psychology of language heather ferguson. overview 1. definition of language 2. stages of language...

PSYCHOLOGY OF PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGELANGUAGE

Heather FergusonHeather Ferguson

OVERVIEWOVERVIEW

1.1. Definition of languageDefinition of language

2.2. Stages of language perceptionStages of language perception

3.3. Stages of language productionStages of language production

4.4. Theories of language acquisitionTheories of language acquisition• Critical period hypothesisCritical period hypothesis• Case studyCase study

5.5. BilingualismBilingualism

WHAT IS LANGUAGE?WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

‘‘The systematic, conventional use of The systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society for communication and human society for communication and

self-expression.’ self-expression.’

David CrystalDavid Crystal

STAGES OF LANGUAGE STAGES OF LANGUAGE PERCEPTIONPERCEPTION

At birthAt birth Already prefer the sounds Already prefer the sounds

of their mother’s voiceof their mother’s voice Can discriminate between Can discriminate between

mother’s native language mother’s native language an other languagesan other languages

Discriminating soundsDiscriminating sounds

Adult speakers have difficulty Adult speakers have difficulty discriminating between language sounds discriminating between language sounds that are not phonemic contrasts in their that are not phonemic contrasts in their native languagenative language

Young infants do not demonstrate this Young infants do not demonstrate this difficulty initiallydifficulty initially They can discriminate any contrasting They can discriminate any contrasting

phonetic sounds in the world’s languagesphonetic sounds in the world’s languages

How can we possibly know that?How can we possibly know that?

Are /s/ and /ç/ different sounds for you, baby?

Testing InfantsTesting Infants

Some helpful things infants do for Some helpful things infants do for experimenters:experimenters: They look longer at new stimuli compared They look longer at new stimuli compared

to familiar stimulito familiar stimuli They suck faster when exposed to new They suck faster when exposed to new

stimulistimuli


Habituation-dishabituation methodHabituation-dishabituation method Habituate infant on one stimulusHabituate infant on one stimulus Show new, different stimulusShow new, different stimulus

Does the infant react to the new stimulus as new?Does the infant react to the new stimulus as new?

Habituation-dishabituation measuresHabituation-dishabituation measures Time looks to stimulusTime looks to stimulus High-amplitude sucking paradigmHigh-amplitude sucking paradigm

Does the infant start sucking faster on a pacifier Does the infant start sucking faster on a pacifier (that’s hooked up to a monitoring device)?(that’s hooked up to a monitoring device)?


ba ba ba ba ba ba


ba ba pa ba ba ba

Limited-time OfferLimited-time Offer

However, infants can only discriminate all However, infants can only discriminate all phonemes for a limited period of timephonemes for a limited period of time At 4 to 6 months phonetic sensitivity At 4 to 6 months phonetic sensitivity

diminishes. diminishes. By 12 months, infants are very poor at By 12 months, infants are very poor at

distinguishing foreign contrasts distinguishing foreign contrasts The (speech) perceptual system is being The (speech) perceptual system is being

reorganized around these time periods (4-reorganized around these time periods (4-6 months & 10-12 months)6 months & 10-12 months)

TheoryTheory Exposure and habituation to the sounds Exposure and habituation to the sounds

of the target language impedes an of the target language impedes an infant’s ability to perceive phonetic infant’s ability to perceive phonetic contrasts that the native language does contrasts that the native language does not makenot make

There are innate language abilities that There are innate language abilities that are lost due to experience with a first are lost due to experience with a first languagelanguage

One is born with all language sounds One is born with all language sounds available, but sound distinctions are lost available, but sound distinctions are lost as sound system developsas sound system develops

Phonemic Organization AccountPhonemic Organization Account

Loss of perceptual ability is related to Loss of perceptual ability is related to development of phonemic categories for development of phonemic categories for the first language- phonemic organizationthe first language- phonemic organization

Infant-directed SpeechInfant-directed Speech 7-week-old infants prefer infant-7-week-old infants prefer infant-

directed speech (‘motherese’) to directed speech (‘motherese’) to adult-directed speechadult-directed speech Regardless of gender of speakerRegardless of gender of speaker

Older infants show this Older infants show this preference as well, but younger preference as well, but younger infants are more responsive, both infants are more responsive, both in terms of attention and affectin terms of attention and affect

STAGES OF LANGUAGE STAGES OF LANGUAGE PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION

The larynxThe larynx At birth- the larynx is relatively high, and At birth- the larynx is relatively high, and

entire vocal tract is quite different from entire vocal tract is quite different from adultsadults

At 3 months- larynx begins to descend At 3 months- larynx begins to descend (won’t reach adult location until ~3 years (won’t reach adult location until ~3 years old)old)

At 4 months- the vocal tract begins to At 4 months- the vocal tract begins to resemble an adult vocal tractresemble an adult vocal tract

Infant Speech ProductionInfant Speech Production

Because of Because of their their maturing maturing vocal tract, vocal tract, some some sounds are sounds are genuinely genuinely difficult for difficult for young young children to children to produceproduce

Stage I (0-8 weeks): Basic Stage I (0-8 weeks): Basic biological noisesbiological noises

ReflexiveReflexive Hunger, pain and discomfort resulting in Hunger, pain and discomfort resulting in

cryingcrying VegetativeVegetative

Sucking, swallowing, coughing, burpingSucking, swallowing, coughing, burping Airstream mechanism and vocal folds Airstream mechanism and vocal folds

used to produce pitch patterns in a used to produce pitch patterns in a rhythmical fashionrhythmical fashion

Stage II (2-5 months): Cooing Stage II (2-5 months): Cooing and laughingand laughing

Cooing sounds develop alongside cryingCooing sounds develop alongside crying Quieter, lower-pitched and more musical Quieter, lower-pitched and more musical

than cryingthan crying Short-vowel-like sounds preceded by a Short-vowel-like sounds preceded by a

consonant-like sound produced at the consonant-like sound produced at the back of the mouthback of the mouth

No rhythm or intonational contourNo rhythm or intonational contour Laughing sounds emerge at around 4 Laughing sounds emerge at around 4

monthsmonths

Stage III (5-7Stage III (5-7½ months): Vocal ½ months): Vocal PlayPlay

High-pitched segments over one second High-pitched segments over one second long, frequently repeated (longer in long, frequently repeated (longer in duration than cooing)duration than cooing)

Wider intonation ranges (low to high)Wider intonation ranges (low to high) Large inventory of consonant and vowel Large inventory of consonant and vowel

sounds, with periodic focus on particular sounds, with periodic focus on particular places of articulationplaces of articulation

Stage IV (~6-12 months): Stage IV (~6-12 months): BabblingBabbling

Features of babbling:Features of babbling: Sounds are a subset of possible sounds found Sounds are a subset of possible sounds found

in spoken languagein spoken language Syllabic organisationSyllabic organisation Reduplication Reduplication

Same two sounds repeated (“babababa” Same two sounds repeated (“babababa” “papapapap”)“papapapap”)

Variegated babbling (~12 months)Variegated babbling (~12 months) Sounds change between syllables (“bamipabo”)Sounds change between syllables (“bamipabo”)

Stage IV (~6-12 months): Stage IV (~6-12 months): BabblingBabbling

Features of babbling:Features of babbling: Lack of meaning/ referenceLack of meaning/ reference Rhythm and intonation reminiscent of speechRhythm and intonation reminiscent of speech Continuity of phonetic form and syllable type Continuity of phonetic form and syllable type

between a child’s babbling and first wordsbetween a child’s babbling and first words Infants will often seem to ‘practise’ when aloneInfants will often seem to ‘practise’ when alone

Suggests that babbling is related more to Suggests that babbling is related more to practising speech sounds than communicationpractising speech sounds than communication

Babbling & Sign LanguageBabbling & Sign Language

Deaf infants also babbleDeaf infants also babble Often delayed (11-24 months) compared to Often delayed (11-24 months) compared to

hearing infantshearing infants Often different in character (e.g. fewer Often different in character (e.g. fewer

different kinds of consonants)different kinds of consonants) This indicates that exposure to a spoken language This indicates that exposure to a spoken language

influences babblinginfluences babbling

Infants (hearing and deaf) who are Infants (hearing and deaf) who are exposed to sign language will babble exposed to sign language will babble manuallymanually

Stage V (9-18months): Melodic Stage V (9-18months): Melodic UtteranceUtterance

Variations in melody, rhythm and Variations in melody, rhythm and intonation become a major feature toward intonation become a major feature toward the end of the first yearthe end of the first year

Begins to sound language-likeBegins to sound language-like

First WordsFirst Words

Around 12 monthsAround 12 months Focus on words related Focus on words related

to the here and now, to the here and now, concrete things:concrete things: People’s names, toys, People’s names, toys,

clothes, food they eatclothes, food they eat Words for things that Words for things that

they can influence (one-they can influence (one-word stage)word stage) ““ball” likely to be learned ball” likely to be learned

earlier than “chair” or earlier than “chair” or “tree”“tree”

First WordsFirst Words

Two kinds of errors children can make:Two kinds of errors children can make:1.1. Overextension- refer to all four legged Overextension- refer to all four legged

animals as dogsanimals as dogs

2.2. Underextension- refer to only the family dog Underextension- refer to only the family dog as dogas dog

The Mapping ProblemThe Mapping Problem

Child says “What’s that?” and points to:Child says “What’s that?” and points to:

So…how could this possibly go wrong?So…how could this possibly go wrong?


Potential problems:Potential problems: More than one referent could apply to the More than one referent could apply to the

word, “teacup”word, “teacup”


Potential problems:Potential problems: More than one word may apply to a referent:More than one word may apply to a referent:

Tea?Tea? Teacup?Teacup? Saucer?Saucer? A drink?A drink? Cup?Cup?


Apparent solutions:Apparent solutions: Whole object bias- children prefer to attach Whole object bias- children prefer to attach

new labels to the whole objectnew labels to the whole object Mutual exclusivity bias- children prefer to Mutual exclusivity bias- children prefer to

have only one name for an objecthave only one name for an object

Early “Multiword” UtterancesEarly “Multiword” Utterances

By about 15months By about 15months babies have a babies have a vocabulary of about vocabulary of about 20- 25 words20- 25 words

Two yearsTwo years Vocabulary rapidly Vocabulary rapidly

increases to 100’s of increases to 100’s of wordswords

Child constructs Child constructs primitive sentences- primitive sentences- two-word stage (“no two-word stage (“no eat, throw ball”)eat, throw ball”)

Early “Multiword” UtterancesEarly “Multiword” Utterances Thirty monthsThirty months

Utterances progress Utterances progress beyond 2- word stage and beyond 2- word stage and show basic propositional show basic propositional structure (telegraphic structure (telegraphic stage)stage)

Functional words appear Functional words appear (“the, in, of”)(“the, in, of”)

Children overgeneralise Children overgeneralise rules (“goed”)rules (“goed”)

Five years oldFive years old Basic structure of language Basic structure of language

is in placeis in place Vocabulary of 10000- Vocabulary of 10000-

15000 words15000 words

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITIONACQUISITION

1.1. Nativist TheoriesNativist Theories• Language is entirely innateLanguage is entirely innate

2.2. Learning Theories Learning Theories • Language is entirely learnedLanguage is entirely learned

3.3. Cognitive TheoriesCognitive Theories• Language development is related Language development is related

to other cognitive developmentsto other cognitive developments4.4. Social Interactionist TheorySocial Interactionist Theory

• Language is acquired through Language is acquired through communicative interactioncommunicative interaction

NATIVISMNATIVISM

Emphasizes a child’s inborn capacities Emphasizes a child’s inborn capacities for languagefor language Language is acquired through a genetic Language is acquired through a genetic

programprogram Language acquisition is distinct from other Language acquisition is distinct from other

cognitive processescognitive processes

NATIVISMNATIVISM

Noam Chomsky- the language Noam Chomsky- the language acquisition device (LAD)acquisition device (LAD) Children are born with a basic Children are born with a basic

understanding of language and a mental understanding of language and a mental capacity to learn it quicklycapacity to learn it quickly

Brain is ‘over- connected’ at birth. Brain is ‘over- connected’ at birth. Connections that are not used die or Connections that are not used die or become dormant, and new connections become dormant, and new connections based on experience formbased on experience form

There is a specific time period of functionThere is a specific time period of function

NATIVISMNATIVISM

Universal grammar:Universal grammar: Children are pre-programmed with a kind of Children are pre-programmed with a kind of

default language which can be altered with default language which can be altered with exposure to a specific languageexposure to a specific language

Key assumption:Key assumption: Infants develops language even when other Infants develops language even when other

cognitive skills are lowcognitive skills are low

Evidence in Favour of a Pre-determined Evidence in Favour of a Pre-determined Biological Language System:Biological Language System:

1.1. Other primates don’t learn language simply Other primates don’t learn language simply by being treated like human infantsby being treated like human infants

Gua (chimp, 1993)Gua (chimp, 1993) Raised alongside a 9Raised alongside a 9½month-old boy for 9 months½month-old boy for 9 months Never spoke but learned to comprehend spoken Never spoke but learned to comprehend spoken

requestsrequests Viki (chimp, 1951)Viki (chimp, 1951)

Raised alone from 3 days- 7 years oldRaised alone from 3 days- 7 years old Capable of picture recognition, sorting of pictures Capable of picture recognition, sorting of pictures

and objects into conceptual categoriesand objects into conceptual categories Understood large number of words and phrasesUnderstood large number of words and phrases But, comprehension contextually determinedBut, comprehension contextually determined


2.2. Children with other cognitive deficits still Children with other cognitive deficits still learn languagelearn language

Language skills can persist even in Language skills can persist even in cases of profound mental retardationcases of profound mental retardation


3.3. Poverty of the stimulusPoverty of the stimulus Language input to children is ill-formed Language input to children is ill-formed

and incomplete (motherese)and incomplete (motherese) Children don’t receive explicit rules about Children don’t receive explicit rules about

what not to dowhat not to do They don’t get it even if you do tell themThey don’t get it even if you do tell them


4.4. CreolesCreoles Pidgins develop in language contact situations Pidgins develop in language contact situations

(mostly colonial)(mostly colonial) (Pidgin = a language that has been constructed from two (Pidgin = a language that has been constructed from two

or more shared languages for communication between or more shared languages for communication between communities. A pidgin is not a mother tongue)communities. A pidgin is not a mother tongue)

Creoles develop from children exposed Creoles develop from children exposed primarily to pidginsprimarily to pidgins

(Creole = a language that has developed from a mixture (Creole = a language that has developed from a mixture of languages)of languages)

Children are, in essence, filling the gaps of Children are, in essence, filling the gaps of pidginspidgins


5.5. Evidence for critical period of language Evidence for critical period of language acquisitionacquisition

THE CRITICAL PERIOD THE CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Eric Lenneberg, 1967


Lenneberg theorized that… Lenneberg theorized that… The acquisition of language is an innate The acquisition of language is an innate

(you are born with it) process (you are born with it) process Biological factors limit the critical period for Biological factors limit the critical period for

acquisition of a language to a ‘window of acquisition of a language to a ‘window of opportunity’ from roughly two years of age opportunity’ from roughly two years of age to pubertyto puberty

If a child does not learn a language before If a child does not learn a language before the onset of puberty, the child will never the onset of puberty, the child will never master language at allmaster language at all

Bird Song and the Critical Bird Song and the Critical Period HypothesisPeriod Hypothesis

Some birds (like Sparrows) have courtship Some birds (like Sparrows) have courtship songssongs

Songs have dialectal variationSongs have dialectal variation Individual song is a version of other songs it Individual song is a version of other songs it

hears during the ‘critical period’ of first 100 hears during the ‘critical period’ of first 100 days of lifedays of life

Bird learns song by trial and error (babbling)Bird learns song by trial and error (babbling) When deprived of song input early in life, they When deprived of song input early in life, they

fail to produce a normal songfail to produce a normal song


The critical period and the human brain…The critical period and the human brain… Lenneberg believed that after lateralization (a Lenneberg believed that after lateralization (a

process by which the two sides of the brain process by which the two sides of the brain develop specialized functions), the brain loses develop specialized functions), the brain loses plasticityplasticity

Lenneberg claimed that lateralization of the Lenneberg claimed that lateralization of the language function is normally completed at language function is normally completed at puberty, making post-adolescent language puberty, making post-adolescent language acquisition difficultacquisition difficult

CASE STUDYCASE STUDY

The story of Genie

The Story of GenieThe Story of Genie

Read about Genie and decide for Read about Genie and decide for yourself…yourself… How does Genie’s language development How does Genie’s language development

relate to Lenneberg’s theory?relate to Lenneberg’s theory? What is the strongest evidence in support of What is the strongest evidence in support of

the Critical Period Hypothesisthe Critical Period Hypothesis Was Genie’s early language deprivation the Was Genie’s early language deprivation the

ONLY thing that contributed to her abnormal ONLY thing that contributed to her abnormal language development?language development?

The Story of GenieThe Story of Genie

Main points…Main points… From 20 months- 13 years old Genie was not From 20 months- 13 years old Genie was not

allowed to make noise and was not spoken to allowed to make noise and was not spoken to (father barked or growled at her)(father barked or growled at her)

When found could not speak or understand words When found could not speak or understand words (except name and ‘sorry’)(except name and ‘sorry’)

Over time, vocab increased and she learned to Over time, vocab increased and she learned to speak in 2/ 3- word sentencesspeak in 2/ 3- word sentences

BUT, speech has remained garbled and she has BUT, speech has remained garbled and she has never mastered grammar needed for languagenever mastered grammar needed for language

Genie and the Critical Period Genie and the Critical Period HypothesisHypothesis

At first, a number of researchers At first, a number of researchers thought that Genie would prove thought that Genie would prove Lenneberg’s theory wrong as…Lenneberg’s theory wrong as… 1 year after her escape she was producing 1 year after her escape she was producing

2/ 3- word sentences2/ 3- word sentences She could distinguish between singular/ She could distinguish between singular/

plural nouns and positive and negative plural nouns and positive and negative sentencessentences

Genie’s language resembled that of a Genie’s language resembled that of a normal 18- 20 month old childnormal 18- 20 month old child


BUT, BUT, As time went on, Genie’s vocab did not As time went on, Genie’s vocab did not

‘explode’ as is the case with normally ‘explode’ as is the case with normally developing childrendeveloping children

Four years later…Four years later… She still had not mastered grammarShe still had not mastered grammar She could not ask questions properly She could not ask questions properly

(“where is may I have a penny”)(“where is may I have a penny”) She confused pronouns, using ‘you’ and She confused pronouns, using ‘you’ and

‘me’ interchangeably‘me’ interchangeably


Has Genie supported Lenneberg’s Has Genie supported Lenneberg’s theory?theory? NO!NO!

Why?Why? Genie’s personal history was so disastrous Genie’s personal history was so disastrous

that it is not clear why she did not make that it is not clear why she did not make progress with her languageprogress with her language

It is possible that Genie did not master It is possible that Genie did not master language because she had passed the language because she had passed the ‘critical period’‘critical period’

BUT, other explanations are availableBUT, other explanations are available


Genie’s brain may have been abnormalGenie’s brain may have been abnormal Brain scans showed that Genie’s brain was Brain scans showed that Genie’s brain was

unusualunusual As we know, for most people, the areas of the As we know, for most people, the areas of the

brain responsible for language functions are brain responsible for language functions are located in the left hemispherelocated in the left hemisphere

BUT, Genie’s brain was dominated by the BUT, Genie’s brain was dominated by the right hemisphereright hemisphere


Conclusions…Conclusions… Genie’s lack of progress does suggest that, Genie’s lack of progress does suggest that,

over a certain age, any child who has not over a certain age, any child who has not learnt a language will have difficulty acquiring learnt a language will have difficulty acquiring oneone

BUT, other explanations can not be ruled outBUT, other explanations can not be ruled out Therefore, Lenneberg’s hypothesis is Therefore, Lenneberg’s hypothesis is not not

provenproven, but it is , but it is strongly supportedstrongly supported

LEARNING THEORIESLEARNING THEORIES

Associated with Skinner, Pavlov, etcAssociated with Skinner, Pavlov, etc Language is learned through basic Language is learned through basic

processes like associations, reinforcement processes like associations, reinforcement and imitationand imitation

Language acquisition occurs through three Language acquisition occurs through three processes:processes:


1.1. Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

USUS URUR

USUS ++ CSCS CRCR

“ “bottle”bottle”

CSCS CRCR

“ “bottle”bottle”


2.2. Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning Reinforcement/ rewardsReinforcement/ rewards Children are rewarded for early attempts at Children are rewarded for early attempts at

languagelanguage Selective reinforcement shapes children’s Selective reinforcement shapes children’s

language as the requirement for a reward language as the requirement for a reward becomes more specificbecomes more specific


3.3. Social learningSocial learning Observation and imitation of others, Observation and imitation of others,

especially those who are powerful, nurturing especially those who are powerful, nurturing and similar to the childand similar to the child

Limitations of Learning TheoriesLimitations of Learning Theories

BUT, these processes can not fully account BUT, these processes can not fully account for language development in children for language development in children because… because… Not enough to explain the complexities of Not enough to explain the complexities of

language itselflanguage itself Most parents do not consistently reinforce proper Most parents do not consistently reinforce proper

speechspeech Children say things they would not have heard an Children say things they would not have heard an

adult sayadult say Aspects of language development are universal Aspects of language development are universal

and do not vary with different experiencesand do not vary with different experiences

COGNITIVE THEORIESCOGNITIVE THEORIES Language is unique to humansLanguage is unique to humans

But, not a modular, pre-programmed abilityBut, not a modular, pre-programmed ability General disposition for learning that allows General disposition for learning that allows

languagelanguage Pattern recognitionPattern recognition ImitationImitation

Language development is related to other Language development is related to other forms of developmentforms of development

For these kinds of theories to be true infants For these kinds of theories to be true infants must have general skills that clearly contribute must have general skills that clearly contribute to languageto language

Cognition and LanguageCognition and Language Cognitive skills that are not language Cognitive skills that are not language

specific but none-the-less contribute to specific but none-the-less contribute to languagelanguage Newborns prefer face-like to non-face-like Newborns prefer face-like to non-face-like

stimulistimuli Quickly learn to recognize their mother’s Quickly learn to recognize their mother’s

faceface Young infants focus on the eye region more Young infants focus on the eye region more

than other facial regionsthan other facial regions More inclined to look at a pleasantly moving More inclined to look at a pleasantly moving

face than a still oneface than a still one

Cognition and LanguageCognition and Language

Infants know much more than they can Infants know much more than they can demonstrate physicallydemonstrate physically

So, infants come to the language So, infants come to the language environment with a much more environment with a much more sophisticated view of the world than has sophisticated view of the world than has been previously thoughtbeen previously thought LAD not necessarily needed!LAD not necessarily needed!

INTERACTIONIST VIEWINTERACTIONIST VIEW

Both inborn capacities and learning are Both inborn capacities and learning are importantimportant

Emphasizes the use of language and the fit Emphasizes the use of language and the fit between the child and the language environmentbetween the child and the language environment

Jerome Bruner- the language acquisition Jerome Bruner- the language acquisition support system (LASS)support system (LASS) Social context of language development is importantSocial context of language development is important Language- skilled adults structure and support the Language- skilled adults structure and support the

child’s language learning environmentchild’s language learning environment

INTERACTIONIST VIEWINTERACTIONIST VIEW

Parent- child language interaction Parent- child language interaction characterised by:characterised by: Infant- directed speech (‘motherese’)Infant- directed speech (‘motherese’)

High- pitched, simple, redundant speech adults use with High- pitched, simple, redundant speech adults use with babiesbabies

RecastingRecasting Rephrasing what child says, often as a questionRephrasing what child says, often as a question

EchoingEchoing Repeating what a child saysRepeating what a child says

ExpandingExpanding Restating in a more advanced way what a child saysRestating in a more advanced way what a child says

LabellingLabelling Naming objectsNaming objects

SUMMARY OF THEORIES OF SUMMARY OF THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUSITIONLANGUAGE ACQUSITION

Language is clearly genetically specifiedLanguage is clearly genetically specified It appears that only humans develop a full It appears that only humans develop a full

version of itversion of it But not yet established to what extent But not yet established to what extent

language is directly specified and to what language is directly specified and to what extent its development is tied up with other extent its development is tied up with other aspects of cognitive and social aspects of cognitive and social developmentdevelopment

BILINGUALISMBILINGUALISM

Bilingualism and the Critical Period Bilingualism and the Critical Period HypothesisHypothesis

What is a bilingual? What is a bilingual? A person who uses or is able to use two A person who uses or is able to use two

languages, especially with equal fluencylanguages, especially with equal fluency Is there a cognitive advantage to bilingualism?Is there a cognitive advantage to bilingualism?

Early studies showing a disadvantageEarly studies showing a disadvantage– Studies of immigrantsStudies of immigrants– Confounded by social classConfounded by social class

Later studies showing an advantageLater studies showing an advantage– Avoided social class confoundsAvoided social class confounds– Picked up new confounds eg. ‘who is bilingual?”Picked up new confounds eg. ‘who is bilingual?”

Bilingualism and the Critical Period Bilingualism and the Critical Period HypothesisHypothesis

Evidence for…Evidence for… It is significantly harder for older adults to master a It is significantly harder for older adults to master a

second languagesecond language Evidence against…Evidence against…

Some late L2 learners can become ‘perfectly Some late L2 learners can become ‘perfectly fluent speakers’ (Long, 1990; Birdsong, 1992) fluent speakers’ (Long, 1990; Birdsong, 1992)

Brain and Bilingualism: IssuesBrain and Bilingualism: Issues

Are the separate languages of bilinguals Are the separate languages of bilinguals stored in separate parts of the brain?stored in separate parts of the brain?

Does neural representation vary with age Does neural representation vary with age of acquisition?of acquisition?

Is there a “language switch” somewhere in Is there a “language switch” somewhere in the brain?the brain?

Brain and BilingualismBrain and Bilingualism

Mixed evidence for differing brain regions Mixed evidence for differing brain regions in early and late bilinguals… in early and late bilinguals… Some studies have found similar patterns in Some studies have found similar patterns in

early and late bilinguals (Chee et al., 1999b) early and late bilinguals (Chee et al., 1999b)

Brain and BilingualismBrain and Bilingualism

But, some fMRI studies have found But, some fMRI studies have found different patterns of activation in sentence different patterns of activation in sentence production in early and late bilinguals (Kim production in early and late bilinguals (Kim et al., 1997)et al., 1997)

Bilingualism ConclusionsBilingualism Conclusions The two or more languages of bilinguals are distributed The two or more languages of bilinguals are distributed

across the same brain regions that are used by across the same brain regions that are used by monolinguals (Broca’s and Wernicke’s)monolinguals (Broca’s and Wernicke’s)

For both monolinguals and bilinguals, the regions For both monolinguals and bilinguals, the regions involved in language use vary by task, expertise and involved in language use vary by task, expertise and strategystrategy

The same areas may have to “work harder” and The same areas may have to “work harder” and additional areas may be recruited for processing in the additional areas may be recruited for processing in the weaker languageweaker language

Second language learning appears to be easier in the Second language learning appears to be easier in the critical period than later in life, BUT it is possible to critical period than later in life, BUT it is possible to become fluent in a second languagebecome fluent in a second language

Second language is not necessarily the weaker Second language is not necessarily the weaker language!language!

LANGUAGE REFERENCESLANGUAGE REFERENCES

Gleitman, H. 1999: Language in Gleitman, H. 1999: Language in PsychologyPsychology. Chapter 9, pp 344- 399. Chapter 9, pp 344- 399

www.feralchildren.comwww.feralchildren.com Bee, H. Bee, H. The developing ChildThe developing Child

psychology of language heather ferguson. overview 1. definition of language 2. stages of language...

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