PSYCHOACTIVE PLANT USE INPAPUA NEW GUINEA: A REVIEW

.llllhropologisl. Y('\I' (iuinca [:i1Thcoholam Pro/1'CI, Po. Box 39::, Aslzgrol'c,Quccns/awl 4064, Australia

JJIIS arllcl1' nTIClIS Th1'lilcrllTUr1' Oil psnJ1OaCfil'c planr usc ill Papua Ycu' (iuin1'a Thcuse ofpsn}woui\'1' plllJ1T,\1III'apua Y1'll' (iumea ha,\' often hcen rcporred in the scientificlil{'/'aillre, hou'1'n". /llli/lI' of Ihe ,']Jt'Cles of psn}1Oactil'e planTs IIsed in Papua Yell

(iuJilea are sTdl poorh' IIl1dersTood Data on the hO!am', chemistn' and ethllolog.l' o(O\'{'/' fifn ,\peci1's o(psnhl'llclIn' plal1Ts uscd in Papua Yeu' (Iuinea is prescl1Tcd in tl1lsre\'ICU' article TI1Is rel'/cu' also JIIcllllles sCl'cral unidCnTifi1'd ,\pccics ofpsvclwactil'1'plal1Ts Il'hich havc he en reporred in Thl' IiteraTllre To have hecn used traditionallv inPapua Yell' Guinca, Included ill This n'l'iClI' is a glossan' of Tok Pisin, Hiri .\lofU andlocal ler/l/s relaTed To psvchoacTiI'e planr use in Papua Yell' <1uinea, IT is reco/l/mcluledin This article thal/l/orc ,\nTC/l/alic and /l/ultidisciplinalT research is rcquired on lhe uscof P,\\'choaul\'1' plmlT /lS1' III !'apua Yell' (,uinea .\\'sTe/l/lITic and multidisciplinon'I'ncllrch Oil pSl'cll<iauiI'1' planTs (;'(JIII I'apua .\'('\1' eiuinea has The potemial filr ThcIIlclIlI(icalion ofsuhsTallces \1'1l1i 1I(1\'el che/l/ical slrucTures and ullique pharmacologicalprofilcs l!oll'C\'er, it is Importallt Thar this research is undertaken hefi)re tradiTionalcwlogical kn01dedge (TE}..·) o{psnJ1Oactive plant IIse is losT among the local people o{Papua Yell' (iuinea Further research on psvchoactil'e plant use in Papua .\'ell' Guineahas The pOTentialfiJr the disc(l\'en' and development o{nell' p,\Tcl!oTropic drugs

Biological and cultural diversity111 Papua New Guinea (Allen. 1983:Chowning. 1982) provides a uniqueopportunity fQ.rethnobotanicaL anthro-pological and ethnopharmacologicalresearch on psychoactive plant use, Avanety of psychoactive plants havebeen reported from Papua New Guinea(Barrau. 1957a: Barrau. 1957b: Barrau.1958a: Singer. 1958: Reay. 1959:Rea\'. 1960: Webb. 1960: Barrau.1962: Heim, 1963: Heim & Wasson.1964: Heim & Wasson. 1965: Heim.1966; Heim. 1967; Aufenanger. 1968:Burton-Bradley. 1970; La Barre. 1970:

Emboden, 1972: Shaw. 1972: Heim. 1973:Havano. 1975: PowelL 1976: Heim. 1978:Schultes. 1978: Emboden. 1979: Schultes &Hofinann. 1979; Schultes & Hofinann. 1980:De Smet. 1983; Dobkin de Rios, 1984: Poole.1984: De Smet. 1985: Ott 1993: Otto 1996:Sterly. 1997a: Sterly, 1997b: Sterly. 1997c:Rudgley. 1998: Ratsch. 1999: Benjamin.1999: Thomas. 1999a; Thomas. 1999b:Thomas. 1999c) and many of these species ofpsychoactive plants are still poorly under-stood (Schultes & Hofinann, 1979: 26). Thisreview presents data on the botany, chemistryand ethnology of psychoactive plant use inPapua New Guinea

·Psreh )(letive' IS defined as thepotential . to produce inebriation oralh:r:1-tions in the state of conscious-ness. whether stimulation. sedation.euphoria. ete (Ott. 1995: 129) This isa pi ..:cise allJ etymo-logically correcttenn \\hich embraces all classes ofdru •..; with -:ffects on con-sciousness(ott. 1993 257) 'Plant" IS used hereto rder to all botamcal species (flora)and also to Basidi-om\"cetes of theOrder Agaricaks (fungi) .Use' isdefiJ:..:das the intentIOnal iiltroductionof a substance into the human body b\'a \ :'nety of possibk route~ to produc'ea catain physiological or psycho-logical eftect 'Papua New Guinearefers to the Independent State ofPapua New Guinea.

This reView of psychoactiveplant use in Papua New Guinea hasbeen compiled from a variety ofdift'en.:nt sources. The research and\\fltmgs of French ethnobotanist andanthropologist Jacques Barrau (Barrau.19:'7a: Barrau. 1957b: Barrau. 1958a:Barrau. 1962: Barrau, 1966) have beenan important source of data on psycho-acme plant use in Papua New Guinea,but are unfortunately written in French.Barrau. \\"ho is better knO\\U for hispioneering research on subsistenceagriculture in Melanesia (Barrau.1958b: Barrau. 1959), was the firstscientist to svstematically studypsychoactive plant use in Papua Ne\\'Gumea.

Data on the hotany of psycho-active plant species used in Papua NewGuinea has been collated from theHandbooks of the Flora of Papua NewGuinea (Womersley, 1978: Henty,1981) and Richard Evans Schultes &Albert Hofinann .s popular booksPlants of the God{j (Schultes &

Hofinann. 1979) and The BOlany andChemistn' of Hallucinogens (Schultes &Hofina.ru1.1973: Schultes & Hofinann. 1980)

Data on the chemistry of psychoacti\"eplant species has been collated fromAlexander Shulgin & Ann Shulgin' s texts onthe chemistry and pharmacology of phene-thylamines (Shulgin & Shulgin. 1991) andtryptamines (Shulgin & Shulgm. 19(7).Jonathan Ott's tt:xt Pharmacorheon (Ott.1993. Otto 1996). the published lIterature onph~tochemical research in Papua Ne\\Guinea (Webb. 1955: Binns et aJ.. 1965:Ritchie & Ta\lor. 1967: Hart1ev et aI., 1973:Holdsworth 8.: N·Drawii. 1973: Holdsworth& Farnworth. 1974: Holdsworth er aJ.. 1974:Holdsworth & Rati. 1989: Holdsworth et aJ..1989: Collins et al.. 1990: Holdsworth &Holdsworth. 1991) and the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture Phytochemicaldatabase - USDA - ARS - NG/U~ \\Titten andmaintained by Stephen M Beckstrom-Sternberg & Jim. A. Duke (1992). which canbe accessed on-line using the Internet orWorld Wide Web.

The psychoactive plants of Papua NewGuinea

Acalypha insulana M. A [Euphorb-iaceae] leaves, which is also knov-n asAcalypha hellwigii Warb., have been smokedin Papua New Guinea (Airy Shaw, 1980: DeSmet, 1983: 298). This variety, Acalyphahellwigii moWs (Warb.) Shum. & Ltb" hasalso been used to wrap tobacco for smokingin Papua New Guinea (De Smet, 1983: 298)

Acorus calamus L. [Areceae] is used inritual and medicine in Papua New Guinea(Powell, 1976: 15) It is ingested in initiationrituals to make young men grow tall andstrong in some Highland cultures, however,the use of Aeorus calamus in these Highlandscultures for this purpose requires furtherethnobotanical research. Acorus calamus is aperennial herb that has a horizontal rootstockup to J.5 metres long. The leaves grow from

1/2 to 2 metres tall. are sword like andhave a crimped edge The flowers areminute greemsh-yello\\ on a cylin-drical sprke Aco;"1/.\·calam1ls grO\\s ll1marshes and along the borders ofcreeks The use of ACOrl/Scalam1ls asan entheogen has been reported inNorth Amenca (Morgan. 1(80) Thefrans-and cis-isomers of 1.2.4-trimcthoxy-5- (I-propenyl) -benzene(a-asarone and B-asarone. C 12H 1603)have been reported as the activeentheogemc constItuents of Acorl/scalal1111s(Hoffer & Osmond. 1967:Keller and StahL 1(83) a-Asarone ISthe precursor of 2.4.5-trimethoxyam-phetanline (TMA-2) (Shulgin &Shulglll. 1991 8(3) The rhizome ofAcorl/s calamus also contains 1.8-cineole. camphor. ele-micin. eugenol.IsoeugenoL linalol. menthoL menthone.methylisoeugenol (Beckstrom-Stern-berg & Duke. 1(92) The plant(lean:s. stems) contalll acoric acid.alpha-humulene. aipha-terplllene(Beckstrom-Sternberg & Duke. 19(2)Elcnllcll1 and aconc acid are reportedto be 'halluc1l1ogens' (Beckstrom-Sternberg & Duke. 1(92) Elenllcll1(5-allyl-1.2.3-trimethowbenzene) ISthe precursor of 3.4.,)-trimethoxyanl-phetanline (TMA) (Shulgll1 & Shulgin.1991: 836) Acor1ls calamus has alsobeen used by the Raiapu Enga of theWestern Highlands to stimulate theirdogs for hunting (Feacham. 1972-1(73) The rhizome of ACOrl/Scalam1ls is chewed by the Raiapu En&£!.and then spat into the noses of theirdogs to make them better at hunting(Feacham. 1972-1973)

Alocasia sp. [Araceae] tubers arean important subsistence food and areused ritually by the Baining people ofthe Gazelle Peninsula, New Britain indancing ceremonies (Laufer, 1946-1949: Laufer, 1963-1964: Laufer.1965-1966). Colocasia esculenta (L)Schott [Araceae] tubers have also beenconsumed instead of Alocasia sp. The

leaves of two unidentified Laporfea species[Urti-caceae] are ingested by the Baining tocounteract the tOXICeffects of the Alocasiasp. or the Colocasia esc1llenta tubers. How-ever. during these same dancing ceremoniesthe dancers have usually eaten nothing elsebut Areca catechu nuts for the previous fivedays and continuously chew betel nuts duringthe ceremony (Burton-Bradley. 1972: 67).An unidentified species of \yild taro(Alomsia) is used in malevolent sorceryamong the people of Wewak and Boikin. EastSepik District (Gerstner. 1954) Sorcerersprepared and ate a mixture called gomblwhich included wild taro (Alomsia sp.). wildlemon. grated coconut. the bark of a treespecies identified as mali and several vari-eties of ginger (De Smet. 1983 292).

Amaracarp1ls sp [Rubiaceaej leaveshave been smoked with tobacco in rituals toproduce a trance-like state among the Giml ofthe Eastern Highlands (Glick. 1(67)

Amaranthus sp. [Anlaranthaceae] (tu-meni) was used with an unidentified speciesof flame coloured cockscomb (siroru) anlongthe Orokaiva of Mount Lamington. NorthernDistrict to produce a ceremonial shaking-fit(Wilhams. 1928)

Archontophoenix sp. [Palmae] fruit hasbeen chewed like betel nut in New Britain(PowelL 1976: Rudgley. 1998).

Areca catechu L [Palmae] (betel nut)is a popular psychoactive drug plant in PapuaNew Guinea and the practice of chewingbetel nut is common (Chinnery. 1922:Krenger. 1939-1942; Burton-Bradley, 1972:Farnworth, 1975; Essig,l977: Burton-Brad-ley, 1978: Young, 1979; Burton-Bradley.1980: Seyfarth, 1981; Drusch & Ropert,1984; Cawte, 1987; Watson, 1987: Frewer,1990; MacLeish & Huang, 1990; Wyatt,1996; Devereux, 1997; Rudgley, 1998)Betel nuts are most often chewed with thebetel leaf or fruit (Piper betle L [Piperaceae])(Balasubrahmanyam & Rawat, 1990) andwith slacked lime from processed coral, seashells, mountain lime or commercial lime(McEldowney, 1993). Areca catechu andPiper betle are almost always cul-tivated for

use. hl\\'ever. some people will on rareoccasions chew \vild Areca catechunuts and Piper I-jctlc leaves. stems andfruit (Burton-Bradlev. IlJ72 66), Thefruit of Areca 'catechu containsarecalO,lle. an:coline. betasito-sterol.choline. d-catechin. diosgenin. guva-cine. lnoleic JCld. OklC acid. palm-ltoleic acid (Beckstrom-Sternberg &Duke. 1992) Arecoline (methyl-1.2.5.6-tetral1\dro-I-methvl-nicotinate)is the psychoactive constituent ofArecu catechu which accounts for themcotine-like central nervous svstemstimubnt actl'. itv and '.:uphoriant "effectof betel nut chewing (Euler et al1945) The alkaloid Jrecoline acts onnicotlll": receptors and also on theparasympathetic nervous system toproduce a feeling of well-being.euphona. stimulation and increasedstamina as wdl as constricted pupils.mcreased mucous secretions and onInItial use. dizziness. vertigo. nauseaand cold perspiration (Burton-Bradley,1972, 66-67) When habitu -ationoccurs. the unpleasant effects usuallyno longer occur, The psychoactiveeffects of che\\lng of betel nuts havebeen described anthropologist AlfredGell as .mild disassociation'. "feelingof reduced gravity' and 'a 'marginarstate of consciousness' (Rudgley.1993 153-15'+: Rudidey. 1995: 153-154) ~ .

Areca Illacrocalyx L [Palmae]has been used as an inferior substitutefor betel nut in se\ eral regions ofPapua New Guinea (Williams.1936425: Bock. in press), .•

Beaumontia sp, [Apocynaceae]has been smoked in the Kema Valleylllstead of tobacco (Le Roux. 1948).

Boletus flammeus Heim [Bolet-aceae], B. kumaeus Heim [Boletaceae],B. manicus Heim [Boletaceae], B. ni-gerrimus Heim [Boletaceae], B. nigro-violaceus Heim [Boletaceae] and B.reayi Heim [Boletaceae] are species of

fungi (Order: Agancales: ClassBasidiomycetes) \\hlch were first collectedand described by Roger Heim & R GordonWasson (Heim. 1963: Heim. 1964; Heim &Wasson. 1964: Heim & Wasson. 1965: Shaw.1972: Devereux. 1997: 95: Ratsch. 1998688: Thomas. in press [a)) in 1963 from thesouthern Wahgi Valley. Western HigWandsProvince, Papua New Guinea. Heim andWasson both visited the Wahgi Valley forthree weeks in 1963 after anthropologistMarie Reay had reported the use ofapparently hallucino-genic fungi anlOng theKuma people of the Nangamp group wholived around Minj in the southern WahgiValley (Reay. 1960) These six species ofBoletus were among the elevenBasidiomycetes recognised as psychoactiveby the Kuma people of the Nangamp groupfrom the southern Wahgi Valley. WesternHighlands Province. Papua New Guinea. In1936 Father W A Ross. a priest of theCatholic Mission of the Divine Word (S. VD) living in the Wahgi Valley since 1933had observed the use of a wild mushroomwhich produced temporary insaneity (Ross.1936: Gitlow. 1947: Heim & Wasson. 1965.Dobkin de Rios. 1984 82) Father Ross hadsuggested that this mushroom would makepeople .[fly].. mto a fit of frenzy' and .deathwas known to have resulted from its use attimes and he suggested that thesemushrooms were eaten before ' ...going out tokill another native or in times of greatexcitement. anger or sorrow' (Ross, 1936:Burton-Bradlev, 1972: Kiloh & Cawte, 1972:Dobkin de RIos. 1984: 82). One of thesespecies, Boletus manicus, has been reportedto contain indole alkaloids in trace amounts(Heim, 1965; Heim, 1978; Ott, 1993: 422;Ratsch, 1998: 668). Heim (1978) hasreported the presence of three unidentifiedindolic substances in Boletus manicus, Inself-experiments Heim ingest-ed a small doseof dried and powdered Boletus manicus (lessthan 60 mg orally) and reported colourfulluminous visions (Heim 1965: I).

Bubbia sp. [Winteraceae] bark hasbeen added to tobacco and smoked toproduce a dream-like state during healing

rituals among the Gimi of the EasternHighlands (Glick. 1967: Rudgley.1(98)

('annahis sariva L [Cannaba-ceae I IS an erect annual herb whichgrow from 1-4 metres high The leavesare palmately compound with usually5-9 narro\\-lanceolate serrate leaflets.5-15 cm long (Henty. 1980 1(6) Thet10\\ers are smalL greenish-white andthe male and female flowers appear onseparate plants. The male flowers areloose cymose panicles. somewhatglandular-hal~ (Henty 1980-106).The female flower pani-des are morecompact covered densely with resinousglandular haIrs. The fruit and acheneis 3-4 nun long and is ellipsoid.slightly t1attened \\"ith h\O convexfaces meeting 1I1 an angular rim(Helltv. 19lW 1(6) C mtiva containsanalogs of tetrahydrocannabinol Tetralndrocanabinol (THC) is the 1110no-terpene tetrahydro-6.6. 9-trimethyl- 3-pentyl-6. H-di-benzo-[b.d ]pyran-l-olCannahis sariva also contains calma-binol and caImabidiol (CBD) ThepossessIOn. cultivation and use of('annahis sativa IS illegal III PapuaNe\\ Guinea.

('a.\'tanopsi acuminates.\'ima(Bl) A DC. [Fagaceae] seeds havebeen eaten by the people of Banz.Western Highlands District for similarll1toxicating effects as certain psycho-active mushrooms when cooked andeaten in sufficient quantity (Heim &Wasson. 1965) When eaten raw anduncooked. the seeds of Castanopsisacuminatis.\'ima can produce emaci-ation. anaemia and mouth ulceration(BelL 1973: Henty. 1980)

Cinnamomum sp. [Lauraceae]bark has been chewed by sorcerers onMailu Island to make them "hot"(magically powerful) (Saville, 1926).

Costus sp. [Zingiberaceae] fruithas been chewed by the Adzera as a

substitute for betel nut (Holznecht. 1971).

Cryptocarya aromatica (Becc.) Kos-term. [Lauraceae] bark has been chewed withlime and a species of betel leaf (Piper sp.) asa betel nut substitute by the Baining of theGazelle Peninsula. New Britain (Parkinson.1907: Laufer. 1963-1964)

Curcuma /onga L [Zingiberaceae]rhizomes have been prepared into anintoxicating drink consumed before youngmen can be admitted to the circle of adultsanlOng the Pawaia (Wolf-Eggert. 1977).

('ycas circina/is L [Cycadaceae] pol-len has been used as a narcotic bv the Tolai(Gunantuna or Kuanua) of New Britain(Sted\". 1970: Rudgley. 1998) The pollenand male flower bracts of other species of(~vcas have also been reported to havenarcotic properties in other parts of the world(Thieret.1958: Whiting. 1963)

Datura (Brugmansia) candida (Pers)Safford [Solanaceae] is a small shrub of treegrowing to 4 metres high with oblong-lanceolate leaves. 15-25 cm long (Hen~.1980 124). The flowers are solita~·. white.30 cm long and trumpet shaped (angel'strumpet) Cultivars of D candida have avariety of different colour flowers. egopinkish-orange In Papua New Guinea, D.candida is found from sea level to at least2000 m above sea level (Henty, 1980:124). 1-Hyoscine (scopolamine) is the principalalkaloid in the aerial parts of D. candida,together with atropine, norscopolamine.oscine. meteloidine and noratropine (Evans.1979: 245). Datura species have a longhistory of use as entheogens in both the Oldand New World (Schultes, 1979: 139).Datura metel L. is an erect annual herb whichgrows from 1-2 metres tall with 20 cm longovate-acute dentate-lobed leaves (Henty.1980: 125). Flowers are erect, 5-lobed, 15cm long, corolla trumpet-shaped and arewhite, purple or a combination of white andpurple. The fruit is a 4 cm capsule with stoutprickles. In Papua New Guinea, D. mete/appears sporadically at low altitudes. Theactive constituents of D. metel are the tropanealkaloids (scopolamine, meteloidine hy-

osc"amine. norhvosc"amine, nor-sco-poloamine) and non-tropane alka-loidscuscohygrine and nicotine (Schultes.1979: 145). Datura species have beenresponsible for several urnntentionalrecoro..:d poison-ings ill Papua NewGuinea (Bell. 1973: Bridgewater.1968. Henty, I(80).

Elaeagnus sp. [Elaeagnaceae]has b..:..:nadded to tobacco and smokedto produce a dream-like state by theGimi of tht: Eastern Highlands. likeAmaracarpus sp. (Glick. 1967)

Endmpcrmum maluccanum (T& B.) Kurz [Euphorbiaceae] has beenused hy the peoples of the Jimi Valleyand Mount Hagen. Western Highlandsto make young men fierce (De Smet.1983) Powell (1976: 150) has alsosuggested that Endospermum j(Jmica-rum ['}]is also used for this purpose.

Ervatamia orientalis (R. Br.)Turr lApocynaceae] is a shrub that canbe found in south coast Papua New

.Guinea and is 2 to 6 m tall with smoothleaves occurring opposite to each otheron the stem. The leaves are 10 to 22cm long and from 4 to 7 em wide. Theflowers are white with twisted petalsand it flowers from October to MayThe fruits occur in pairs, are smoothand curved \\·ith an orange colour. withfruIting from February to August. Itshabitat is in coastal monsoon vinethickets. at the edge of tropical rain-forests. or on stabilised dunes inmonsoon regIOns. This species wasoriginally described as Tabernan theoricntalis and is closely related to thespecies Tabernanthe iboga Baillon[Apocynaceael. a shrub which is usedfor its psychoactive effects in Africa(Haller & HeckeL 1901; Fernandez,1972: Fernandez, 1972; Furst, 1976;Pope, 1969; Samorini, 1993; Samorini,1995). The leaves of Ervatamiaorientalis contain ibogaine and therelated alkaloids iboxygaine, voacris-tine, vobasine, dregamine, ervatamine

and 19-dehydroerva-tamine (Knox & Slobbe.1975). Ibogaine is a central nervous systemstimu-lant (Sershen et ai.. 1996: Mash et al.1995) Excessive doses of ibogaine can resultin convulsions, paralysis and death fromrespiratory failure (Olney. 1994).

Erythroxylum spp. [EIYthroxylaceae]has been reported in the Mountain Ok regionof Papua New Guinea (Hyndman. 1984:Bock. in press) This species is related toErythroxylum coca Lam. [EIYthroxylaceae]and Erythroxylum novogranatense (Morris)Hieron [Er)throxylaceae], which are culti-vated in South America as a source ofcocaine (Plowman, 1986). The presence ofcocaine (benzylmethylecognine) or otherrelated ecognines or tropanes in this speciesfound in Papua New Guinea has not yet beendetermined. Another related species, Ery-throxvfum austrafe is found in the NorthernTerritOr)· and Queensland. Austra-lia and iskno\\n to contain the psychoactive chemicalmeteloidine [0.8%] (Johns & Lamberton.1967: 1301). Like the species from PapuaNew Guinea. this related species is shrub thatgrows up to 4.5 meters tall with leaves from 1cm to 3.5 cm long. The fruit is red andcontains one seed. The flowers are solitary orpaired with white petals. The habitat o(thisspecies ranges from stony and rocky granitehillside slopes to open forest.

Euodia bonwickii F. Muell [Rutaceae]bark is chewed by men while dancing atfeasts among the people of Mount Hagen(Stopp. 1963)

Ficus subnervosa Comer [Moraceae]leaves have been chewed as a betel nutsubstitute on Rossel Island (Henty, 1980).

Galbulimima belgraveana (F. Muell.)Sprague [Himantandraceae] bark has beenchewed with the leaves of an unidentifiedHomalomena sp. [Araceae] by the people ofthe Okapa region, Eastern Highlands toinduce visions and a dream-like state (Barrau,1958a; Hamilton, 1960; Benjamin, 1999).The physical effects of chewing agara andeririba include violent tremor and miosis (DeSmet 1983: 296; De Smet, 1985; Benjamin,1999). The visions and violent tremors last

for about an hour followed by a senseof calmness. euphoria and then drowsi-ness (De Smet. 1983: 296: De Smet.1985: Benjamin. 1999). Galbulimimahelgravcafw has also been usedwithout Homalomena sp. leaves fordivination and to produce trance-likestates and visions anlong the Gimipeople of the Eastern Highlands(Glick. 1963. Glick. 1967: Benjanlin.19(9) The bark and also the leaves ofGalhlllimnno helgraveona have beenused anlOng other groups of theEastern HIghlands to make young menfierce (Webb. 1960: Powell. 1976150: BenJanlln. 19(9) The people ofAseki in the south of Morobe Provinceuse the bark of Galhulimima belgra-veana as an analgesic by chewing thebark. spIttmg it out into a bowL mixingsalt with it and then swallowmg itagain to relieve pain (Woodley. 199 I;Benjamm. 1999) The Oksapmin ofthe West Sepik Provmce use olllso,shredded Galh/llimima helgravconabark mixed with wild gmger (Zingihersp [Zingiberaceae]). in the treatmentof diseases caused by sorcery and\vitchcraft (eg fever. 'skin conditionsand pOisoning) (Skmgle. 1970:Benjamin. 19(9) The Bimin-Kiskus-min' of the West Sepik Province havealso used Golhulimimo belgraveana inritual (Poole. 1987: Benjamm. 1999)The phytochemistry of Galhulimimahelgravcana has been extensivelystudied and well documented (Webb,1955: BrO\\TIet af.. 1956: Binns et q],1965: Ritchie & Tavlor. 1967: Ritchie& Tavlor. 1971; Choo et af.. 1990;Collins et al.. 1990; Benjamin. 1999).Galbulimima helgraveana is rich inalkaloids (Webb, 1955: Benjamin,1999) and twenty-eight alkaloids havebeen isolated (Ritchie & Taylor, 1967:531; Benjamin. 1999).

Heimiella angu~formis Heim[Boleta-ceaeJ is a species of fungi thatwas eaten by the Kuma of the WahgiValley. Western Highlands Province to

become mad or insane (Heim & Wasson.1965: Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: 44:Devereux, 1997: 95). This mushroom growsto a height of 10-20 cm and has a smallbrownish or orange yellow cap 4-6 cm indiameter and yellowish brown spores(Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: 44) Thisspecies has been incorrectly named Heimiellaangrieformis by Schultes & Hofmann (197944: see Ott. 1993: 423)

Heimiella retispora Heim [Boleta-ceae]. a species closely related to Heimielloanguiformis. has also been eaten by the Kumaof the Wahgi Valley. Western HighlandsProvllice to mduce madness (Schultes &Hofmann. 1979 44: Ratsch. 1998: 688).

Homalomena sp. [Areceae] leaves havebeen eaten alone. or with the bark ofGalhulimima belgraveana, by the people ofOkapa in the Eastern Highlands to producedreams and visions (Barrau. 1957b: Barrau.1958a: Barrau. 1962) This species has beensuggested as Homalomena ereriba (Em-boden. 1972: 26). Homalomena lauterhachiiEngl. (Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: 45) andHomalomena belgraveana Sprague (Ott.1993: 409). Homalomena species are smallto large herbaceous plants with aromaticrhizomes. The leaves are oblong-lanceolateor cordate-ovate on short stems rarelyexceeding 15 cm in length (Schultes &.Hofmann. 1979: 45). The spathe persists inHomalomena species while the plant isfruiting and the male and female parts of thespadix are proximate (Schultes & Hofmann,1979: 45). No psychoactive substances haveyet been identified in any of the species ofHomalomena studied (Schultes & Hofmann,1979: 45: Ott, 1993: 409). Other species ofHomolomena such as Homolomena cordataSchott and Homolomena versteegii Engler areused in ritual and magic in some areas ofPapua New Guinea (Telban, 1988).

Homolanthus sp. [Euphorbiaceae] hasbeen used to make young men fierce on NewBritain (Powell, 1976: 150).

Kaempferia galanga L. [Zingibera-ceae 1 is a smooth stemless or short stemmedherb that grows to about 1.5 metres, its round

lea\~s grow to about 12 cm long andup to 12 em wide. The leaves are flatana spreadll1g. The flowers form aterminal spike and are white with deepred veining Kaempferia galanga hasbeen reported to have psychoactiveeffects (Barrau. 1962: Gottlieb. 1973:Schultes & Hofmann. 1980; Rudgle\'.1993: Rudgley. 1(98) The rhizonlehas been chewed :It Okapa in theEastern Highlands to induce visionsand dreams (Barrau. 1962) Kaemp-.feria galanga has also been chewed inMorobe Province to induce pleasantdreams (Po\\dl. ILJ76: 135. Woodle\'.1991: Rudgley. 1993: Rudgley. 19(8)Th•. rhlzoHh':contams essential oils andIS lughly aromatic. These essential oilsinclude borneol. camphene. carenl,;.ethyl-p-methoxyciIlllanlate (Beck-strom-Sternberg & Duke 1992) andmethyl-p-cumaric acid. cinnamic acidethyl ester. pentadecane and cinnamicaldehyde (Perry & Metzger. 1980:442)None of these essential oils are knownto be psychoactive. The related speciesAlpinia galanga (L.) SW. [Zingibe-raceae] [.greater galangal"1 and A 1-pinia otficinarum Hance [Zingibe-raceae] ['lesser galangar] contain I' -acetoxychavicol-acetate, I'-acetox\'-eugenolacetate. cadinene, camphor.eugenol. galangm. methvlcinnamateand 1.8-cineolc, eugenoL galangm.Imalol. methylcinnamate respectively.It is possible that some of theseconstituents have psychoactive effects.Eugenol. for example, is a precursorfor 3-methoxy-4 hydroxyamphetarnineThe presence of eugenol in Kaempferiagalanga. however. has not beenreported.

Lactuca indica L. [Asteraceae]seeds have been chewed by the Angaof the Eastern Highlands as anintoxicant and a betel nut substitute(Blackwood. 1940; Powell, 1976: 135;De Smet 1983: 297).

Laportea sp. [Urticaceae] haveoften been eaten to become 'hot" or

magically powerful in Papua New Guinea(Stedy, 1970). For example. the Mivanmin atYominbip use a species of Lapo;'tea as astmmlant to flagellating themselves with theplant when on long walks (Flannerv,1998:93). .The Miyanmin also recogniseanother species of nettle (Laportea sp.) whichis said to be more potent and dangerous(Flannery. 1998:93)

Lycopodium sp. [Lycopodiaceae] isused as medicine in ritual and magic at Jimiand Hagen (Powell. 1976: 149)

Lycopudium squarrosum [Lycopodia-ceae] IS used for its psychoactive effects bythe Nokopo of Madang and Morobe Provincewho rub this plant over their bodies beforegoing sleeping so that they can meet bushspirits in their dreams (Schmid. 1991: Bock.in press).

. Mitragyna spc('iosa Korth. [Rubiaceae]IS a tree which can be found in the Flv Riverarea of the Western Province in Papua NewGuinea (Paijmans, 1971: Bock, in press).The leaves of this species are used inSoutheast Asia as a substitute for opium(Papaver somnUi:rum L. [Papaveraceae])(Emboden. 1979: Ott. 1993: Ott. 1996:Harrison McKenna, 1989). Mitragyna speci-osa contains indole alkaloids such asmitragynine (Emboden, 1979; Shellard, 1983:Jansen & Prast, 1988a: Jansen &. Prast.1988b; Shellard, 1989: Ott. 1993; Ott, 1996),The ingestion of the leaves of this species·produce central nervous system stimulation.however, the isolated alkaloid mitragyninchas depressant activity (Shellard, 1989; Ott,1993: 413: Ott, 1996). It is likelv thatsecondary alkaloids are responsible for thepsychoactivity of this plant.

Nicotiana tabacum L. [Solanaceae] isone of the most commonly used psychoactiveplants in Papua New Guinea (Van Nouhuys,1932; Merrill, 1946; Le Roux, 1948; Brott,1981: Michel, 1981: Hays, 1991: Marshall,1991: Goodman et al. 1995; Attah Johnson.1998). It has been suggested that Nicotianatabacum reached Papua New Guinea in theearly eighteenth century (Womersley, 1972:224). By the time of the first European

exploration. Nicotiana tabacum wasestablished in the lowlands of PapuaNe\\ Guinea where the drying andsmoking of the leaves was well known(Haddon. 1946: Riesenfeld. 1951:Womersley. 1972: 224). Nicotianafabacum leaves are dried and mostoften cured. The dried or curedtobacco is either smoked III manu-factured pipes (Haddon, 1946) orrolled into cigarettes using leaves (DeSmet 1983: 298) or commerciallyavailable paper The leaves of severalspecies have been used in rollingtobacco for smoking: AcalJpha insul-ana M.A. [Euphorbiaceae]. Donaxcanniflormis (Forst. f.) K Schum.[Maranthaceae], Ficus sp. [Moraceae],Hibiscus sp. [Malvaceae], Kleinhoviahmpifa L. [Sterculiaceae], Macarangasp. [Euphorbiaceae]. Pandanus sp.[Pandana-ceae] and Rubus mol/lccanusL. [Rosaceae] (De Smet 1983 298).Nicofiana rabacum has been a signify-cant ritual intoxicant in Papua NewGuinea and its use corresponds to theshamanic use of the species in SouthAmerica (Wilbert. i 972; Wilbert.1987).

Palmeria sp. [Monimiaceae]leaves are reported to have been usedbv men in the Chimbu area as astimulant in warfare (De Smet, 1985).

Pandanus spp. [Pandanaceae],most likely including Pandanus iwenB. C. Stone, Pandanus julianettiiMartelli and Pandanus brosimos Merr.and Perry [Pandanaceae]) (Hyndman,1984; Stone, 1984) has been eaten fortheir psychoactive effects in manyareas of Papua New Guinea (Sinclair,1957; Webb, 1960; Barrau, 1962;Rea", 1960; Heim & Wasson, 1965;Steriy, 1973; Stone, 1982; Hyndman1984; Rudgley, 1998). Raw or im-mature Pandanus nuts are eaten, forexample, in the West Sepik Province,the Western Highlands Province andthe Chimbu Province to becometemporarily mad and to experience

outbreaks of irrat-ionai behaviour Thepsychoactive substance N,N-dimethyl-tryptamine (DMT) (Szara, 1956; Szara, 1957;Turner & Merlis. 1959: Szara. 1961: Szara.1962: Szara, 1970: Shulgin, 1976: Shulgin &Shulgin. 1997) has been isolated from somespecies of mountain Pandanus from Minj inthe Western Highlands Province (Hyndman.1984). however, N.N-dimethyltryptamine isnot active when taken orally (Shulgin, 1976)and its presence in certain Pandanus nutsdoes not explain the altered-state-of-conSCiousness produced when certainPandanus nuts are ingested.

Piper methysficum Forster [Pipera-ceae] is a shrub up to 4 metres tall with heartshaped leaves up to 16 cm long and shortspikes rising from the base of the leaf stem.The spikes are densely covered with flowers.The plant grows in cool, moist highlands orwet forests up to 300 meters above sea level.It grows best where summer temperatures arebetween 26°C - 32°C. A beverage made fromthe rhizome of Piper methysficum has beenused in some areas of Papua New Guinea(Hough. 1904; Haddon, 1906; Chinnery.1922: Williams. 1936; Barrau. 1957a;Steinmetz, 1960; Steinmetz, 1973; Holds-worth, 1977; Cox & O'Rourke, 1987; Knauft,1987: Lindstrom, 1987; Marshall, 1987,Sagir. 1987-1988: Brunton, 1989; Ambrose,1991; Lebot et a/. 1992). In the WesternProvince of Papua New Guinea, the Kiwai,Keraki, Wiram (Suki), Aram, Anima,Semariji, Gambadi and Mikud peoples of theTrans-Fly, Western Province have cultivatedand prepared a beverage from Pipermethysticum (Haddon, 1936; Landtman,1927; Williams, 1936: 427), as have theGogodala on the eastern side of the Fly River(Crawford, 1981). According to A. C.Haddon, Piper methysticum was ' ...animportant part in the whole ceremonial life ofthe Kiwaians and it constitute ...[d]. .. one ofthe most essential instruments of the people'swelfare' (Haddon, 1936: xx.xi). Among theKiwai, the drinking of Piper methy/sticumbeverages was believed to make people wildand fierce and anxious to fight (Williams,1936: 281). Piper methysticum beverages

usually produce mild euphoria,relaxation. lethargy and eventuallysleep. Piper methysticum contains sixrelated resinous apyrones: kawain, di-hvdrokawain. methvsticin. dihvdrom-ethystician. yango~in and dlhydro-yangonin. A related wild species.Piper wichmannii DC is also found insouth-coast Papua New Guinea (Chew.1972) and has been reported to havebeen used in magic (Telban. 1988)This species contains similar chemIcalconstItuents as Piper methysticllm(Lebot & Ll:\esqul:. 1989)

Psilocvhe kllmaenorum Heim[Family Strophariaceae: Order: Agari-cales: Class: Basidiomycetes] was firstcollected and described bv the Frenchmycologist Roger Heim (Heim, 1967:Heim et al.. 1967: Heim. 1978: Dobkinde Rios, 1984: Thomas in press [b])from the southern Wahgi Valley.Western Highlands Province, PapuaNew Guinea. Roger Heim accom-panied R. Gordon Wasson on a threeweek visit to the Wahgi Valley in 1963to investigate reports made byanthropologist Marie Reay (Reay.1959: Reav. 1960) that the Kumapeople used apparently hallucinogenicfungi (Heim, 1963: Heim, 1965; Heim& Wasson. 1964: Heim & Wasson1965). Heim (1967: 187) suggestedthat Psilocyhe kumaenorum probablycontains psilocybine. based on themorphological and microscopic simi-larities with varieties of the kno\\>TIentheogenic species, P. caerulescensand that the flesh of P. kumaenorumtends to turn green or blue like someother Psiliocyhe species which areknO\\>TI to" contain psilocybine. P.kumaenorum has been included bv Ott(1993: 31 I: Ott, 1996) in a list of psilo-cybine-containing mushroom species.P. kumaenorum was considered byHeim (1967: 187) to be a hallucino-genic species of Psilocybe mushroomsimilar to the Mexican species Psilo-c_vbe wassonii Heim (Heim 1957a;

Heim, 1957b: Heim, 1958) which wasoriginally identified as Psiloe-~vbemulierculaSinger et Smith (Singer & Smith 1958: 141-142; ott, 1993 302-303; ott, 1996). Thisspecies has also been compared by ott (1993:315) to the knov,u psilocy-bine-eontainingspecies P. zapotecorum Heim (Heim &Hofinann. 1958. Heim & Hofinann. 1958[1959]: Hofinann. et af. 1959), which has alsobeen knO\m as P. candidipes Singer et Smith(ott & Guzman. 1976). ott (1993: 315) alsoreports that P kumaenorum and the relatedspecies P. novaezealandiae have psycho-active effects and are knO\\TI to be used asrecreational drugs in New Zealand andAustralia (Allen et af. 1991). Other psycho-active species of Psiloe-:vbe mush-roomsfound in Papua New Guinea include P.brunneocystidiata Guzman et Horak [Stro-phariaceae]. P. inconspicua Guzman [Stro-phariaceae] and P papllana Guzman etHorak [Strophariaceae]

Psychotria sp. [Rubiaceae] is used forvarious purposed among the Chimbu (Powell.1976: 149).

Psychotria beccariodes Wemh. [Ru-biaceae] from Papua New Guinea psycho-active tryptamines, including a unique alka-loid C55~cN 10 which has five linked tryp-tamine units (Collins et af. 1990: 6). Severalother species of Psychotria are found inPapua New Guinea (Rappaport, 1977 [1968]:Paijmans, 1976) and may also containpsychoactive tryptamines. One South Ameri- .can species, Psycho tria viridis RUlz et Pavon[Rubiaceae] (Pinkley, 1969; Schultes, 1969:Prance, 1970; Rivier & Lindgren, 1971:Kensinger, 1973; Weiss, 1973; Schultes &Hofinann, 1980; Luna, 1984; McKenna et al.1984; Kohn, 1992), for example, containsN,N-dimethyl-tryptamine (DMT) in its leaves(Ott, 1993; ott, 1994; Ott, 1996), as well thepsychoactive substances N-mono-methyl-tryptamine (MMT) and 2-methyl-tetrahydro-I)-carboline MTHC) (Rivier & Lindgren,1972; Ott, 1993; Ott, 1994; Ott. 1996). Aclosely related South American speciesPsychotria carthaginesis Ja-quin [Rubiaceae](Rivier & Lindgren, 1971; Schultes, 1972;Schultes & Raffauf, 1990) also contains

DMT. MMT and MTHC (Rivier &Lmdgren. 1971) A Pohnesianspecies. P.\ychotria insulanmi Grey(Cox et al.. 1989: Cox. 1991: Whistler.1992: Otto 1993: Otto 1996). is alsopharnlacologically active.

Pt),chococcus paradoxus Becc.IPalmae] fruit has been che\ved as asubstitute for betel nut in the BismarckArclllpelago (Friederici. 1(12)

Puerana phaseoloides (Roxb)Benth [Fabaceae I leaves are reportedto be used for their psychoactiveeffects 111Ne\\ Bntam (PowelL 1976135. Rudgley. 1(98) The flowers ofI'licranu phose%ides (tropical kud-.lea) occur m an erect raceme and arepm\... blue or \\hlte (Womersley. 197223 I) The pod IS narro\\ and elongatean hairy \\hen young (Womersley.1972 231) The leaves o( }'lIeranaphase%idcs contain gemstem whichIS a MAO inhibitor as \\ell as anll1hibltor of catechol-O-methd-trans-ferase. DOPA-decarboxvlase: t\TO-smekinase. and topolso-merase-IIGemstell1 has been isolated from otherpsychoactin: Fabaceae species such as(Vfisus canariensis L (=Genistocanariensis). C scoparius L (=Genisfascoparius). Desmodium gangeficumDC. Rhynchosia phaseloides DC and:;"ophorasecundiflora (Ort) Lagasca exDC (Beckstrom-St~rnberg & Duke.1(42)

Russula agglutinata Heim [Rus-sulaceae] is a species of fungi (Order:Agaricales: Class Basidiomycetes)eaten by the Kuma of the WahgiValley. Western Highlands Province toproduce 'mushroom madness' (Heim& Wasson. 1965; Schultes &Hofmann, 1979; Ott, 1993; Ott. 1996;Devereux. 1997: 95; Ratsch. 1998:688). This mushroom has a glutinous,concave. deep cream coloured capwhich is brown at the centre and 4-8cm in diameter (Schultes & Hofmann,1979: 55). The stipe on this mushroom

is short and stout \\ith orange spots on thebase and the flesh is white and sweet(Schultes & Hofmann. 1979 55)

Russu Ia kirinea Heim IRussulaceae].Russula maenadum Heim [Russulaceae] andRussula psuedomaenadum Heim [Russula-ceae] are related to Russula agglutinata Heimand have also been eaten bv the Kuma toInduce madness (Heim & Wasson. 1965.Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: Otto 1993: Otto1996: Devereux. 1997 95: Ratsch. 1998(88)

Sida rhomhiji)!ia L [Malvaceae I hasbeen eaten anlong the Anga of CentralPronnce as a death IndUCIngherb \\hich hasbeen belIeved to make a person grO\\ smallerand smaller and then tinalh die (Black\\ood.1940: Williams. 1998) Shta rhomhiji>!ia ISaherb or shrub often gro\\Ing to :2 7 m 111height and is most often found growing 111hot100vJands. The leaves are lanceolate toobovOid and measure about 2.5 cm wide andup to 10 cm long (Schultes & Hofmann.1979 56) The flowers vary in colour fromyellow to white ~""'idarhornhijiJ!ia contaInSthe psychoactive chemical ephedrine (ex-[ 1-(methylamino )-ethyl ]benzene methanol)which has similar effects on the central ner-vous system as the amphetamines but whichare considerably less marked (Chen &Schmidt. 1930: Aviado. 1970: Innes &Nickerson. 1975) A similar and closely re-lated species Sida acuta Burm. is smoked as asubstitute for Cannabis sativa in Mexico(Diaz. 1975: Schultes & Hofmann. 1979: Otto1993: 419; Ott, 1996), a 'mystical medicine'in Panama (Duke, 1975), a 'tranquilliser andsedative in Bangladesh (Alam. 1992) and anoxytocic in Nicaragua (Dennis. 1988).

Strychnos minor Dennst [Loganiaceae]has been in various parts of Papua NewGuinea to simulate dogs for hunting and tomake them fierce (Henty, 1980)

Zingiber species [Zingiberaceae] arechewed in many areas of Papua New Guineabecause they are believed to make a person'hot' or magically powerful (Williams, 1936:316; Glick, 1972: 1081: De Smet, 1983:291).

Zorma gibbosu Span. [FabaceaeJhas been reported Schultes & Hofmann(l9XO) to be used in sorcery in anunidentified area of Papua NewGuinea.

Unidentified psychoactiveplants.

The Danga of the WesternHIgnlands are reported to have eatcnan unidentified plant called nong'n forintc'"icating effects similar to thoseproduced by certain psychoactivemushrooms (Reay. 1960) The leavesof an umdentified young triX knO\m assota or tsinimp have been eaten as abt:h.: nut substitutt: b\' ihe Adzcra(Holzknect 1971) -

The Elema people of Orokolo inthe Papuan Gulf have chewed anunidentified aromatic bark called paihaand a flat red seed called hepahepa.sometimes with a small piece of humanbone. to become excited and toproduce a .... strong and belligerentmood' (Kiki, 1974: 1).

The Keraki of the Trans-Fly.Western Province, has chewed wangllp(ginger roots) and a hot aromatic barkcalled wimotar with psychoactiveplants called wen Cleaves') in sorceryand in the diZlgnosis of illness(Williams. 1936: 347 & 351).

A Wild-leaf callea komakomawas also used by the Keraki as aninferior substitute for sukuva (Meo-tiana tabaceum L., tobacco) (Williams.1936:424). The Suki [Wiram] and theSemarji of the Trans-Fly chewed thereddish bark of a tree called surita withlime and betel nut (Areca catechu L.)(Williams. 1936:426).

The Kiambi-speaking peoplewho live in the Nebilyer Valley on theslopes of the Kubor Mountains eatunidentified species of psychoactivefungi (Nelson, 1970: Dobkin de Rios.1984).

The Kutubu of the Southern High-lands prepared usi, a mixture of tobacco, aroabark. yiragi herb and other ingredients foryoung male initiates to drink (Williams, 1976[1941-1942]: 278).

The Maring from the BismarckMountains have eaten the leaf of a succulentplant, possibly a species of Pollia [?], kno\\nas 'fighting leaves' (komerik) with parcels ofsalt to make people become ' ...wild andbloodthirsty' (Rappaport. 1977 [1968]: 136)

The bark of a tree called kevo is eatenby people in the Bismarck Mountains.Central Highlands to produce a trance-likestate (Aufenanger & Hbltker. 1940).

A more systematic and multidiscipli-nary approach to the study of psychoactiveplants and psychoactive plant use in PapuaNew Guinea is necessarv in the future to beable to identify substances with novelchemical structures and unique pharmaco-logycal profiles before traditional ecologicalknowledge (TEK) of psychoactive plants andtheir use is lost forev~r. Systematicmultidisciplinary research whi"h success-fully combines the research methods andexpertise of ethnobotanists, anthropologistsand ethnophannacologists has the potentialfor the discovery and development of newpsychotropic drugs with biomedical andpharmaceutical applications.

I wish to express my gratitude toMichael Bock, Tim Flannery, Nicole Haley,David Hyndman, Roger Lohmann, JonathanOtt, Marie Reay, Christian R,~3.tsch,GiorgioSamorini, Alexander Shulgin, PamelaStewart, Andrew Strathern and AlexandraSzalay for their assistance with this research.

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.1Ci/II.nha insl/lana M. A (A hellwigii Warb) [Euphorbiaceae]

.~ca/lpha hel/lligii mr mol/is (Warb) Schum & Ltb [Euphorbiaceac]

.!coms calamus L. [Araceae]Alucu,ia sp. IAraceacj.lmaraearpus sp. [Rnbiaceaej.~"l<mmThys sp [Amaranthaccac]Archo!1Tophoenix sp. [Palmae].In·, cared'i L. [Palmacj.4n'Cilmacrocahx L. [Palmac)Beaumomia sp [Apocynaccae]BoleTusflamml!lIs Hcim [Bo\ctaccac]Boletus kumaells Heim [BoletaceacjBoleTus maniclls Heim [Boletaceae]BoleTus nigerrimus Heim [Boletaceae]Boletus nigrol'iolaceus Heim [BolctaceacjBoletus re{~viHeim [BoletaceaejBuhhia sp. [Winteraceae)Cannabis sativa L. [Cannabinaceac]Castanopsis acuminatissima (BI) ADC [Fagaceae)Cinnamomum sp. [Lauraceac]('rlptoearya aromatica (Bccc) Kostenn. [Lauraceae]Curcurma longa L. [Zingiberaceae](\,eas circinalis L [Cycadacae]DoL,ra (Brugmansia) candida (Pers.) Safford [SolanaceaejDatura metel L [Solanaceae]Elacagnus sp- [Eleagnaceae]Endo.\permum moluccanum (T. & B.) Kurz [Euphorbiaceae]En'l1famia orientalis (R. Br.) Turr. [Apocynaceae]Erylhroxylum sp. [EI)1hrox-ylaceae]Euodia bonwickii F. MueH. [Rutaceae]Ficus subnen'usa Corner [Moraceae]Galhulimima helgraveana (F. Muell.) Sprague [Himantandraceae]Heimiella angui(ormis Heim [Boletaceae]HOJ1/alanthus sp. [Euphorbiaceae]HOll1alomena helgrm'eana Sprague [Areceae]Homolomena cordata Schott [Areceae]Homa/omena /auterbachii Engl. [Areceae]Homa/omena ereriba (?) [Areceae]Hom%mena versteegii Engler [Areceae]Kaempferia ga/anga L [Zingiberaceae]

Lactuca indica L. [Asteraceae]Laportea sp. [Unicaceae]Lycopodium sp. [Lycopodiaceae]Lvcopodium squarrosum [Lycopodiaceae)Palmeria sp. [Momimiaceae)Pandanus iwen B. C. Stone [Pandanaceae)Pandanus julianettii Martelli [Pandanaceae]Pandanus brosimos Merr. and Perry [pandanaceae])Piper methysticum Forster [Piperaceae]Piper wichmannii DC [Piperaceae]Psilocyhe brunneocystidiata Guzman et Horak [Strophariaceae]Psilocvhe inconspicua Guzman [Strophariaceae]Psilocvhe papuana Guzman et Horak [Strophariaceae)Psilocvhe kumaenorum Heim [Strophariaceae)Psychotria heccariodes Wemh. [Rubiaceae)P~vchococcusparadoxus Becc. [Palmae)Pueraria phaseoloidcs (Roxb.) Benth. [Fabaceae]Rus.\·ula agglutinata Heim [Russulaceae]Russula kirinea Heim [Russulaceae]Russula maenadum Heim [Russulaceae]Russula psuedomacnadum Heim [Russulaceae]S"ilIarhombifiJ/ia L. [MalYaceae]Strychnos minor DellIlst. [Loganiaceae)Zingiher sp. [Zingiberaceae]Zornia gihhosa Span. [Fabaceae]

agara (Okapa] Galbulimima belgrl!l'eana (F. Muell.) Sprague [Himantandraceae] bark.agL [Hm Motu] Zinaiher sp. lZmglberaceae] rhizome. . . . .alusa. fOksapnun] shredded Cwlhulimima helgrm'eana bark mixed \\lth \\lId gmger(Zing{her sp [Zingiberaceac]).

amugl keja: [Chimbu] Pandanus sp. [pandanaceae].aroa: [Kutubu] unidcntifed bark used in usi (Cf.) mixturebilinat: [Tok Pisin] cultivated Areca catechu L. [pahnac] nuts.hollld kau: [Chimbu] Palmeri a sp. [Monirniaceae] leaves.brus fTOk PiSmj .\"icutiana tahacum L. fSolanaceae] leaves.buai: Tok Pisin culti\'atedAreca catechu L. [Palmae] nuts.buO! [Tok Plsin] cultintedAreca catechu L. [palmae] nuts.buatau [Hiri Motu] wild Areca catechu L. fPahnae] ~uts.daka: [Pldgm] Piper hetle L. fPlperaceae] feaf or fruit.dawar: [Suki] Areca macrocafyx L [Palmae] nuts. an inferior betclnut substituteereriba: [Okapa] HOIlIalomena sp [Areccae] lea\'esgamoda: [Keraki) Piper methysticum Forster [Piperaceae) bevcrage.hepahe~: [Eleinalllllidentified flat red seed chewed with paiha (cf.)jangull: [Adzera] C'ostus sp. [Zingiberaceae] fruit.jangun fagata: [Adzcra] Costus sp. fZingiberaceaej fruit.kada-a: (Anga) Lactuca indica L. (Asteraceae] seeds.kapipi: (Tok Pisin] Pandanus sp. [Pandanaceae] nut madness.karuka: (Tok Pisin] Pandanus sp. [Pandanaceaej.kauwaw~ra: fTok Pisin] Zingiber sp. [Zingiberaceae] rhizome.kava: [Hm Motu] mad.kavakava: CHiriMotu] stupid. crazy. careless. reckless. etc.kawang: U3anz] Castanopsis acuminatissima (BI.) A. DC. (Fagaceae) seeds.kawi\\1: ['Pidgin] wild Areca catechu L. [Palmae] nutskevo.: [BlSlnarck Mountains] UnidentifednSYChoactive tree bark.kikisira [Gimi] Buhbia sp. fWinteraceae bark.kilt: IMount Hagen] Euoma nonwickii F. uell (Rutaceae] bark.komakOina (Keraki] tobacco substitute.. .. ..Komugl-Tai: [Kuma] mushroom madness. lIterallv "shivenng deafness.koobI tourroum: [Kuma]'psilocybe kumaenorum Heim.koUgltOurrOlllll: [Kllllla] Psilocybe kumaenorum He~m.koull tourroum: [Kuma] Psilocybe kumaenorum Helm.kuku: [Hiri M~tu] Nicotian!l tahacum L. [Solanaceae] leaves. . .komerik: [Man~:l unidentified succulent plant poSSibly a species of Pollia.klllltIgea: [Ani wctuca indica L. [Asteraceae] seeds.kurar: [Kerakl iper methvsticum Forster [Piperaceae] beverage.long-long: [To PISin] mad.mangaraI:. [Baining] unidentified small-leafed Laportea species [Urticaceae] .miniual: [Baining] unidentified large-leafed Laportea species [Urticaceae].nonda gewants ngimbi~: [Kuma] Boletus manicus Heim Woletaceae].nonda gegwants nyimbll: [Kuma] Boletus manicus Heim [Boletaceae].nonda kennaipip: [Kuma] Boletus nigerr,imus Heim [Boletaceae].nonda kirin: [Kuma] Russula kirinea Helm [Rus~ulaceae]. ...nonda mhole: [Kuma] Heimiella anguiformis Helm [Boletaeeae] or Hculllella retIspora (Pat et.Baker) Boedjin [Boletaceae].nonda mos: LKuma] Russula agglutinata Heim [Russulaceae] and Russula maenadum Heim[Russulaceae] .nonda ngam-ngam: fKuma] Boletus reayi Heim [Boletaceae].nonda ngamp-kindj kants: [Kuma] Boletus kumaeus Heim [Boletaceae].

nonda tua-rna: [Kuma] Boletus nigroviolaceus Heim [Boletaceae] and Boletus flammeusHelin [Boletaceae].nonda wam: [Kuma) Russula psuedomaenadum Heim [Russulaceae].nong'n: [Danga] umdentified psychoactive plant.paiha: fElema J unidentified psychoactive aromatic bark..popo: [l-Im Motu] Piper hetfe L. [Plperaceae] leaf or frmt.salak: [Komba] [aportea species rUrticaceae].sihoa: [Hiri Motu] Zingiher sp. [lingiberaceae] rhizome.sinduk: INokopo] bush spirits.singia: [Suki] Areca l1J(lcroca~vxL. [Palmae] nuts, an inferior betel nut substitute.siomu: [Hiri Motu] .\'icotiana tahacum L. fSolanaceae] leaves.siroru: [Orokai"a! unidentified species oftlame coloured cockscomb.sogo [Kutubu] tobacco.sota: [Adzera] unidentified betclnut substitute.souwaa: [PawaiaJ Curcuma longa L. [Zingiberaceae] rhizome beverage.surita: [Suki) umdentified red tree bark chewed with lime and betel nut.tabak: [Tok Pisin] Yicotiana tahacum L. [Solanaceae] leaves.tsinimp: [Adzera] unidentified betel nut substitute.tumem: [Orokai"al unidentified species of A maranth us sp. (Amaranthaceae).usi [Kutubul psychoactive mi:\.1ureof tobacco and other U1Udentified plants.vitoro: [Hiri Motu! wild Areca catechu L. fPaImae! nuts.waga [Aseki] Ga!hulimima helgral'cana (F. Muelf.) Sprague [Himantandraceae] bark mixedWith salt.wangup: [Keraki] wild Zingiher sp [Zingiberaceae] rhizomewen: [Keraki) }Jsvchoactive tree barks chewed.wimotar: [Keraki] unidentified hot aromatic bark.ycngyeng madef: [Noko~J Lvcopodiul1l squarrosum ('') [Lvcopodiaceaelyiragi [Kutubu unidentified 'herb uscd in usi (CO mixture: