Punctuation

Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences

• Simple sentence ≡ has one independent clause:

The greatest English dictionary is the Oxford EnglishDictionary.

• Compound sentence ≡ has two or more independent clauses:

[There are many good dictionaries]1, [but thegreatest is the Oxford English Dictionary]2.

• Complex sentence ≡ has an independent clause and one ormore subordinate clauses:

[While there are many good dictionaries]subordinate clause,[the greatest is the Oxford EnglishDictionary.]independent clause

• Can also have compound-complex sentences.

Punctuated and Grammatical Sentences

• Punctuated sentence: Begins with a capital letter and endswith a full stop or question/exclamation mark.

• Grammatical sentence: Have a subject and verb in a mainclause along with everything else depending on that clause.

Punctuating the Ends of Sentences

Three Common Forms of End Punctuation

1. Period (or Question/Exclamation Mark) alone

X In 1967, Congress passed civil rights laws thatremedied problems of registration and voting. Thishad political consequences throughout the South.

Comments:- Too many punctuated sentences =⇒ prose feels choppy or

simplistic.

- Can revise a series of very short grammatical sentences intosubordinate clauses or phrases, turning several grammaticalsentences into one:

X When Congress passed civil rights laws to remedy problemsof registration and voting in 1967, they had politicalconsequences throughout the South.

X The civil rights laws that Congress passed in 1967 to remedyproblems of registration and voting had political consequencesthroughout the South.

Three Common Forms of End Punctuation

2. Semicolon alone A semicolon is like a soft full-stop.

- Should have a grammatical sentence on either side of thesemicolon.

- Use when

· the first grammatical sentence is not long and

· the content of the grammatical sentence is closely linkedto the first.

X In 1967, Congress passed civil rights laws thatremedied problems of registration and voting; by 1995Southern states had thousands of sheriffs, mayors, andother official from their African-American communities.

A special problem with semicolons and however

• Consider this sentence:Taxpayers have supported public education, however,they now object because taxes have risen so steeply.

• Does the however end the first grammatical sentence orintroduce the second?

• If it ends the first, the “;” goes after the however :

X Taxpayers have supported public education, however; theynow object because taxes have risen so steeply.

• If it introduces the second, the “;” goes before the however :

X Taxpayers have supported public education; however, theynow object because taxes have risen so steeply.

A special problem with semicolons and however

• Consider this sentence:Taxpayers have supported public education, however,they now object because taxes have risen so steeply.

• Does the however end the first grammatical sentence orintroduce the second?

• If it ends the first, the “;” goes after the however :

X Taxpayers have supported public education, however; theynow object because taxes have risen so steeply.

• If it introduces the second, the “;” goes before the however :

X Taxpayers have supported public education; however, theynow object because taxes have risen so steeply.

A special problem with semicolons and however

• Consider this sentence:Taxpayers have supported public education, however,they now object because taxes have risen so steeply.

• Does the however end the first grammatical sentence orintroduce the second?

• If it ends the first, the “;” goes after the however :

X Taxpayers have supported public education, however; theynow object because taxes have risen so steeply.

• If it introduces the second, the “;” goes before the however :

X Taxpayers have supported public education; however, theynow object because taxes have risen so steeply.

Three Common Forms of End Punctuation

3. Comma + Coordinating Conjunction Recognize the end ofa grammatical sentence when they see a comma followed bytwo signals:

- a coordinating conjunction: and, but, yet, for, so, or, nor,

- and conjunction followed by another subject and verb

X In the 1950s religion was viewed as a bulwark againstcommunism, so it was not long after that that atheismwas felt to threaten national security.

X American intellectuals have often followedEuropeans, but our culture has proven inhospitable totheir brand of socialism.

- But choose a full-stop if the two grammatical sentences

· are long or

· have their own internal punctuation.

Coordinated series of grammatical sentences (≥ 3)

• Reader can accept a coordinated series of grammaticalsentences with just a comma between them, but only if theyare short and have no internal punctuation:

X Baseball satisfies our admiration for precision,basketball speaks to our love of speed and grace, andfootball appeals to our lust for violence.

• If any of the grammatical sentences has internal punctuation,separate them with semicolons:

X Baseball, the oldest indigenous American sport andessentially a rural one, satisfies our admiration forprecision; basketball, our newest sport and now moreurban than rural, speaks to our love of speed and grace;and football, a sport both rural and urban, appeals to ourlust for violence.

Four less common forms of end punctuation

1. Period + Coordinating Conjunction (use sparingly)

X Education cannot guarantee a democracy. Andwhen it is available to only a few, it becomes a toolof social repression.

2. Semicolon + Coordinating Conjunction

X In the 1950s religion was viewed as a bulwarkagainst communism; so soon thereafter atheismwas felt to threaten national security.

- Use a comma instead if the two grammatical sentences areshort.

- Use a full-stop instead if the two grammatical sentences arelong with their own internal commas.

Four less common forms of end punctuation

3. Comma AloneIf the sentences are short and closely linked in meaning thencan use a comma to separate two grammatical sentences (ingeneral not recommended):

X Act in haste, repent in leisure.

- Avoid if the grammatical sentences contain internal commas.

4. Conjunction AloneSignal close link between short grammatical sentences with acoordinating alone, omitting the comma (in general not

recommended):

X Oscar Wilde violated a fundamental law of Britishsociety and we all know what happened to him.

Three Special Cases: Colon, Dash, Parentheses

1. ColonX Dances are not widely supported: no companyoperates at a profit, and there are few outside majorcities.

A colon signals you are balancing the structure, sound, andmeaning of one clause against another:

X Civil disobedience is the public conscience of ademocracy: mass enthusiasm is the publicconsensus of a tyranny.

- Avoid a colon if it breaks a clause into two pieces, neither ofwhich is a grammatically complete sentence.

Three Special Cases: Colon, Dash, Parentheses

2. DashCan also signal balance more informally with a dash:

X Stonehenge is a wonder - only a genius couldhave conceived it.

3. ParenthesesCan insert a short grammatical sentence - a shortafterthought - inside another one with parentheses:

X Stonehenge is a wonder (only a genius couldhave conceived it).

Punctuating the Beginnings

Five Reliable Rules

1. Always separate an introductory element from the subject of asentence with a comma if a reader might misunderstand thestructure of the sentence:

7 When a lawyer concludes her argument has to be easilyremembered by a jury.

X When a lawyer concludes, her argument has to beeasily remembered by a jury.

Five Reliable Rules

2. Never end an introductory clause or phrase with a semicolon,no matter how long it is.

7 Although the Administration knew about Iraq’sinvasion of Kuwait threatened American interests in SaudiArabia; it did not immediately prepare a militaryresponse.

Always use a comma there:

X Although the Administration knew about Iraq’sinvasion of Kuwait threatened American interests in SaudiArabia, it did not immediately prepare a militaryresponse

Five Reliable Rules

3. Never put a comma right after a subordinating conjunction ifthe next element of the clause is its subject.

7 Although, the art of punctuation is simple, it is rarelymastered.

4. Avoid putting a comma after the coordinating conjunctionsand, but, yet, so, or, and nor if the next element is thesubject.

7 But, we cannot know whether life on other planetsexist.

Heavy users of punctuation often do this:

X Yet, during this period, prices continued to rise.

X Although, during this period, prices continued torise, interest rates did not.

Five Reliable Rules

5. Put a comma after an introductory word or phrase if itcomments on the whole of the following sentence or connectsone sentence to another

X Fortunately, we proved our point.

- Exceptions: Typically omit a comma after now, thus, andhence.

- Avoid starting many sentences with an introductory elementand a comma =⇒ can make the passage feel hesitant.

Two Reliable Principles

1. Readers usually need no punctuation between a shortintroductory phrase and the subject:

X Once again we find similar responses to such stimuli.

X In 1945 few realized how the war had transformed us.

Putting in a comma is not wrong, but it slows the readerdown.

2. Readers need a comma between a long introductory phrase orclause and the subject:

X When a lawyer begins her opening statement with adry recital of the law and how it must be applied to thecase before the court, the jury is likely to nod off.

Punctuating Middles

Subject–Verb, Verb–Object

• No comma between a subject (even if long) and its verb

7 A sentence that consists of many complex subordinateclauses and long phrases that all precede a verb, may seem tosome students to demand a comma somewhere.

• Avoid long subjects.

• Sometimes you cannot avoid a long subject for example

The president, the vice president, the secretaries of thedepartments, senators, members of the House ofRepresentatives, and Supreme Court justices take an oaththat pledges them to uphold the Constitution.

Help readers sort it out with a summative subject

The president, the vice president, the secretaries of thedepartments, senators, members of the House ofRepresentatives, and Supreme Court justices: all take an oaththat pledges them to uphold the Constitution.

Interruptions

• If you do interrupt a subject-verb or verb-object.

Put paired commas around the interruption:

XA sentence, if it consists of many complexsubordinate clauses and long phrases and all precedea verb, may seem to need commas.

• Do not use a comma when you tack on a subordinate clauseat the end of an independent clause, if that clause is necessaryto understand the meaning of the sentence:

XNo one should violate the law just because it seemsunjust.

Loose Commentary

• Use no commas with restrictive modifiers:

X The house that I live in is 100 years old.

• Use paired commas to enclose a nonrestrictive modifier:

X We had to reconstruct the larynx, which is thesource of voice, with cartilage from the shoulder.

• Use paired commas to enclose an appositive - a truncatednonrestrictive modifier:

X We had to reconstruct the larynx, which is thesource of voice, with cartilage from the shoulder.

Achieve a more casual effect with a dash (or parenthesis).

X We had to reconstruct the larynx - the source ofvoice - with cartilage from the shoulder.

Loose Commentary

• Use dashes when the loose commentary has internal commas:

The nations of Central Europe, Poland, Hungary, Romania,Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bosnia, Serbia havefor centuries been in the middle of an East-West tug-of-war.

X The nations of Central Europe - Poland, Hungary,Romania, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bosnia,Serbia - have for centuries been in the middle of anEast-West tug-of-war.

• When loose commentary at end of sentence, use a comma toseparate it from the first part of the sentence only if thecomment is not crucial to the meaning of the sentence.

XI wandered through Europe, seeking a place where I couldwrite.

XI spent my time seeking a place where I could writeundisturbed.

Punctuating Coordinated Elements

Punctuating Two Coordinated Elements

1. Generally speaking, do not put a comma between just twocoordinated elements:

7 As computers have become sophisticated, andpowerful they have taken over clerical, and bookkeepingtasks.

X As computers have become sophisticated andpowerful they have taken over clerical and bookkeepingtasks.

Four Exceptions

1. For a dramatic contrast, put a comma after the firstcoordinated element to emphasize the second (keep the second

short):

X The ocean is nature’s most glorious creation, and itsmost destructive.

To emphasize a contrast, use a comma before a but:

X Organ transplants are becoming more common, butnot less expensive.

Four Exceptions

2. If you want the reader to feel the cumulative power of acoordinated pair, drop the and and leave just a comma:

X Lincoln never had a formal education and neverowned a large library.

X Lincoln never had a formal education, never owned alarge library.

X The lessons of the pioneers was to ignore conditionsthat seemed difficult or even overwhelming and to geton with the business of subduing a hostile environment.

X The lessons of the pioneers was to ignore conditionsthat seemed difficult or even overwhelming, to get onwith the business of subduing a hostile environment.

Four Exceptions

3. Put a comma between long coordinated pairs only if you thinkyour readers need a chance to breathe or to sort out thegrammar.

4. If a sentence begins with a phrase or subordinate clausemodifying two following clauses that are independent andcoordinated, put a comma after the introductory phrase orclause but do not put a comma between the two coordinatedclauses:

X After the Soviet Union collapsed, Russia’s economydeclined for several years [no comma here] but theeconomies of former satellites to the west began toexpand.

Punctuating Three or More Coordinated Elements

• No general agreement on this one! Be consistent.

X His wit, his charm and his loyalty made him ourfriend.

X His wit, his charm, and his loyalty made him ourfriend.

• If any item has its own internal commas, use semicolons toshow how readers should group the coordinates:

X In mystery novels, the principal action ought to beeconomical, organic, and logical; fascinating, yet notexotic; clear, but complicated enough to hold thereader’s interest.