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• 1. General characteristic of scientific paper

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– A) Clarity• Successful scientific experimentation is the result of a clear

mind, attacking a clearly stated problem and producing clearly stated conclusions. Equivalently, scientific writing is the transmission of a clear signal to a recipient. So the words of the signal should be as clear and simple and well ordered as possible.

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– B) Precision• We know that ultimate result of scientific research is

publication, but many scientists neglect the responsibilities involved. One of the responsibility is to write their paper precisely. A scientist will spend months or years of hard work to secure data, and then unconcernedly let much of their value be lost because of lack of interest in the communication process. And most possibly they will write about a good research in a vulgar paper.

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– C) To be understood• A signal of any kind is useless unless it is perceived, a published

scientific paper (transmission of signals) is useless unless it is both received and understood by its intended audience. A scientific experiment is not complete until the results have been published and understood.

• Here is an interesting question• If a tree falls in the forest and there is no one there to hear it fall,

does it make a sound? The correct answer is no. Sound is more than "pressure waves," and indeed there can be no sound without a hearer. Publication is no more than "pressure waves" unless the published paper is understood. So in reality too many scientific papers fall silently in the “forest.”

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– D) Its audience• The meaning of a scientific paper should pertain not just to • 1) peers of the author, but also to • 2) students just embarking on their careers, to• 3) scientists reading outside their own narrow discipline, and

especially to • 4) those readers (the majority of readers today) whose native

language is other than English.

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• 2. Research models, methods

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– Research models, methods will be described by the following aspects like Features /Focus, Purpose and Tools sometime where the method is applied will also be talked about.

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– A) Empirical( 经验式研究 )• Feature/ Focus

– 1) On reality not on abstract: grounded in reality rather than in abstract realm; Data collected by observation or by experiment (like data collected in nature science and social science)

– 2) Being Replicable: the result of empirical research should be replicable.

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• Purpose– The purpose of empirical research is to test, verify. and

build on existing theory. But how? The answer is collecting data and explaining those data in order to develop an existing theory or model, and in the process to test, to verify and to make theory more perfect. (Theory is generally a tested and verified hypothesis which explains the relationship between the data and relevant variables in an environment).

• Relation between data, result and the method– If results are replicable, then the research methodology

and criteria could be objective, reliable, and valid.

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– B) Theoretical • Feature/ Focus

– Mainly on abstract not reality: through abstract induction or deduction(like in the fields of mathematics, logic)

• Purpose: – providing explanatory principles for phenomena; and

developing theoretical principles.• Where:

– all possible research fields

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– C) Qualitative research( 定性 )• Feature/ Focus

– subjective and nonreplicable: on subjective experience and perception of research subjects, and on describing and analyzing, questing for the reason of an event, not just what the event is. (why subjective, see the Tools.)

• Tools

– writing field notes, journal diaries, having open-ended interviews, conversations

• Relation between researchers and data– closer (data collected by an interview, a conversation) (also

subjective)

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– D) Quantitative research( 定量 )• Feature/ Focus

– objective and replicable: objective measure rather than subjective experience. For instance, data is collected for statistical analysis in an objective and replicable manner. (why objective, see the Tools.)

• Tools– test performance score, physiological readings, survey resp

onse and spectrometer readings. • Relation between researchers and data

– having a greater distance (data collected by physiological readings, performance scores, etc.)(also objective)

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– E) Action research(1)( 实践过程 )• Feature

– It has a spiraling and cyclical nature in the stages of planning, action and observation, reflection.

• Tools– discussion with those participants (students) about their in

put, perceptions and evaluation of innovation in action research. (so it is the practice and judgement of a senior researcher (could be a model or a theory of a senior researcher’s) over a certain matter or phenomenon, mainly in accordance with popular ones with a little difference, with a little innovations, which will be investigated and evaluated.)

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– Action research (2)• Where

– in the settings such as classroom or a health care environment. The research is to be carried out with students or with colleagues.

• Purpose– To bring about changes, to develop new skills, to solve

problems in the settings.

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– F) Case study ( 个案 )• Features

– to look depth at particular issues with a single or small number of subjects.

• Purpose– to investigate a characteristic and/or its development in de

pth and at close range• Where

– in the field such as neuropsychology (to investigate cases of rare or unique pathology.

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– G) Ethnographic ( 人种学，种群 )• Feature

– researcher become immersed in the daily life of the people or community being observed.

• Purpose– to gain insight into a culture or social process.

• Tools– field notes, interviews and taped conversations. (comparin

g qualitative research)

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– H) Experimental （根据实验）• Feature

– demand scientific principles such as objectivity, replicability and validity. (compare with quantitative: objective, replicable and analyzing statistically)

• Purpose– investigate possible cause and effect relationship

• Method– a. exposing one or more experimental group to one or more treat

ment conditions– b. comparing them to controlled groups who are equal in other as

pects but do not receive the treatment.– c. drawing a conclusion about the effect of the treatment.

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• Example (1) – Research objective: learn the same topic. one group of

students learning from computers(experimental group) while another group of students learn by using conventional teaching methods (controlled group).

– Control variables: students are randomly assigned to the experimental group or controlled group, using some valid criteria.

– Control variables: in the process, variables such as intelligence prior knowledge of the topic, familiarity with a computer and gender would be accounted for or controlled.

– (To be continued)

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• Example(2)– Control variables: other variables such as time of day,

number of students in the learning group would be equalized and randomly across the groups in order that these variables are controlled.

– Evaluation: objective criteria would be used to establish the test results of the groups.

– Conclusion: a conclusion about the effect of using a computer for learning to be drawn as other variables that would impact on the ability of the students to learn have been controlled.

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• Example (3)– limitation: out of a laboratory, it is difficult to control all the

variables that impact on the experiment– I) quasi-experimental (extension)

• Feature– use experimental methodology without control the

relevant variables.– Thus, the safety of the internal validity of the experiment is

not guaranteed. But probably, the result they have obtained would be generalizable to other similar situation in the real world since in both situations those variables are not totally controlled.

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– J) interventionist( 介入法） • Purpose

– the interventionist studies involves some deliberate change in the particular process so that the effect can be monitored and evaluated.

• Feature– have less control over variables than experimental studies.

• Related research– action research is a type of interventionist research as all t

he participants intervene to create change.

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– K) phenomenological ( 现象法）• Purpose

– investigate ordinary human life experiences with their context to discover the meaning of certain phenomenon.

• Objective– an individual’s “life world and living experience”, not to theori

ze or categorize the experience.• Tools

– example are used in the method to illustrated the significance of “life experience”.

• Related research– case study

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• 3. Other terminologies

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– A) Longitudinal• Feature

– in this type of study, data is collected repeatedly over a period of time.

• Purpose– to document or measure the change which have occurred

in the population or research objects in the period of study.

• Tools – Data collected could include survey, interview, diaries,

test results, documents such as student writing.

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• Example– Learning by using paper based or computer based

technique for information presentation– Information presentation may be tested immediately after

learn, one month after or six months after.– Investigate whether the learning benefits associated with

a particular presentation technique over a period of time.– B) Developmental

• Feature – in developmental study sequence of growth or change is

accounted for as a function

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– C) Correlational • Purpose

– investigate two or more existing situation in order to determine and explain their differences and similarity

– D) Multi-Method Research• Feature

– Data is gathered about a related issue using mix of methods.

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– E) Triangulated data/ triangulation of data• Purpose

– data is cross-checked in order to confirm the hypothesis. • Feature

– comparison of data relating to the same issue or phenomenon of investigation from different perspectives or from different methods of collection of data.(Comparison of data)

• Example– comparison of data from different stages or research– comparison of data from different sets of participants– comparison of data from different test (that is designed to me

asure the same variable.

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– F) Grounded Theory Research• Purpose

– data is gathered and analyzed to generate hypotheses that are grounded in practice

– G) Interpretive• Purpose

– data is gathered that generate “thick” (a lot of seemingly reliable) description and interpretation and that allows theory building

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– H) Historical• Feature

– objective and accurate• Purpose

– To reconstruct past in a objective and accurate way in relation to the tenability of an hypothesis (reconstruct past in order to see whether hypothesis can still be applicable in the reconstructed situation)

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– I) Descriptive• Feature

– systematically describe a situation or area of interest, factually and accurately.

– J) Evaluative• Purpose

– determine whether a particular program or procedure is providing the expected outcome.

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• 4. Developing a research proposal

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• 1. how can you have your topic?– The following activities may encourage your

contemplation and can assist in fostering the idea on research proposal

• reading in your area of research, • attending related seminars, conferences• discussion with your classmates and your colleagues • then having questions that need further investigation,

questions that haven’t been dealt with, or questions of which the progress can be made, finally coming up with topic of your own interest

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• 2. The process of deciding of a topic– A) get prepared and discuss with an academic

• implication of getting prepared– you know your research interest– you have your familiarity with the literature– prepare an outline of your research interest

• the purpose of the discussion– refine your possible topic– establish a research space in the current research

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– B) moving closer to your establishing topic• work on a number of issues to make sure your intended

topic is suitable

– C) About supervisor (with different situations)• to be allocated or you select

– if you select, speak to various people about supervision. When you looking for a supervisor, you should consider the questions like availability, expertise and personality

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• 3. Other issues that you may think about in advance – A) data

• If collecting data from human participants– establish the group of participants which is enough to carr

y out your study– together with your supervisor preparing an application to t

hose who can help you to find those participants. – Certainly those participant should meet your research crit

eria. You can, for instance, send your application to Human Research Ethics Committee( 人类调查道德准则委员会 ) to get you required help.

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– B) level of interest and commitment• you should find your topic challenge and exciting and

can capture you concentration for about three years if you are a doctoral students.

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– Budget• budget for equipment, for travelling for field study, for

computers, for photocopies etc.• (in order to saving budget you may consider sharing with

others the computer and other facilities. Talk to your supervisor, your supervisor might be able to help you find additional sources)

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– Other emphasis• If your choose topic is significant one because research t

opic for Ph.D candidates should meet certain requirement such as making an original contribution to the field of study.

• Whether your topic can attracting the interest of other researchers. This may let you find someone to discuss, to work in cooperation and to share common interest. This may also make your research enjoyable.

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• 4. Preparing the research proposal– A) to make sure about the requirements

• check with your department or supervisor for a guidelines in order to know the requirements for the research proposal, such as how many pages are required or other requirements.

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– B) main components of a research proposal• brief literature review that make clear the gap in research

that your research aims to work on.• Your research scope, aims and objectives, methodology,

data analysis, implication or significance of your research.

– C) relevant issues• think about the project design• think about the potential problem• think about the means to get constructive feedback from

experienced researchers

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• 5. Structure of the research proposal– the following parts might be included in your research

proposal• 1) Title page

– the title of your project– your name and student number– your department or faculty– the name of degree sought– the name of the supervisor– the date of submission

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• 2) Abstract (includes)– problem under investigation– research methodology and theoretical orientation– expected outcome and implication of the research

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• 3) Table of contents (index of the contents)– Index of contents of the paper

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• 4) Introduction– background of the study– the significance and aims of the study– statement of the problem– research questions and hypotheses– definitions

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• 5) Literature review– provide reasonable ground for your research– give an overview of current research on the topic area– identify a gap in the research (the problem or issue can be

dealt with, or an advance can be made)– relevant methodologies others have applied and your

methodology

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• 6) Research design/ methodology– type of study you propose to do and how you propose to

do– describe participants/ subjects– data collection procedure– method of data analysis– limitation of the project

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• 7) Proposed timeframe– a brief timeline for your project

• 8) Expected outcome– What you hope to achieve (comparing with 2))

• 9) Reference– a full list of all reference cited in your proposal– pay an attention to the format of your reference

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• 10) possible inclusions– may have a research questions and hypothesis to follow

literature review– a section on your theoretical orientation (comparing 2))– if involving human participants you may need to include a

section on ethical considerations.

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• 6. Sample research proposal– A) Title

• A case study of the political implications of deregulation of Telecommunication in Australia 1987-1992.

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– B) Literature Review (See page 45)• 1) The political implications of deregulation of telecommunicat

ion has been reported in other countries. In Britain, Jones and Brownford (1989) have done the research about the process of deregulation under the Thatch government and written about it. The study suggested that a lack of public participation led to a number of important consequences for the deregulation process. Although there were effective and organized lobby groups found to exert a degree of influence on the process but were unable to effect lasting change in the Thatch’s government plans to deregulate the telecommunication industry. And also found that the political rhetoric of key players had little consistency with the actual process of deregulation.

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• 2) In Sweden, Percy (1990) did a research on a historical review of the telecommunication industry and compared his history with Britain’s. It was found that both country had adopted the approach of deregulating the industry based on economic rationalist ideology. This approach, in both countries, included a lack of public consultation.

• 3) Two case studies of deregulation of communication industries in France and Belgium. Wooten and Trivett and Hampton (1993) did a research and wrote a importance paper. By studying the correlation of political, economic and industry theory models, they argued that industry models and pressure from the business communities had a strong impact on the outcomes of deregulation and the public attitudes towards this process.

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• 4) A research was conducted on the impact of deregulation on the structure and future of the telecommunications industry in New Zealand. Merten and Skillen (1995) found that pressure from lobby groups influenced the government’s decisions on the deregulation process. And finally they found that these decisions adversely affected the capacity of the telecommunications industry to compete effectively on an international level. The deregulation process was also shown to have adversely affected the quality of service available to the local market.

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• 5) None of these issues have been investigated within Australian context. The need for a comprehensive investigation into the deregulation process and its possible outcomes becomes increasingly important as the liberal Government moves towards deregulation and the partial sale of Telstra. (page 45 (3,1))

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– C) Scope• The case study will primarily focus on the Australian political

arena and telecommunications industry, however where relevant and necessary an analysis of international events and circumstances pertaining to Australian situation will be made. (page 45 (3))

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– D) Aims and Objectives• 1. An investigation into the issue in Australia from an historical

perspective.• An analysis of these findings with the benefit of hindsight,

observe the political nuances unique to the case study, interpret the processes that led to and ultimately influenced the Governments’ actions during the 1987-1992 period.

• 2. A conclusion will be provided that may shed the light to the future role of telecommunication in Australia.

• The preparation of a report outlining the finding in 1 and conclusion in 2.

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– E) Areas to investigate• 1 The policies and assumption that led the government toward

s industry deregulation• 2 the political rhetoric touted by key player during the reform• 3 the main lobby groups that participated in the deregulation p

rocess and the premise from which these groups exerted political pressure. And pressure from telecommunication industry, business community and the international circuit

• 4 The events that took place during 1987-1997 with political economic and industry theory models.

• 5 the history of telecommunications in Australia

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– F) Implications• 1 the present regulation and legislation regarding the industry

will affect the future direction of telecommunications in Australia.

• 2 will affect ability with which Australian communications can compete overseas

• 3 the decisions made by Government will directly affect industry policy.

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– G) Project Plan• The plan for this project provided on the basis that it is a general

guide to direction. Due to the nature of the research some information may be difficult to obtain on schedule. And allowance for this needs to be made. This plan is also subject to change on re-evaluation.

• stage 1– construct a history of the events that took place form 1987-

1991 and obtain understanding of the political and industry changes since the destruction of the Post and Master General’s Department.

– Conduct and complete reviews of relevant literature.

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• stage 2– Analyze and prepare the information gathered in stage 1

for interpretation• stage 3

– put forward an interpretation of the politics of deregulation of the telecommunication in Australia

• stage4– prepare report for final submission.

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– H) Methodology• Obtain and study relevant documents and information from

Government Departments such as– Department of Transport and Communication(DOTAC)– Department of Industry Technology and

Commerce(DITAC)– Parliamentary papers and Acts– AUSTEL/Telecommunications Industry Development

Agency(TIDA)– Publications released by the key lobby groups.

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• review events according to the reports in the press and published media.

• Examine literature concerning the the explanation of political, economical and industry using models and theories.

--End--

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relation Biomedical technology biology Application and results

reproduction power and consequence

possible application concerning human nature

strategy

solutionsVirtues of family