PSYCHOLOGY 2012: ADULT DEVELOPMENT & AGINGPSYCHOLOGY 2012: ADULT DEVELOPMENT & AGING

KEY FEATURES OF DEVELOPMENT:KEY FEATURES OF DEVELOPMENT:• MULTIDIRECTIONAL (increase/ MULTIDIRECTIONAL (increase/

decrease/both)decrease/both)• PLASTIC (improvement, adaptation, PLASTIC (improvement, adaptation,

environment)environment)• ROLE OF TIME AND PLACE (history, ROLE OF TIME AND PLACE (history,

culture)culture)• MULTIPLE CAUSES (contributions of MULTIPLE CAUSES (contributions of

many disciplines: biology, sociology, many disciplines: biology, sociology, anthropology, etc.)anthropology, etc.)

Cannot study development in a vacuum.Cannot study development in a vacuum.

Theories and Models:Theories and Models:• Theories concerned with description and Theories concerned with description and

explanation of age-related changes, e.g. drop explanation of age-related changes, e.g. drop in IQ scores in old age. Different areas in IQ scores in old age. Different areas (personality, moral development, etc.) rely on (personality, moral development, etc.) rely on different theories.different theories.

Example of theory: psychoanalyticExample of theory: psychoanalytic• Models cut across content areas and theories. Models cut across content areas and theories.

They describe how a specific developmental They describe how a specific developmental process occurs and is organized (e.g. the process occurs and is organized (e.g. the decrement model says that aging means decrement model says that aging means gradual loss).gradual loss).

Example of model: history-normativeExample of model: history-normative

Most Common Models:Most Common Models:• incrementincrement• decrement (reversible or irreversible)decrement (reversible or irreversible)• stability (no change with age)stability (no change with age)

• normative:normative:• age-graded (biological or social) andage-graded (biological or social) and• history-graded (environmental or biological)history-graded (environmental or biological)

• non-normative:non-normative:• unique individual eventsunique individual events

• Important: cohort effects: events that Important: cohort effects: events that affect a cohort.affect a cohort.

• Cohort: people born around the same Cohort: people born around the same time.time.

• Generation: 25 year cohort.Generation: 25 year cohort.• Smaller cohorts: 5 or 10 years.Smaller cohorts: 5 or 10 years.• Wars, famines, pandemics, affluence, Wars, famines, pandemics, affluence,

etc.etc.

• Time of measurement or period effects:Time of measurement or period effects:• affects all ages, e.g. resettlement in NL, affects all ages, e.g. resettlement in NL,

Great Depression, commercial flying, etc.Great Depression, commercial flying, etc.

• Common Issues Studied:Common Issues Studied:• continuity vs. discontinuity of developmentcontinuity vs. discontinuity of development• qualitative vs. quantitative changequalitative vs. quantitative change• plasticity vs. rigidityplasticity vs. rigidity• multidirectional vs. unidirectional changemultidirectional vs. unidirectional change

DOING RESEARCH:DOING RESEARCH:

Certain unique problems in developmental Certain unique problems in developmental research:research:

1.1. Cannot do experiments: age as a Cannot do experiments: age as a variable cannot be manipulated.variable cannot be manipulated.

2.2. Sampling: how random? Importance of Sampling: how random? Importance of SES and health status.SES and health status.

RESEARCH METHODS:RESEARCH METHODS:• Data collection: sampling difficulties.Data collection: sampling difficulties.• Biased samples limit external validity: Biased samples limit external validity:

can’t generalize to the whole population.can’t generalize to the whole population.• Research population: all the individuals Research population: all the individuals

in the group you want to study. If very in the group you want to study. If very large, you draw a:large, you draw a:

• Sample: randomly selected individuals from Sample: randomly selected individuals from that population.that population.

• Stratified random sample: including specific Stratified random sample: including specific groups.groups.

1. EXPERIMENTS:1. EXPERIMENTS:

Manipulation of an independent variable (IV) causes Manipulation of an independent variable (IV) causes changes in the dependent variable (DV).changes in the dependent variable (DV).

Main features of experiments:Main features of experiments:• random assignment to conditionsrandom assignment to conditions• control group(s)control group(s)• double-blind techniquedouble-blind technique

Common types of experiments:Common types of experiments:• laboratorylaboratory• fieldfield• quasi-experiment or naturalistic (no control of IV)quasi-experiment or naturalistic (no control of IV)

2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES:2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES:

Correlation: association or relationship between Correlation: association or relationship between two or more variables.two or more variables.

• Allow predictions but no cause-effect can be Allow predictions but no cause-effect can be established.established.

• Lack of random assignment: no internal validityLack of random assignment: no internal validity

Two designs based on correlations:Two designs based on correlations:• cross-sectionalcross-sectional• longitudinallongitudinal

Cross-sectional: compares Cross-sectional: compares several groups of different ages.several groups of different ages.

Advantages: fast, relatively Advantages: fast, relatively inexpensive.inexpensive.

Disadvantages: cohort effects: are Disadvantages: cohort effects: are the differences among groups due the differences among groups due to age or to cohort?to age or to cohort?

Longitudinal: follows one group over Longitudinal: follows one group over time.time.

Advantages: changes more clearly due Advantages: changes more clearly due to age.to age.

Disadvantages: long term, attrition, Disadvantages: long term, attrition, test-retest effects, expensive, possible test-retest effects, expensive, possible age/time of measurement confound, age/time of measurement confound, i.e., period effects.i.e., period effects.

Some disadvantages overcome Some disadvantages overcome when using different combinations when using different combinations of both longitudinal and cross-of both longitudinal and cross-sectional. Also, by using Time-lag sectional. Also, by using Time-lag design: hold age constant, vary design: hold age constant, vary time of measurement.time of measurement.

Sequential Designs:Sequential Designs:• Cohort-Sequential:Cohort-Sequential:

• Longitudinal + Time LagLongitudinal + Time Lag

• Time-Sequential:Time-Sequential:• Cross-Sectional + Time LagCross-Sectional + Time Lag

• Cross-Sequential:Cross-Sequential:• Cross-Sectional + LongitudinalCross-Sectional + Longitudinal

• Cohort-Sequential:Cohort-Sequential:• age vs. cohort ignores historical time effectsage vs. cohort ignores historical time effects

• Time Sequential:Time Sequential:• age effects vs. historical or time of age effects vs. historical or time of

measurementmeasurement• ignores cohort effectsignores cohort effects

• Cross-Sequential:Cross-Sequential:• cohort vs. time of measurementcohort vs. time of measurement• ignores age effectsignores age effects

• Schaie’s Most Efficient Design Also Schaie’s Most Efficient Design Also Called Combination or TrifactorialCalled Combination or Trifactorial

• Schaie Adds:Schaie Adds:• Independent SubjectsIndependent Subjects

• Possible confound for all repeated Possible confound for all repeated measurements:measurements:

• regression to the meanregression to the mean

• Drawbacks:Drawbacks:• long, cumbersome, expensivelong, cumbersome, expensive

3. Self-reports:3. Self-reports:• letters, diaries, questionnaires and letters, diaries, questionnaires and

interviews.interviews.

Biases in questions:Biases in questions:• Social desirabilitySocial desirability• Yea/nay sayersYea/nay sayers• Biased wordingBiased wording• Biased interviewer/observerBiased interviewer/observer• Cultural biasesCultural biases

4. Systematic Observations:4. Systematic Observations:• naturalisticnaturalistic• laboratorylaboratory

5.5. Case Studies (clinical method)Case Studies (clinical method)

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:

• Childhood:Childhood:• normative events most important (school, normative events most important (school,

etc.). etc.).

• Adulthood:Adulthood:• non-normative events accumulate leading to non-normative events accumulate leading to

vast individual differences: the usual vast individual differences: the usual development theories don’t necessarily development theories don’t necessarily apply.apply.

• In adulthood chronological age is a much In adulthood chronological age is a much poorer guide to development studies.poorer guide to development studies.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVESTHEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

• Mechanistic Theories:Mechanistic Theories:• analogy to machine, computer. Individual is passive. analogy to machine, computer. Individual is passive.

External forces dominate development (e.g. S-R External forces dominate development (e.g. S-R theories)theories)

• Organismic Theories:Organismic Theories:• individuals are active, interact with the environment. individuals are active, interact with the environment.

Developmental change has a goal (e.g. Piaget)Developmental change has a goal (e.g. Piaget)• Dialectic Theories:Dialectic Theories:

• people interact with a constantly changing people interact with a constantly changing environment and they in turn change. Heavy environment and they in turn change. Heavy emphasis on history-normative events: the emphasis on history-normative events: the development of someone born in 1890 is different development of someone born in 1890 is different from that of someone born in 1990.from that of someone born in 1990.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVESTHEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:• Study age-related changes in roles within Study age-related changes in roles within

society. Examples:society. Examples:• how a 25-year old and a 70-year old how a 25-year old and a 70-year old

interact, which also changes at different interact, which also changes at different points in history.points in history.

• how institutions respond to changing social how institutions respond to changing social conditions, e.g. divorce rate.conditions, e.g. divorce rate.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVESTHEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE:• Developmental patterns across cultures. Developmental patterns across cultures.

Example: status of elderly in Japan and Example: status of elderly in Japan and its effects on old people’s development.its effects on old people’s development.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:

Examples:Examples:• Changing role of familiesChanging role of families• The word adulthood didn’t exist before The word adulthood didn’t exist before

18701870

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVESTHEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

ApproachApproach Author(s) Associated Author(s) Associated with Approachwith Approach

Topical Area to Which Topical Area to Which AppliedApplied

Behavioral, social learningBehavioral, social learning

PsychoanalyticPsychoanalytic

HumanisticHumanistic

Individual differencesIndividual differences

AttributionAttribution

Information processingInformation processing

DialecticalDialectical

EcologicalEcological

Bandura (1969, 1977)Bandura (1969, 1977)Seligman (1972)Seligman (1972)

Freud (1946)Freud (1946)Erikson (1964, 1979)Erikson (1964, 1979)

Maslow (1970)Maslow (1970)Kohlberg (1973, 1981)Kohlberg (1973, 1981)

Cattell (1971), Horn (1982)Cattell (1971), Horn (1982)Guildford, Zimmerman, and Guildford, Zimmerman, and Guilford (1976)Guilford (1976)Schaie (1977/1978)Schaie (1977/1978)

Whitbourne (1985b)Whitbourne (1985b)

Sternberg (1980)Sternberg (1980)

Riegel (1975, 1976)Riegel (1975, 1976)

Bronfenbrenner (1979)Bronfenbrenner (1979)

LearningLearningMotivationMotivation

PersonalityPersonalityMotivationMotivation

MotivationMotivationMoral developmentMoral development

Intellectual development Intellectual development PersonalityPersonality

Self-conceptSelf-conceptSocial psychologySocial psychology

Learning, MemoryLearning, Memory

Personality, Life crisesPersonality, Life crises

Person/environmentPerson/environmentPhenomenologicalPhenomenological

BALTES’ THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE:BALTES’ THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE:• Life-span approach: development takes Life-span approach: development takes

a lifetime and each stage is equally a lifetime and each stage is equally important.important.

• Dynamic interaction between growth, Dynamic interaction between growth, maintenance and loss.maintenance and loss.

• Early phase (childhood and Early phase (childhood and adolescence) and later phase adolescence) and later phase (adulthood) have different progress: (adulthood) have different progress: rapid and slower changes.rapid and slower changes.

• Multidisciplinary approach needed.Multidisciplinary approach needed.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVESTHEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES