1. Psychopathology COUN. 5150 - Dr. Bachmann Final Exam Anthony Finke 1. The multi-axial classification system in diagnosing psychopathology in the DSM- IV involves an assessment on several axes. Each axis represents a different domain of information about an individual that may assist the clinician plan individual treatment and predict outcome. Axis I ClinicalDisorders/Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention; Axis II Personality Disorders/Mental Retardation; Axis III General Medical Conditions; Axis IV Psychosocial and Environmental Problems; Axis V Global Assessment of Functioning. An advantage of labeling individuals with a mental disorder is thatcommunication among professionals responsible for their treatment is madeeasier. Another advantage in labeling would be providing the individualsuffering from a mental disorder the appropriate treatment.A disadvantage of labeling would be that once a person has been diagnosed with a label, that diagnostic label can be hard to shake, even if the persons disorder is in full remission. Another disadvantage would be that, socially, people may make the assumption of referring to the person by their diagnosis (a schizophrenic or a manic-depressive) rather than a person with or a person that suffers from said mental illness.2. My understanding of abnormal behavior is that there is no universal agreementabout what is meant by abnormality. Also, I realize that there is a negativeconnotation or negative judgment associated with what we consider abnormal. We assess what is abnormal by evaluating certain elements of behavior. Theseelements are 1) suffering, 2) maladaptiveness, 3) deviancy, 4) violation of thestandards of society, 5) social discomfort, and 6) irrationality and unpredictability. The causal and contributing factors in the development of psychopathology:Primary Causes condition must be present for the disorder to occur;Predisposing Causes condition comes before, paves the way to the disorder (eg,child abuse); Precipitating Causes triggers disorder; Reinforcing Causes maintains maladaptive behavior. Diathesis-Stress Model. Diathesis is a predisposition or vulnerability towarddeveloping a disorder. It can derive from biological, psychosocial, and/orsociocultural causal factors. Stress is the response of an individual to thedemands that he or she perceives as taxing or exceeding his or her personalresources. Many mental disorders are believed to develop as the result of somekind of stressor operating on a person who has a diathesis for that disorder. An

2. example would be a child that experiences the death of a parent and may therebyacquire a diathesis for becoming depressed later in life.3. Some of the important clinical observations that a counselor needs to make duringan initial assessment are: appearance, behavior, attitude; characteristic of talk;emotional state/affective reactions; content of thought; orientation and awareness;memory; and general intellectual evaluation. Once the mental status evaluation is completed, a summary of all observationsmust be made. And from that summary and in addition to the medical history andphysical examination, a diagnosis can be made and the best course of treatmentcan be determined to fit the diagnosis. For example, after a mental status evaluation has been completed on a child thatexhibits a flat affect, poor hygiene, refuses to answer the interviewers questions,and (per parental reports) child recently withdrawing from friends and family anda decrease in the childs appetite, a possible diagnosis could be depressivedisorder. Therefore, a possible course of treatment could be cognitive-behavioraltherapy.9.Some of the most common symptoms during a panic attack are: rapid heartbeat, pounding heart or palpitations; sweating; trembling or shaking; shortness of breath or smothering; feeling of choking; chest pain; nausea or abdominal distress; feeling dizzy, lightheaded, or faint; derealization or depersonalization; fear or losing control; fear of dying; paresthesias; and chills or hot flashes. Individuals suffering from a panic attack initially seek treatment in an emergencyroom or physicians clinic, thinking that they are experiencing a heart attack. The DSM-IV criteria for Panic Disorder are A) recurrent unexpected Panic Attacks and at least one of the attacks has been followed by 1 month (or more) of one (or more) of the following: persistent concern about having additional attacks; worry about the implications of the attack or its consequences (e.g., losing control, having a heart attack, going crazy); a significant change in behaviorrelated to the attacks; B) Absence of Agoraphobia; C) The panic attacks are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, amedication) or a general medical condition; and D) The panic attacks are notbetter accounted for by another mental disorder, such as Social Phobia (e.g., occurring on exposure to fearedsocial situations)., Specific Phobia (e.g., on exposure to a specific phobic situation), Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (e.g., on exposure to dirt in someone with an obsession about contamination), PTSD (e.g., in response to stimuli associated with a severe stressor), or Separation AnxietyDisorder (e.g., in response to being away from home or close relatives.) Agoraphobia stems from anxiety about having a panic attack in situations whereescape might prove difficult or embarrassing, which include both open andenclosed spaces. 3. In the treatment of Panic Disorder, the best forms are medication (SSRIs, tricyclics, and benzodiazepines) and behavioral and cogni ive-behavioral t treatments. Depending on each individual who suffers from Panic Disorder, a combination of these treatments may be appropriate.10. The similarities in Bulimia Nervosa and Anorexia Nervosa are: fears of weight gain, becoming fat; both have a distorted image of their body weight and shape; and each is accompanied by a physical consequences relative to each disorder that inevitably could lead to death.The differences in Bulimia Nervosa and Anorexia Nervosa are: a person suffering from A.N. severely restricts their intake of calories whereas a person with B.N. eats an enormous amount of food in a short period of time; a person with A.N. refuses to maintain at or above minimally normal weight, whereas a person with B.N. generally maintains normal body weight; and a person with A.N. typically does not engage in purgin to the extent that someone with B.N.g does.Some of the contributing factors associated with the development of an eating disorder are: biological and genetic (ex. genes increasing the risk for anorexia or chemical balance/imbalance that effect brain chemistry); family (ex. Physical/sexual abuse or emphasis on their weight); culture (ex. Influence of the media on being thin or ideas that thinness will bring a person success, power, and approval); and triggers (ex. A period of adjustment, a traumatic event, or large life changes).My understanding of how the American culture impacts our views on weight is that there is an idealization of thinness and appearance in women, especially with our female role models mostly consisting of actresses, models, and athletes (who more often than not are thin and rich). So, it makes sense why we attribute success, power, and strength with body image. What does not make sense is that even though we know what the consequences ofthese disorders are, these disorders still run rampant.14. The essential features of Borderline Personality Disorder are a pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects and marked by impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five or more of the following: 1) frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment 2) a pattern of unstable and intense relationships characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and devaluation 3) identity disturbance; unstable self image or sense of self 4) impulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self-damaging 5) recurrent suicidal behavior, gestures, or threats, or self-mutilating behaviors 6) emotional instability due to a marked reactivity of mood 7) chronic feelings of emptiness 8) inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger 9) short-term, stress-related paranoid ideat on or severe dissociative symptomsi 4. Four personality disorders that co-occur with BPD are: histrionic, dependent, antisocial, and schizotypal.People suffering from Borderline Personality Disorder can be challenging for therapist to treat because: 1) the tend to vio boundaries; 2) they have a hard late time forming a working and trusting relationship with their therapist; 3) they are impulsive; 4) they are resistant to participating in treatment; 5) they often do not see anything about themselves that needs changing or improvement;and 6) they are likely to terminate treatment prematurely.15. The primary characteristics of Autism are a wide range of problematic behaviors such as: deficits in language, perceptual, and motor development; defective reality testing; and an inability to function in social situations.In Autism, the domains that are affected are: social, 1) not showing any need for affection or contact with anyone and 2) a deficit in the ability to attend to social cues from others; language, 1) an absence or severely limited use of speech and 2) echolalia, the parrot-like repetition of a few words; cognition, 1) deficits in social reasoning but can manipulate objects and 2) difficulty with symbolic tasks such as pantomime, in which they are asked to recall motor actions to imitate tasks with imagined objects, in spi e of the fact that they might perform the taskt well with real objects; and behavior, 1) repetitive movements (head banging, spinning, and rocking) and 2) an autistic child may at one moment be severely agitated or panicked by a very soft sound and at another time be totally oblivious to loud music.The primary treatment consideration for autism is that the parents and therapist are the primary agents of improvement and change. In addition, having the treatment done primarily in the home (rather than an institution) may also show improvement.16. The primary characteristics of Aspergers Syndrome are: A) qualitative impairment in social interactions, as manifested by at least two of the following: 1) marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye to eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interactions. 2) failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level. 3) a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., buy a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest to other people). 4) lack of social or emotional reciprocity. B) restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behaviors, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following: 1) encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotype and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus, 2) apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals, 3) stereotyped and repetitive and motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole body movement) 4) persistent preoccupation with parts of objects. C) the disturbance causes clinically significant impairment in social, occupatio nal, 5. or other important areas of functioning. D) There is no clinically significant general delay in language (e.g., single words used by age 2 years, communicative phrases used by 3 years). E) There is no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or in the development of age-appropriate self-help skills, adaptivebehavior (other than social interaction), and curiosity about the environment in the childhood. F) Criteria are not met for another specific pervasive developmentaldisorder or schizophrenia.This disorder is difficult to identify and diagnose for reasons such as: 1) they have a high degree of functionality and are often viewed as eccentric or odd, however, they do not appear to warrant a DSM-IV diagnosis; and 2) it is not uncommon for a child diagnosed with disorders such as: Pervasive Developmental Disorder (NOS); High Functioning Autism, ADD, ADHD, and Nonverbal Learning Disability to be rediagnosed with AS. This is because, untilrecently Aspergers Syndrome was virtually unknown until a few years ago and many people were misdiagnosed or remained undiagnosed. Some of the comormid disorders associated with Aspergers Syndrome are TicDisorders, Tourettes Syndrome, attention problems and mood problems (e.g.,depression and anxiety). Although there is no cure for Aspergers Syndrome, treatment needs to consist offocused and structured counseling. This can help address the issues ofoverwhelming experiences ofsadness or negativity, anxiety, family functioning,frustration in regard to vocational goals and placement, and ongoing socialadjustment.17.The diagnostic criteria for ADHD are: six or more symptoms of inattention orhyperactivity-impulsivity that have persisted for at least six months to a degreethat is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level; some hyperactive-impulsive symptoms that caused impairment were present before age seven; someimpairment from the symptoms is present in two or more settings; clear evidenceof clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupationalfunctioning; and symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of apervasive developmental di order, schizophrenia, or other psychotic disorder and sare not better accounted for by another mental disorder, such as mood disorder,anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or personality disorder. The difficulty in diagnosing ADHD-Predominately Inattentve Type is, becauseithe children do not tend to be disruptive, it is often missed/overlooked. My understanding of the problem/contro versy of the wide use of medication forthe treatment of children with behavioral disorders is that 1) I think childrenmight be placed on meds to deal specifically with symptoms or behaviors, whenthe behaviors may actually be due to some trauma (ex. Anxiety Disorder) thatoccurred in the past that is overlooked as the cause of the undesired behaviors; 2)young children may be diagnosed with ADHD when in fact, it could be age-appropriate behaviors being exhibited and meds appear to be an easy fix; 3)medication appears to either not work on a great deal of children diagnosed with 6. ADHD, or parents do not want the children to be on medication despite ir recommendations from medical professionals; and/or 4) the parents may not want others to question their parenting skills (when in fact, the childs behavior can improve simply by an improvement in parenting sk ills).19. The types of sexual dysfunctions are: hypoactive sexual desire disorder, little or no sexual drive or interest; sexual aversion disorder, total lack of interest in sex and avoidance of sexual contact; male erectile disorder, inability to achieve or maintain an erection; female sexual arousal disorder, nonresponsiveness to erotic stimulation both physically and emotionally; premature ejaculation, unsatisfactorily brief period between the begin ning of sexual stimulation and the occurrence of ejaculation; male orgasmic disorder, inability to ejaculate during intercourse; female orgasmic disorder, difficulty in achieving orgasm, either manually or during sexual intercourse; vaginismus, involuntary muscle spasm at the entrance to the vagina that prevents penetration and sexual intercourse; and dyspareunia, painful coitus (may have either an organic or psychological basis).The primary treatment considerations for sexual dysfunctions are to provide education, enhance stimulation and eliminate routines, provide distraction techniques, and encourage non-coital behaviors.Gender identity disorder is characterized by two components: 1) a strong and persistent cross-gender identification (the desire to be, or the insistence that one is, of the opposite sex) and 2) gender dysphoria (persistent discomfort about ones biological sex or the sense that the gender role of that sex is inappropriate). The disorder may occur in children or adults and in males or females.Homosexuality is not considered a psychopathological condition because the vast majority of evidence shows that homosexuality is compatible with psychological normality.