pushing through the problem.docx

8/14/2019 PUSHING THROUGH THE PROBLEM.docx

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"PUSHING THROUGH THE

PROBLEM"

PROBLEM SOLVING & DECISION MAKING

"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change theworld. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has."

- Margaret Mead

Often people confuse the terms problem solving and decision making.

Problem solving is what one does to move from the existing situation to thegoal. It is a sequence of steps or actions taken to solve a problem, includingdefining the problem, identifying or creating possible solutions, and

choosing among the solutions.

Decision making refers to the act of selecting one or more options from those

available; it does not involve creating possible options. Decision makingmay take place by default; that is, without consciously recognizing that anopportunity for decision making exists. This fact will lead us to the veryfirst element in a definition for decision making. To have a decision


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Chang, Richard Y. and Kelly, Keith P. Step-By-Step Problem Solving, RichardChang Associates, Inc., Irvine, CA, 1994.

Pokras, Sandy. Systematic Problem-Solving and Decision-Making, CrispPublications, Inc., Los Altos, CA, 1989.

Galanes, Gloria J. and Brilhart, John K. Communication in Groups:Applications and Skills, Third Edition. Brown & Benchmark Publishers,Dubuque, IA, 1997.

Denhardt, Robert B. Administration - An Action Orientation, Second Edition.Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA, 1995.

Fisher, B. Aubrey and Ellis, Donald G. Communication and the Group Process.McGraw Hill Publishing Company, 1990.

Schultz, Beatrice J. Communication in the Small Group, Second Edition. HarperCollins Pubishers Inc., 1996.

Ellis, Donald G. and Fisher, B. Aubrey. Small Group Decision Making.McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.

Cathcart, Robert S., Henman, Linda D., and Samovar, Larry A. Small GroupCommunication. Brown and Benchmark, Chicago, 1996.

SEVEN STEPS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

"The message from the moon... is that no problem need be consideredinsolvable."

- Norman Cousins

There are seven main steps to follow when trying to solve a problem.These steps are as follows:

1. Define and Identify the Problem2. Analyze the Problem


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3. Identifying Possible Solutions4. Selecting the Best Solutions5. Evaluating Solutions6. Develop an Action Plan7. Implement the Solution

TQS Problem Solving StepsProblem Solving TechniquesFrequently Asked Questions

1. Define and Identify the Problem

This first step is critical. It is essential for each group member toclearly understand the problem so that all energy will be focused inthe same direction. A good way to define the problem is to writedown a concise statement which summarizes the problem, and thenwrite down where you want to be after the problem has beenresolved. The objective is to get as much information about theproblem as possible. It may be helpful to divide the symptoms of theproblem into hard andsoft data.

Hard Data Includes: Facts, statistics, goals, time factors, history

Soft Data Includes: Feelings, opinions, human factors, attitudes,

frustrations, personality conflicts, behaviors, hearsay, intuition

These steps may not always be pleasant, but after "venting" groupparticipants may feel that the air has finally cleared and members can

be more rational and cooperative.

Sometimes information needs to be gathered via various devices todefine the problem. These devices may include: Interviews, statistics,questionnaires, technical experiments, check sheets, brainstorming and focus

groups.

Develop a Problem Statement
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It is essential to develop an objective statement which clearlydescribes the current condition your group wishes to change.Make sure the problem is limited in scope so that it is smallenough to realistically tackle and solve. Writing the statementwill ensure that everyone can understand exactly what the

problem is. It is important to avoid including any "impliedcause" or "implied solution" in the problem statement.Remember, a problem well stated is a problem half solved.

State the Goal

Once the problem is defined, it is relatively easy to decide whatthe goal will be. Stating the goal provides a focus anddirection for the group. A measurable goal will allow thetracking of progress as the problem is solved.

Considerations

When defining the problem, ask the following:

Is the problem stated objectively using only thefacts?

Is the scope of the problem limited enough for thegroup to handle?

Will all who read it understand the same meaningof the problem?

Does the statement include "implied causes" or"implied solutions?"

Has the "desired state" been described inmeasurable terms?

Do you have a target date identified?

2. Analyze the Problem


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In this stage of problem solving, questions should be asked and informationgathered and sifted. Do not make the mistake of assuming you know whatis causing the problem without an effort to fully investigate the problemyou have defined. Try to view the problem from a variety of viewpoints,not just how it affects you. Think about how the issue affects others. It is

essential to spend some time researching the problem. Go to the library ordevelop a survey to gather the necessary information.

Questions to Ask When Analyzing the Problem:

What is the history of the problem? How long has it existed? How serious is the problem? What are the causes of the problem? What are the effects of the problem? What are the symptoms of the problem? What methods does the group already have for dealing with

the problem? What are the limitations of those methods? How much freedom does the group have in gathering

information and attempting to solve the problem? What obstacles keep the group from achieving the goal? Can the problem be divided into sub problems for definition

and analysis?

3. IDENTIFYING POSSIBLESOLUTIONS

Idea GenerationTechniques

"The best way to have a good idea is to have a lot of ideas."


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- Griff Niblack

Identifying possible solutions to the problem is sometimes referred to asfinding "Optional Solutions" because the goal is to complete a list of allconceivable alternatives to the problem. Using a variety of creative

techniques, group participants create an extensive list of possible solutions.Asking each group member for input ensures that all viewpoints will beconsidered. When the group agrees that every course of action on the listwill be considered, they will feel some direct ownership in the decisionmaking process. This may help put the group in the mood of generatingconsensus later in the decision making process.

You may already be familiar with some of these topics, but take the time tolook through them anyway. The information you will find is valuable toyour group's success.

Techniques Used in Solving Problems

These idea generation techniques are broken down into easy-to-follow stepsthat will help keep your group organized and on the topic at hand. We are

basically giving you step-by-step instructions on how to accomplish eachtechnique with ease and success.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a problem solving approach designed to help agroup generate several creative solutions to a problem. It was firstdeveloped by Alex Osborn, an advertising executive who felt theneed for a problem solving technique that, instead of evaluating andcriticizing ideas, would focus on developing imaginative andinnovative solutions.

Steps

A group's members are presented with a problemand all its details.

Members are encouraged to come up with asmany solutions as possible, putting aside allpersonal judgments and evaluations. "Piggy-

backing" off another person's idea is useful.
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All ideas are recorded so the whole group can seethem.

Ideas are evaluated at another session.

Characteristics

Procedure designed to release a group's creativityin order to generate multiple imaginative solutionsto a problem.

Separates the idea-creation from the idea-evaluation process by not allowing any criticismto take place while the group is generating ideas.

May be more productive for each member tobrainstorm quietly and then share ideas with thegroup (brainwriting).

Electronic brainstorming puts each member at acomputer terminal and their ideas are projected toa screen so no one knows from whom an ideacame.

Used by businesses and government to improvethe quality of decision making.

Brainstorming for TeachersBrainstorming - Effectiveness in a Product Design Firm

Buzz Groups

Steps

The facilitator presents a target question to thegroup.

If the group is large, divide into smaller groups(approx. six people).

Each group is given a copy of the target questionson an index card and a recorder/spokesperson isselected by seating. The individual then writes allideas on index cards.
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The group spends a few minutes thinking of andevaluating ideas.

The group reports its list to the entire assembly.

Characteristics

A large group is subdivided into smaller groupswhich discuss an assigned target question, thenreport their questions back to the main group.

Encourages participation and involvement that isnot feasible in large groups.

Technique can be used to identify problems orissues, generate questions to study, compile a list

of ideas or solutions, or stimulate personalinvolvement.

Used by churches, schools, and companydepartment heads to foster involvement in a largegroup assembly.

Suggestions for Team Buzz Sessions

Nominal Groups

Steps

The problem, situation, or question is statedclearly and concisely.

The coordinator asks participants to generate a listof the features or characteristics of the problem or

question. The coordinator gives the group five to fifteen

minutes to work silently. Each suggestion is recorded on a chart visible to

all members.

Members clarify the items, but do not yet evaluatethem.
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Each person chooses his or her top ranked items. The group engages in full discussion about the top

rated items. A decision is reached.

Characteristics

Capitalizes on the finding that people workingindividually while in the presence of otherssometimes generate more ideas than whileinteracting as a group.

Can enable members to reach a decision on acontroversial issue without leaving a residue of

bitterness from a win-lose conflict. Members work individually in each other's

presence by writing their ideas. They record theseideas on a chart, discuss them as a group, andfinally evaluate them by a ranking procedure untilmembers reach a decision.

Stifles effect of dominating members of the group. Tendency for lazy members to let others carry the

ball is minimized. Adds structure to the brainstorming process.

Delphi Methods

Steps

A Delphi Panel is selected by the facilitator. The problem or issue is stated concisely in writing

and sent to each of the Delphi panel for individualwork.

The facilitator compiles another document thatdetails all the individual positions taken by thepanel and distributes a copy to each member

This procedure, with a facilitator compiling theindividual comments into a single document and


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distributing it to the group, continues until aconsensus is reached.

Characteristics

Not a group decision technique. Involves presenting a problem or an issue to the

appropriate individuals, asking them to list theirsolutions, compiling a master list, circulating thismaster list to all participants, and asks them tocomment in writing on each item on the list. Thelist with comments is then circulate to theparticipants. The procedure is continued until a

decision is reached. Good for when time and distance constraints

make it difficult for group members to meet.

Fantasy Chaining

Steps

Whenever the group is not talking about the here-and-now of the problem, it is engaged in fantasy.

Fantasy chaining is a group story-telling methodwherein everyone in the group adds something tothe topic at hand, which may not necessarily bethe primary focus.

Characteristics

Manifest theme is what the fantasy chain is aboutat the surface level.

Latent theme is the underlying theme (what thegroup members are really thinking about).


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Helps the group define itself by creating symbolsthat are meaningful and that help determine itsvalues.

Enables a group to discuss indirectly matters thatmight be too painful or difficult to bring out into

the open. Helps a group deal with emotionally "heavy"

information. Effective way in which groups create their shared

images of the world, each other, and what theyare about as a group.

A group's identity converges through these sharedfantasies.

Focus Groups

Steps

Instructor introduces a topic that is to be discussedby the group in any way they choose.

Characteristics

Encourages unstructured thoughts about a giventopic.

Often used to analyze people's interests andvalues.

Universities, large corporations, and politicalcandidates use focus groups to understand howothers perceive their strengths and weaknesses.

Focus Groups - Making it Work for You Behind a One-Way Mirror
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Metaphorical Thinking

A metaphor is a thinking technique connecting two differentuniverses of meaning. The key to metaphorical thinking

is similarity.

Excessive logical thinking can stifle the creative process, so usemetaphors as a way of thinking differently about something.Make and look at metaphors in your thinking, and be aware ofthe metaphors you use. Metaphors are wonderful, so long aswe remember that they don't constitute a means of proof. As

by definition, a metaphor must break down at some point.

Steps

State the objectives of thinking in metaphors: tosee comparisons between two ideas, and to gainnew insights from comparisons

Brainstorm possible metaphors for some aspectsof the problem

"Piggyback" on metaphors; build on them Choose the best metaphors to carry further Examine all imaginable areas of comparison in

the metaphor Ask questions the metaphor might answer Look for insights into causes, effects, and

solutions for your problem

Considerations

When identifying possible solutions, it is essential to rememberto:

Hold back from evaluating proposed solutions. Make a point of "thinking outside" of your own

experience and expertise. Involve everyone in the process.


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Go for quantity - at least 20 or so possiblesolutions before narrowing the list to between fourand six of the best suggestions.

4. SELECTING THE BEST SOLUTIONS

Six Steps to Decision Making

"Decision making can be seen as bringing one into an ambivalentrelationship

with both power and responsibility."- Michael Lerner

Decision Making TechniquesTeamwork - Decision MakingEight Steps to Decision Making

Define and Identify The Problem

The starting point in any conscious attempt at rational decisionmaking must be the recognition that a problem exists. Whileeffective meetings are essential to getting work done, most meetingsleave us still looking for a decision. A good group meeting should

bring the group members together. It should facilitate decision
http://www.liraz.com/tdecision.htmhttp://www.liraz.com/tdecision.htmhttp://design.eng.clemson.edu/htdocs/psych499/decision/main_decision.htmlhttp://design.eng.clemson.edu/htdocs/psych499/decision/main_decision.htmlhttp://www.msstate.edu/Dept/AgEdExp/4163/decision/decision.htmhttp://www.msstate.edu/Dept/AgEdExp/4163/decision/decision.htmhttp://www.msstate.edu/Dept/AgEdExp/4163/decision/decision.htmhttp://design.eng.clemson.edu/htdocs/psych499/decision/main_decision.htmlhttp://www.liraz.com/tdecision.htm


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making, assist others in taking responsibility, and contribute tobuilding team effort within the group.

The group begins with defining the problem. The group membersonly discuss the definition of terms and how the problem relates to

other issues. Identifying the problem is very crucial. It is importantto not define a problem so broadly that it generates never-endingquestions.

Be Alert

Being alert at all times can help you work towards finding asolution in a logical manner. It is essential to be sensitive to

morally charged situations. Everyone in the group must bealert and ready to make concise decisions if a problem were toarise. Group members should work through a series of stepsdesigned to force them to reflect on certain aspects of aproblem in a rational manner. Being alert is simply stating theobvious and immediate. For example, an auto accident, burntout motor, and an overdrawn account.

Gather Information and Do Not Jump to Conclusions

This is the essence of the decision making process. It is veryimportant to spend time on this step before suggestingsolutions. It is said that successful groups do not jump to thesolution stage quickly. They spend ample amount of timegathering information and analyzing the problem. The mainpurpose of this step is to gather as much information on a topicas possible. The group needs to think about their audience.They need to think about who will be reading it and when.While accuracy is important, there can be a trade-off betweengathering information and letting morally significant options

and information disappear.State The Case Briefly

In this step, the group needs to come up with relevant facts andcircumstances. They need to gather this information withinthe decision time available. It does not have to be a lot of


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information, but all of the important information needs to bestated in brief context.

What Decisions Have to Be Made?

Life is full of choices and decisions. Even deciding not todecide is, of course, a decision. This stage is very crucial toovercoming a problem, and, of course, making a groupdecision. The members of the group need to put thoughts andideas into play in order to make good decisions. The groupneeds to brainstorm and gather lots of options to come to onefinal decision.

By Whom?

Remember that there may be more than one decision maker.Their interactions can be very important and influential in agroup decision.

Specify Feasible Alternatives

In this step the group needs to begin defining the problem. Thegroup members need to define the problem and come up with otherideas so they are not limited to just one final decision. If their firstalternative does not work out, they can make another decision andchoose other alternatives. The following are some steps to follow

while finding feasible alternatives:

Define the problem. Try to phrase it as a question. Discuss group goals and options. Identify all options available at that time. Determine the importance of the problem. Make clear all meeting times and places.

State Live Options at Each Stage

In this step you should be sure to ask many questions. Eachdecision maker needs to take into account good or badconsequences. Here, you should ask what the likelyconsequences are of various decisions.


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Identify Morally Significant Factors in Each

Alternative

In this step you need to use your ethical resources to determine what

the decision will be. The following are the most significant factorsyou should use as a guideline when determining your decision.

Principles

These are principals that are widely accepted throughout agroup or organization.

Respect Autonomy

Members of the group need to ask themselves questions suchas, Would I be exploiting others? Have promises been made?

Don't Harm

After making the decision, think to yourself whether or notyour decision will hurt anyone.

Be Fair

Be fair and work willingly with the members of your group.Use Good Context

A decision must be made, but which solution should yourgroup choose? In identifying the best solution or solutions tothe problem, the group should consider from among the fourto six suggestions that were decided upon from the ideas whichthey had gathered. The different factors, or criteria, that

people use to make their decisions are often unclear or nevervoiced. This can lead to misunderstandings andmisinterpretations of other people's motives.

Discussion of Possible Resolutions


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Gathering Ideas and Information on the Actual Problem

Determine who exactly is your audience. This allowsyou to specify a solution that best addresses a specific

audience. Research and establish the history of the problem to be

solved, as well as what caused the problem to occur.This allows for accuracy within your solution.

Discuss how the problem to be solved relates to otherissues. However, be careful not to bring forth any otherproblems while solving the initial problem.

Analyze and examine the facts and all of the gatheredinformation. This allows the group to challenge factsand assumptions, making sure they can withstand anytype of scrutiny or disagreement.

Make sure that you have gathered enough informationon the problem.

Establish Some Type of Decision Criteria

The discussion of the group should focus on what makes anacceptable decision.

Examine what an ideal decision consists of andwhat should be included and excluded out of thatdecision.

Discuss what a reasonable or fairly good solutionwould be. This becomes important when theideal solution can not be reached.

Decide what standards the group should utilize tojudge a decision.

Consider what is valid and feasible about thedecision made.

Discuss Possible Solutions

Address such questions as:


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Have all solutions been accounted for? What, if any, is the evidence to support each of

the chosen decisions? Did the group use brainstorming techniques to

produce ideas?

Selecting or Determining the Best Solution

At this stage in the process the group is working towards anagreement on the final solution. This is done by testing all previouslymade solutions using the decision making criteria set forth by the

group. The group goal in this step is to make sure they have foundthe solution that will best solve the problem and address any otherissues that may have been a consequence of that problem.

During this phase, the group should eliminate any solution that doesnot meet the requirements and focus on those that could ultimately

be utilized. The group should be concerned with whether or not thesolution chosen solves the problem or just minimizes it.

Is the solution workable in relation to the problem?

Are there any limits that the solution presents? When looking at the advantages and disadvantages,

which are there more of? Does the chosen idea live up to the standards of the

decision criteria? Are the facts and information gathered consistent with

the proposed solution?

Implementing the Solution

In this phase the group should be focusing on two main goals.

The best way to make the solution apply and functionwhen applied to the problem.


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What resources are needed for the solution to work?

For this to work, complete dedication on the part of all groupmembers is needed. Everyone in the group has to be willing to workwith one another while offering their unique skills and talents.Group members also have to be willing to take full responsibility forthe solution they choose.

Accountability within the group plays a very important part in thedecision implementation process. While in this phase, the groupshould ask such questions as (Schein, 1969):

What do we have to do to accomplish our proposedcourse of action?

Who will be responsible for implementing the proposedplan?

When can our group reasonably expect results? What unplanned events or accidents are likely to

jeopardize our actions? What people should we consult who can help us with

our proposal? What people should we consult who could threaten our

proposal?

Once this is done, the group can implement the solution.

During this final step, it is important to have the support of the entiregroup. Keep in mind that in case this primary solution does notwork as planned, the group will have to look for alternativesolutions. Tracking the effect of the solution in the long run alsoserves to be a helpful future model and determines what is and what

is not needed in a solution.


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5. Evaluating SolutionsThere are several ways to evaluate the chosen solutions, and writing themall down will help the group to choose the best solution to the problem.

Making a T-Chart to Weigh the Pros and Cons of Each Idea

It is often helpful to make a T-chart and ask members of thegroup to name the pros and cons of each solution. Thismethod will visually illustrate the strengths and weaknesses ofeach solution.

Develop and Assign Weights to Criteria

The key to avoiding possible deadlock in the decision makingprocess is to put all criteria people are thinking about on thetable. This way, all group members are clear as to whatcriteria others are using.

Prioritize the Criteria

The next step is for the group to agree on how important thesecriteria are in relation to each other. For example, is cost themost important criterion, or low resistance by others, etc. Thecriteria should then be rated in terms of importance. Assign anumber to each criterion so that all criteria together total 100.

Rate Proposed Solutions Using Criteria

Using the four to six possible solutions, score (on a scale of 1

to 10) each solution against each criteria. Repeat this for eachcriterion. Multiply this score to the weighting, then add theweighted scores for each solution. This exercise will help youto compare alternatives objectively.


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Considerations

What are the advantages of each solution? Are there any disadvantages to the solution? Do disadvantages outweigh advantages? What are the long and short-term effects of this solution

if adopted? Would the solution really solve the problem? Does the solution conform to the criteria formulated by

the group?

Should the group modify the criteria?

6. Develop an Action Plan

An action plan is a chart that lists the tasks that need to be done andidentifies who will be responsible for each, when and what action isnecessary, where to start, and how.

Divide the Solution Into Sequential Tasks

Looking at your solution as one task may seem too great anundertaking. It is much more productive to divide it intosequential tasks which act as measurable steps toward thesolution. When dividing the solution into tasks, be sure toinclude a timeline, what is to be done, and who will do it.

Develop Contingency Plans

The best laid plans of mice and men...Even the best of plans get stalled, sidetracked, or must bechanged midstream because of something unforeseen. Mosttimes these circumstances cannot be prevented, but you can


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and should prepare for potential kinks by having a contingencyplan. Having such a plan will keep the momentum goinginstead of having to stop and figure out what to do when anunplanned event occurs.

Action Planning Question Checklist

The following checklist will be helpful to ensure that all basesare covered in your plan of action:

What is the overall objective and ideal situation? What is needed in order to get there from here? What actions need to be done? Who will be responsible for each action? How long will each step take and when should it

be done? What is the best sequence of actions? How can we be sure that earlier steps will be done

in time for later steps which depend on them? What training is required to ensure that each

person knows how to execute each step in theplan?

What standards do we want to set? What resources are needed and how will we get

them? How will we measure results? How will we follow up each step and who will do

it? What checkpoints and milestones should be

established? What are the make/break vital steps and how can

we ensure they succeed? What could go wrong and how will we get around

it? Who will this plan affect and how will it affect

them? How can the plan be adjusted without

jeopardizing its results to ensure the best responseand impact?


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How will we communicate the plan to ensuresupport?

What responses to change and other humanfactors are anticipated and how will they beovercome?

Considerations

Have you considered what resources will be needed? Have you developed contingency plans for the most

critical action steps?

Are the necessary people aware of the contingency plan?

7. Implement the Solution

Sometimes the groups who choose the solution are not the ones who willimplement it. If this is the case, members who select the solution shouldclearly explain why they selected it to the ones who will implement it.Showing that the problem solving process was an organized and orderlyprocess will convince others that the solution is valid.

Monitoring

A designated member of the group should monitor whether ornot specific tasks are being performed or short-term targets are

being achieved as planned. This monitoring should take placeregularly until all tasks are completed. Some suggestedmonitoring techniques are:

Tickler file Compliance reports Group meetings


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Individual meetings Customer/user interviews Surveys and written questionnaires Quality control spot checks Audit Walk through or role play Trend graph Checkpoints on action plan Personal inspection of all work Budget controls Grapevine

Implement Contingency Plan if Necessary

As conditions change during monitoring and evaluation of theAction Plan, it may become necessary to implement thecontingency plans to continue moving toward the goal.

Try making a three-column chart for your contingency planlisting:

What could go wrong? How can you prevent this from happening? How will we fix it if it does happen?

Evaluate Results

This step may involve repeating the initial seven-step problemsolving process to address additional problems as needed.

Make certain that the goal has been reached and that a plan isin place to ensure that the problem will not recur.

Group Problem Solving
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Ask the following questions and score each answer on a scaleof 1 (no participation at all) to 5 (participated very well) toascertain how well your group solved the problem:

How well did the group assess the problem ordecision?

How well did the group identify its goal? How well did the group identify the positive

consequences of the solutions underconsideration?

How well did the group identify the negativeconsequences of the solutions underconsideration?

Did the group draw reasonable conclusions fromavailable information?

Considerations

What role will others play in evaluating progress duringimplementation?

How will you know if the implementation is on track?

How will you know when to implement the contingencyplan?

Who makes the decision? Has the goal been reached? Are plans in place to ensure the problem does not recur?

A Recipe for Problem Solving

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