed"a* Power

Commission,

where It has tO Support part of the monly used for correlation. They are prob- Washington, D.C.weight of the overburden, and its hydro- „ &"£& Engineer. * %J_ llTk '&3s).**

C

"" *"*Static pressure is, therefore, much above ing

Practice,"

Nat. Acad. Sci.-Nat. Res. 20- M. K. Hubbert and W. W. Rubey, Bull. Geol._. „. Tll u- 1. u ..l . Council Pub. 544 (1958). p. 40.

Soc

Amer. 70, 115 (1959).normal. The high pressures show that 7. D.

G

Moore and(j R.'drray, /. Geophys. 21. R. O. Steinhoff, Oil Gas J.

65,

178 (1967).these shales have extremely low perme- Res- **. "25 (1963). 22. The work discussed here was supported inability to water, perhaps because their

8

"

KS^w"''' nJ.'gp" m?"* SdenCe F°undati°n gram

tions of achievement have been poor inconnection with the initial stages oflearning to read, in spelling, and in thearts. The defender of the IQ test mightsay that intelligence is not involved insuch subjects. But he would not only bewrong, he would also be dodging prob-lems.

Intelligence Has Three Facets

There are numerous intellectual abilities, but theyfall neatly into a rational system. One Intelligence, or Many Abilities?

The father of IQ tests, Alfred Binet,believed firmly that intelligence is a verycomplexaffair, comprising a number ofdifferent abilities, and he manifestedthis

J. P. Guilford

conviction by introducing tests of manyMany a layman who has taken a Intelligence-quotient tests were origi- kinds into his composite scale. He didpsychologist's intelligence test, especial- nated more than 60 years ago for the not know what the component abilitiesly if he did not do as well as he thought purpose of determining which children are, although he suggested that therehe should, has the conviction that a could not learn at normal rates. This are several different kinds of memoryscore, such as an IQ, does not tell the meant that the content of IQ tests for example. He went along with thewhole story regarding intelligence. In weights heavily those intellectual abil- idea of using a single, overall scorethinking so, he is absolutelyright; tradi- ities that are pertinent to school learn- since the immediate practical goal wastional intelligence tests fall far short of ing in the key subjects of reading and to make a single administrative decisionindicating fully an individual's intellec- arithmetic, and other subjects that de- regarding each child,tual status. Just how far short and in pend directly upon them or are of sim- Test-makers following Binet werewhat respects have not been well real- ilar nature psychologically. IQ tests mostly unconcerned about having alzed until very recent years during (and also academic-aptitude tests, which basic psychological theory for intelli-which thewhole scope of human intelli- are essentially similar) predict less well gence tests, anotherexample of technol-gence has been intensively investigated. at educational levels higher than the ogy running far in advance of theory.This is not to say that IQ tests are elementary grades, for at higher levelsnot

useful,

for they definitely are, as subject matter becomes more varied. Dr- Guilford is emeritus professor of psychoi-years of experience have demonstrated. Even at the elementary level, predic- du^or^^A^e^^^^t.^10 MAY 1968

SCIENCE,

VOL. 160616

There was some concern about theoryin England, however, where CharlesSpearman developed a procedure offactor analysis by which it became pos-sible to discover component abilities(1). Spearman was obsessed with a veryrestricting conception that there is auniversal g factor that is common to alltests that have any claim to the label of"intelligence tests," where each test hasits own unique kind of items or prob-lems. His research, and that of others inhis country, found, however, that corre-lations between tests could not be fullyaccounted for on the basis of a singlecommon factor (2). They had to admitthe existence of a number of "group"factors in addition to g. For example,sets of tests having verbal, numerical, orspatial material, respectively, correlatedhigher within sets than with tests inother sets. The extra correlation amongtests within sets was attributed to addi-tional abilities each of limited scope.

Factor analyses in the United Stateshave followed almost exclusively themultiple-factor theory of Thurstone (3),which is more general thanSpearman's.In Thurstone's conception, a g factor isnot necessary but analysis by his meth-ods would be likely to find it if the in-tercorrelations warrant such a result. Itis not necessary to know the mathe-matics basic to factor theory in ordertofollow the remaining content of thisarticle, but for those who wish addi-tional insights the next few paragraphspresent the minimum essentials of amathematical basis. To all readers itmay be said that factor analysis is asensitive procedure, which, when prop-erly used, can answer the taxonomicquestions of what intellectual abilitiesor functions exist and what their prop-erties are.

The basic equation in multiple-factortheory, in matrix form, is Z = FC,where Z is a matrix of test scores, oforder n by N, where N individuals haveall taken n different tests. Z indicatesthat the scores are in standard form,that is, each element z — (X — X)/sx,where X is a_"raw" score on an arbi-trary scale, X is the mean of the rawscores in the sample of N individuals,and Sj, is the standard deviation. In thebasic equation, F stands for the "com-plete factor matrix," which is of ordern by (r + n), where r is the number ofcommon factors. The addition of n col-umns indicates that there are n specificfactors or components, one for eachtest. In this matrix, fi} is the loadingorweight for test / in connection with

factor J. C is of the order (r + «) by Nand represents the scores of N individu-als on (r + n) factors. The basic equa-tion means that for each individual hisstandard score z i( in a particular test isa weighted sum of his (r 4- n) factorscores, each factor score also in stan-dard form. An assumption for this formof the equation is that the factors areorthogonal (uncorrelated) variables.

The factor-analysis problem is to de-rive the matrix of common-factor load-ings, A, given the score matrix for Nindividuals in n tests. The interest is inonly the r common factors. The anal-ysis ordinarily starts with intercorrela-tions among the n tests. The reduced(specifics ignored) intercorrelationma-trix R is mathematically related to thefactor matrix A by the equation R =AA', where A represents only thecommon-factor components in F, andA' is the transposeof A. R can be com-puted from empirical data by the equa-tion R =ZZ'/N. Starting with the com-puted correlation matrixR, the problemis to find the common-factor matrix A.Methods for accomplishing this opera-tion are described by Harman (4).

Very rarely, indeed, does anyone us-ing the multiple-factor approach findand report a gfactor. The reason is thatthere are too many zero correlationsamong tests of intellectual qualities,where one genuine zero correlationwould be sufficient to disallowa gfactorthat is supposed to be universal. Myexamination of more than 7000 inter-correlations, among tests in the intellec-tual category, showed at least 17 per-cent of them to be acceptable as zerocorrelations (5). The multiple factorsusually found are each commonlyrestricted to only a few tests, where wemay ignore factor loadings less than .30as being insignificant, following com-mon practice.

Discovery of Multiple Abilities

Only a few events in discovering fac-tors by the Thurstone approach will bementioned. In Thurstone's first majorstudy (6) as many as nine common fac-tors were thought to be sufficiently in-terpretable psychologically to justifycalling them "primary mental abilities."A factor is interpreted intuitively interms of the apparent human resourceneeded to do well in the set of testsloaded strongly together on the mathe-matical factor. A distinction betweenmathematical factors and psychological

factors is important. Surface features ofthe tests in the set may differ, but ex-aminees have to perform well in someunique way in all of them. For example,Thurstone designated some of the abil-ities as being visual-perceptual, induc-tive, deductive, numerical, spatial, andverbal. Two others dealt with rote mem-ory and word fluency. Thurstone andhis students followed his 1938 analysiswith others that revealed a few addi-tional kinds of abilities.

Another major source of identifiedintellectual abilities was the research ofaviation psychologists in the U.S. ArmyAir Force during World War II (7).More important than the outcome ofadding to the number of intellectualabilities that called for recognition wasthe fact that where Thurstone hadfound one spatial ability, thereproved tobe at least three, one of thembeing rec-ognized as spatial orientation and an-other as spatial visualization. WhereThurstone had found an inductive abil-ity, there were three reasoning abilities.Where Thurstone had found one mem-ory ability, there were three, includingvisual memory. In some of these cases aThurstone factor turned out to be acon-founding of two or more separable abil-ities, separable when more representa-tive tests for each factor were analyzedtogether and when allowance was madefor a sufficient number of factors. Inother cases, new varieties of tests wereexplored—new memory tests, spacetests, and reasoning tests.

The third major event was in theform of a program of analyses con-ducted in the Aptitudes Research Proj-ect at the University of Southern Cali-fornia since 1949, in which attentionwas first concentrated on tests in theprovisional categories of reasoning,creative thinking, planning, evaluation,and problem-solving (8). Nearly 20years later, the number of separate in-tellectual abilities has increased toabout 80, with at least 50 percent morepredicted by a comprehensive, unifiedtheory. The remainder of this article ismainly concerned with that theory.

The Structure-of-Intellect Model

Two previous attempts to put theknown intellectual abilities into logicalschema had been made by Burt (9) andVernon (10), with similar results. Inboth cases themodelswere of hierarchi-cal

form,

reminiscent of the Linnaeustaxonomic model for the animal king-

617

dom. Following the British tradition ofemphasis upon g, which was placedat the apex of the system, therewere broad subdivisions under g andunder each subdivision some sub-subcategories, on down to abilities thatare regarded as being very narrow inscope.

My first attempts (11) found that thehierarchical type of model had to bediscarded for several reasons. First,there had to be a rejection of g

itself,

for reasons mentioned earlier. Further-more, most factors seemed to be ofsomewhat comparable level of general-ity, where generality is operationallydefined in terms of the number andvariety of tests found to represent eachability. There did appear to be cate-gories of abilities, some concerned withdiscovery or recognition of information,memory for information, productivethinking, and evaluation, with a numberof abilities in each category, but thereare other ways of organizing categoriesof abilities. The most decisive observa-tion was that there were a number ofparallels between abilities, in terms oftheir common features.

Some examples of parallels in abil-ities will help. Two parallel abilitiesdiffer in only one respect. There wasknown to be an ability to see relationsbetween perceived, visual figures, and aparallel ability to see relations betweenconcepts. An example of a test item inthe first case would be seeing that onefigure is the lower-left half of another.An item in the second case might re-quire seeing that the words "bird" and"fly" are related as object and its modeof locomotion. The ability to do the onekind of item is relatively independentofthe ability to do the other, the only dif-ference being that of kind of informa-tion—concrete or perceived in the onecase and abstract or conceived in theother.

For a pair of abilities differing in an-other way, the kind of information isthe same for both. One of the abilitiespertains to seeing class ideas. Given theset of words

footstool,

lamp, rocker,television, can the examinee grasp theessence of the nature of the class, asshown by his naming the class, by put-ting another word or two into it, of byrecognizing its name among four alter-natives? The ability pertains to discov-ery or recognition of a class concept. Inanother kind of test we ask the exam-inee to produce classesby partitioning alist of words into mutually exclusivesets, each with a different class concept.10 MAY 1968

These two abilities are relatively inde-pendent. The one involves a process ofunderstanding and the other a processof production. These processes involvetwo psychologically different kinds ofoperation.

A third kind of parallel abilities haspairs that are alike in kind of informa-tion involved and in kind of operation.Suppose we give the examinee this kindof test item: "Name as many objects asyou can that are both edible and white."Here we have given the specificationsfor a class and the examinee is to pro-duce from his memory store some classmembers. The ability involved was atfirst called "ideational fluency." Themore of appropriatemembers the exam-inee can produce in a limited time, thebetter his score. In a test for a parallelability, instead of producing singlewords the examinee is to produce a listof sentences. To standardize his task fortesting purposes and to further controlhis efforts, we can give him the initialletters of four words that he is to give ineach of a variety of sentences, for ex-

Without using any word twice, the ex-aminee might say, "Why can't Susandance?," "Workers could seldom devi-ate," or "Weary cats sense destruction."The ability was first called "expressionalfluency." The kind of information inboth these tests is conceptual, and thekind of operation is production.

But the kind of operationin the lasttest is different from that for the classi-fying test mentioned before. In theclassifying test, the words given to theexaminee are so selected that theyforma unique set of classes and he is so told.The operation is called "convergentproduction." In the last two tests underdiscussion, there are many possible re-sponses and the examinee producesalternatives. The operation is called"divergent production." It involves abroad searching or scanning process.Both operations depend upon retrievalof information from the examinee'smemory store.

The difference between the two abil-ities illustrated by the last two tests is inthe nature of the things produced. Inthe first case they are single words thatstand for single objects or concepts. Thething produced, the "product," is a unitof information. In the second case, theproduct is an organized sequence ofwords, each word standing for a conceptor unit. This kind of product is giventhe name of "system."

In order to take care of all such par-

allels (and the number increasedas timewent on and experience grew), amatrixtype of model seemed called forin the manner of Mendeleev's table ofchemical elements. The differences inthe three ways indicated—operation(kind of processing of information),content (kind of information), andproduct (formal aspect of information)—called for a three-dimensional model.Such a model has been called "mor-phological" (12). The model as finallycompleted and presented in 1959 (13)is illustrated in Fig. 1. It has five cate-gories of operation, four categories ofcontent, and six categories of product.

It is readily seen that the theory callsfor 5 X 4 X 6, or 120, cubical cells inthe model, each one representing aunique ability, unique by virtue of itspeculiar conjunction of operation, con-tent, and product. The reader has al-ready been introduced to three kinds ofoperation: cognition (discovery, recog-nition, comprehension), divergent pro-duction, and convergent production.The memory operation involves puttinginformation into the memory store andmust be distinguished from the memorystore itself. The latter underlies all theoperations; all the abilities depend uponit. This is the best logical basis for be-lieving that the abilities increase withexperience,dependingupon the kinds ofexperience. The evaluation operationdeals with assessment of information,cognized or produced, determining itsgoodness with respect to adopted (logi-cal) criteria, such as identity and con-sistency.

The distinction between figural andsemantic (conceptual) contents wasmentioned earlier. The distinguishing ofsymbolic information from these twocame later. Symbolic information ispresented in tests in the form of lettersor numbers, ordinarily, but other signsthat have only "token" value or mean-ing can be used.

The category of behavioral informa-tion was added on the basis of a hunch;no abilities involving it were known tohave been demonstrated when it was in-cluded. The basis was E. L. Thorndike'ssuggestion (14) many years ago thatthere is a "social intelligence," distinctfrom what he called "concrete" and"abstract" intelligences. It was decidedto distinguish "social intelligence" onthe basis of kind of information, thekind that one person derives fromobservation of the behavior of an-other. Subsequent experience has dem-onstrated a full set of six behavioral-

ample: W c s d

SCIENCE, VOL.

160618

cognition abilities as predicted by the kinds of products apply in every content gory of cognition, 23 had been demon-model, and a current analytical investi- category. strated. Of 24 expected memory abil-gation is designed to test the part of the Implied information is suggested by ities, 14 were recognized. In the othermodel that includes six behavioral- other information. Foresight or predic- operation categories of divergent pro-divergent-production abilities. In a test tion depends upon extrapolating from duction, convergent production, andfor cognition of behavioral systems, given information to some naturally fol- evaluation, 16, 13, and 13 abilities, re-three parts of a four-part cartoon are lowing future condition or event. If I spectively, were accounted for, and ingiven in each item, with four alternative make this move in chess, my knight will all these categories 17 other hypothesesparts that are potential completions. be vulnerable. If I divide by X, I will are under investigation. These studiesThe examinee has to size up each situa- have a simpler expression. If it rains should bring the number of demon-tion, and the sequence of events, cor- tonight, my tent will leak. If I whistle strated abilities close to the centuryrectly in order to select the appropriate at that girl, she' will turn her head. The mark. It is expected that the total willpart. As a test for divergent production "If .. . then" expression well describes go beyond the 120 indicated by theof behavioral systems, the examinee is an instance of implication, the implica- model, for some cells in the figural andgiven descriptions of three characters, tion actually being the thing implied. symbolic columns already have morefor example, a jubilant man, an angry than one ability each. These prolifera-woman, and a sullen boy, for which he tions arise from the differences in kindis to construct a number of alternative Some Consequences of the Theory of sensory imput. Most known abilitiesstory plots involving the characters and are reperesented by tests with visual in-their moods, all stories being different. The most immediate consequence of put. A few have been found in tests

The reader has already encountered the theory and its model has been its with auditory input, and possibly onefour kinds of products: units, classes, heuristic value in suggesting where to involving kinesthetic information. Eachrelations, and systems, with illustrations. look for still undemonstrated abilities. one can also be placed in the model inThe other two kinds of products are The modus operandi of the Aptitudes terms of its three sources of specifica-transformationsand implications.Trans- Research Project from the beginning tion—operation, content, and product,formations include any kind of change: has been to hypothesize certainkinds of Having developed a comprehensivemovement in space, rearrangement or abilities, to create new types of tests and systematic theory of intelligence,regrouping of letters in words or factor- that should emphasize each hypothe- we have found that not the least of itsing or simplifying an equation, redefin- sized ability, then factor analyze to de- benefits is an entirelynew point of viewing a concept or adapting an object or termine whether the hypothesis is well in psychology generally, a view that haspart of an object to a new use, revising supported. With hypotheses generated been called "operational-informational."one's interpretation of another person's by the model, the rate of demonstration I have elaborated a great deal upon thisaction, or rearranging events in a story. of new abilities has been much accel- view elsewhere (75). Information isIn these examples the four kinds of con- erated. defined for psychology as that which thetent are involved, from figural to be- At the time this article was written, organism discriminates. Without dis-havioral, illustrating the fact that all six of 24 hypothesized abilities in the cate- crimination there is no information.

This

far,

there is agreement with theconception of information as viewed by

OPERATIONS communication engineers, but beyondEvaluation this point we part company. Psycholog-Convergent production —. ica- discriminations are most broadlyDivergent production —---^T^^S**--^ and decisively along the lines of kinds-— ; —

__________I^^^^^-l ]^^^*»>»w °f content and kinds of products, from— which arise hiatuses between intellectual

i ~z__^^^^^. Z^-><Cr abilities. Further discriminations occur,><Cr J^XCT J><C^ ~^^^^l °f course> within the sphere of a single

\ ><^^^^^^^^ I ability. I have proposed that the 4x6PRODUCTS / 1 I^—^"^^»^^^ intersections of the informational cate-

UnitS' / l^"*""-- ._ I ****" I gories of the SI (structure of intellect)

Classes s'A. - — model provide a psychoepistemology,Relations P^^^- — with subcategories of basic informa-<?vstems *^*^ "-^ t'on" * have also proposed that the six

— -,—— .. ■■-». f^^ >,»v. _, *"^ I product categories—units, classes, rela-Transformations \^ -»-' I . 5 , - ,—r: v I |^>w \ a*"^ *" J tions, systems,

transformations,

andImplications \ I I A -a ._ _ ■ c— : s. N. fr^v. I .-. ""^ I implications—provide the basis for a\. | (^-sl —* JL psycho-logic (76). Although most of

\| v\| |>-v>^.^ -*>* these terms are also concepts in modern

CONTENTSOUINItINIb I t logic, a more complete representationFigural s*«a^ p>«^ -^ I^^ appears in mathematics.Symbolic _siw^ I *"»-w The operational-informational viewSemantic _^^^ regards the organism as a processor ofBehavioral ____!^»w

information,

for which the modern,high-speed computer is a good analogy.

Fig. 1. The structure-of-intellectmodel. From this point of view, computer-

10 MAY 1968 619

simulation studies make sense. In addi-tion to trying to find out how the humanmind works by having computers ac-complish the same end results, however,it might be useful, also, to determinehow the human mind accomplishes itsends, then to design the computer thatperforms the same operations. Althougha psychology based upon the SI con-cepts is much more complicated thanthe stimulus-response model that be-came traditional, it is still parsimonious.It certainly has the chance of becomingmore adequate. The structure of intel-lect, as such, is a taxonomic model; itprovides fruitful concepts. For theorythat accounts for behavior, we need op-erational models, and they can be basedon SI concepts. For example, I haveproduced such a model for problem-solving (17).

There is no one problem-solving abil-ity. Many different SI abilities may bedrawn upon in solving a problem, de-pending upon the nature of the problem.Almost always there are cognitive op-erations (in understanding the nature ofthe problem), productive operations (ingenerating steps toward solution), andevaluative operations (in checking uponboth understanding and production).Memory operations enter in, to keep arecord of information regarding previ-ous steps, and the memory store under-lies all.

There is something novel about pro-ducing solutions to problems, hencecreative thinking is involved. Creativethinking depends most clearly upondivergent-production operations on theone hand, and on transformations onthe other. Thus, these two categorieshave unique roles in creative problem-solving. There is accordingly no oneunique ability to account for creativepotential. Creative production dependsupon the area in which one works,whether it is in pictorial art, music,drama, mathematics, science, writing,or management. In view of the relativeindependence of the intellectual abil-ities, unevenness of status in the variousabilities within the same person shouldbe the rule rather than the exception.Some individuals can excel in morethan one art form, but few excel in all,as witness the practice of having mul-tiple creative contributors to a singlemotion picture.

The implications of all this for edu-cation are numerous. The doctrine thatintelligence is a unitary something thatis established for each person by hered-ity and that stays fixed through life

Table 1. Scatterplot of Expressional Fluency (one aspect of divergent production) scores inrelation to CTMM (California Test of Mental Maturity) IQ.

Intelligence quotientDPscore 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 100-109 110-119 120-129 130-139 140-149

112

34

50-59140-49

262 3 4 11 1730-3971 3 10 23 13

3 9 11 19 720-29

1319 710-19 1 50-9 1 3 1 4 10 11 2

should be summarily banished. There is though special exercises have their dem-abundant proof that greater intelligence onstrated value, it is probably better tois associated with increased education. have such exercises worked into teach-One of education's major objectives ing, whatever the subject, where thereshould be to increase the stature of its are opportunities. Informing individualsrecipients in intelligence, which should regarding the nature of their own intel-now mean stature in the various intel- lectual resources, and how they enterlectual abilities. Knowing what those into mental work, has also been foundabilities are, we not only have more pre- beneficial.cise goals but also much better concep- There is not space to mention manytions of how to achieve those goals. other problems related to intelligence—

For much too long, many educators its growth and its decline, its relation tohave assumed, at least implicitly, that if brain anatomy and brain

functions,

andwe provide individuals with information its role in learning. All these problemsthey will also be able to use that infor- take on new aspects, when viewed inmation productively. Building up the terms of the proposed frame of ref-memory store is a necessary condition erence. For too long, many investigatorsfor productive thinking, but it is not a have been handicapped by using a sin-sufficient condition, for productive abil- gle, highly ambiguous score to representities are relatively independent of cog- what is very complex but very compre-nitive abilities. There are some revealing hensible.findings on this point (18). In a sample Without the multivariate approach ofof about 200 ninth-grade students, IQ factor analysis, it is doubtful whethermeasurements were available and also any comprehensive and detailed theorythe scores on a large number of tests of of the human intellect, such as thevarious divergent-production(DP) abil- model in Fig. 1, could have beenities. Table 1 shows a scatter diagram achieved. Applicationof the method un-with plots of DP scores (19) as a func- covers the building blocks, which aretion of IQ. The striking feature of this well obscured in the ongoing activitiesdiagram pertains to the large proportion of daily life. Although much has al-of high-IQ students who had low, even ready been done by other methods tosome very low, DP scores. In general, show the relevance and fruitfulness ofIQ appears to set a kind of upper limit the concepts generated by the theoryupon DP performance but not a lower (15), there is still a great amount oflimit. The same kind of result was true developmental work to be done to im-for most other DP tests. plement their full exploitation, partic-

On the basis of present

information,

ularly in education.it would be best to regard each intel-lectualability of a person as a somewhat

Summarygeneralized skill that has developedthrough the circumstances of experi-ence, within a certain culture, and that In this limited spaceI have attemptedcan be further developedby means of to convey information regarding prog-the right kind of exercise. There may be ress in discovering the nature of hu-limits to abilities set by heredity, but it man intelligence. By intensive factor-is probably safe to say that very rarely analytic investigation, mostly within thedoesan individual really test such limits. past 20 years, the multifactorpicture ofThere is much experimental evidence, intelligence has grown far beyond therough though it may be, that exercise expectations of those who have beendevoted to certain skills involved in most concerned. A comprehensive, sys-creative thinking is followed by in- tematic theoretical model known as thecreased capability (15, p. 336). Al- "structure of intellect" has been devel-

oped to put rationality into the picture. The implications for future intelli- 3. m^. (Univ. of

The model is a cubical affair, its gence testing and for education are 4. h. h.

Harman,

Modem Factor Analysis

three dimensions representing ways in numerous. Assessment of intellectual 59(i9«).

which the abilities differ from one an- qualities should go much beyond pres- 6. l. l.

Thurstone,

"Primary Mental

Abilities,"

— , aaa-a.j jj-aii- aa ...u:«u Psychometric Monographs No. 1 (1938).other. Represented are: five basic kinds ent standard intelligence tests, which ._, p Guilford and jT. L

acey, Eds.,

Printedof operation four substantive kinds of seriously neglect important abilities that classification Tests (Government Printing

P , , i 1 ■ j

Office,

Washington,

D.C.,

1947).information or "contents, and six contribute to problem-solving and ere- BWe are indebted to the

office

of Naval Re-

formal kinds of information or "prod- ative performance in general. Educa-

search,

Personnel and Training

Branch,

for' r r ~ ... continued support, and

for

additional sup-ucts," respectively. Each intellectual tional philosophy, curriculum-building, port at various times

from

the u.s.

office

ofability involves a unique conjunction of teaching procedures, and examination Education and the National

Science

Founda-caaa.nij """""^ i > ,,. ji_ " tlon* Biological and Medical

Sciences

Di-one kind of operation, one kind of con- methods should all be improvedby giv- vision

tent, and one kind of product, all abil- ing attention to the structure of intellect 9. C.^Burt, Brit. J. Ed„c. Psychol.

19, 100,

176

ities being relatively independent in a as the basic frame of reference. There is 10 P E Vernon, The structure of Human

population, but with common joint in- much basis for expecting that various Abilities (Wiley New York 1950)P r > ' _ " , 11. J. P.

Guilford,

Psvchol. Bull.

53,

267 (1956).volvement in intellectual activity. intellectual abilities can be improved in 12 F zWjCky, Morphological Analysis (Springer,

This taxonomic model has led to the individuals, and the procedures needed

Berlin,

1957).„ , . 13. J. P.

Guilford,

Am. Psychologist

14,

469discovery of many abilities not sus- for doing this should be clear. (1959).

pected before. Although the number Of 14- E.L

Thorndike,

Harper's Magazine

140,

22714. E. L.

Thorndike,

Harper's Magazine

140,

227pcwicu u-~J.Ua-.a~. niu. U

u

6..

a..- ""****"-'

-"■

(1920).abilities is large, the 15 category Con- 15. j. p. Guilford, The Nature of Human Intel-StrUCtS provide much parsimony. They

References

and Notes Ugence (McGraw-Hill New

York,

1967).

also provide a systematic basis for view- >" ?$- * ==' S£ Sif . p, ,ing mental operations in general, thus tive) correlation between

any

two tests means 18. and R. Hoepfner, Indian J. Psychol.

° _. ,

„>

i„„,„„i that if certain individuals make high (low)

41,

7 (1966).suggesting new general psychological scores jn one of them they are likely also 19. Expressional Fluency is the sentence-con-theory. to make high (low) scores in the other. struction test illustrated earlier.

magnificent Lincoln Center exists sideby side with the slums of Harlem. Thereare rich nations and poor nations, andthe gulf steadily widens. Huxley maywell have been right to ask: "What areyou going to do with all these newthings?"Education for Management and

Technology in the 1970's Clearly science is not enough. Butthere is no turning back. The hope, Ibelieve, lies in a partnership of technol-ogy and management (both industrialand social), intensely responsive tohuman need, to so order the distributionof technology's products and our na-tional priorities as to resolve the para-dox.

The universities and business must fosterentrepreneurship and its interaction with technology.

Howard W. JohnsonRemarkably, only concerning the ad-

vantage of effective management isthere reasonable agreement for the mo-

Any time in human history is one, I the paradox of hope and despair, the ment. Management is regarded as apos-

suppose, of paradox—of contradiction, contrast of the potential and the reality itive virtue from all points of view:

of extreme and opposite conditions side -extremes of which technology at American, British, Russian-perhaps

by side. Wealth and poverty, beauty and times seems the common cause. For even Chinese. The focus is thus stronglysqualor, genius and ignorance-the technology is at once our blessing and on the improvement of management-human condition tolerates, seems even our bane, the wellspring of our aspira- on education for management-andto foster their coexistence. Dickens cap- tions, yet the threat to our well-being, especially on the symbiotic relationship

tured the mood of an earlier era when Technology is both social benefactor existing between management and tech-

he wrote in A Tale of Two Cities: and social calamity. It offers us nuclear nology. Societies will be strong econom-

power and the specter of thermonuclear ically in proportion to the strength ofIt was the best of times, it was the worst destruction, personal transportation and their managementsystems, their abilityof times, it was the age of wisdom, it was urban Uuti computers which mul- l° harness technology in the service ofthe age of

foolishness,

it was the epoch of * rrpnw newer and threaten the market, a term that here includes

belief,

it was the epoch of ncredulity, it tiply our creative power and tnreaten ,.,.', „ , .. . ,was the season of Light, it was the season our privacy, mass communication and both the individuals and society s needsof Darkness, it was the spring of hope, mass propaganda, an affluent but alien- The author

~president of

~Massachusettsit was the Winter Ol despair. ate(j youtn Technology offers the po- Institute

of

Technology, Cambridge. This article—

a

a > c a* i .._ am. u.,»

„,.,."„

... is adapted

from

an address delivered in LondonBut perhaps more than ever before in tential of the good

life,

but seems un- on n March 1968 before the British Instituteour

lifetimes,

such extremes exist now: able to lessen the poverty around us. A of Management's 1968 national conference.

62„

SCIENCE, VOL.

160